Process Economics Program (PEP)

November 2023

Small-scale CO2
Utilization Plants
PEP Report 285C

Rajesh Kumar Verma, Director, Process Economics Program

Dipti Dave, Associate Director, Process Economics Program

To learn more or to request a demo, visit www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights.

Table of contents
1 Introduction 9
2 Summary 11
3 Industry status 12
Haldor Topsøe eCOTM technology to produce CO using high-temperature solid oxide electrolysis cell
(SOEC) process 13
Carbon Recycling International Vulcanol™ technology to produce methanol via syngas route 13
Haldor Topsøe TREMPTM technology to produce methane using biogas and H 2 (from SOEC) 14
CO2 and H2 credits 14
4 Technology review 15
Greenhouse gases and global warming 15
Carbon capture and storage 16
CO2 utilization 17
Chemistry and properties 17
Thermochemical CO2 conversion 18
Electrochemical and photochemical CO2 conversion 18
CO2 carbonation or mineralization 20
Biological CO2 use 20
Copolymerization of CO2 21
Opportunities and challenges 21
Some developing technologies for CO2 utilization and their commercial status 21
Sunfire GmbH co-electrolysis technology 21
Hitachi Hozen Inova/ETOGAS “Power-to-Gas” process 23
Det Norske Veritas GL electro-catalytic technology 24
George Washington University “Carbon nanotubes” (C2NT) process 24
Sandia National Laboratory “Sunshine to Petrol” (S2P) process 25
Carbon Engineering technology for synfuels 25
BSE Engineering technology for FlexMethanol process 26
LanzaTech bioconversion process 27
Joule Unlimited Technologies bioconversion process 27
Asahi Kasei Chemicals Corporation CO2-based polycarbonate process 27
Covestro polyols process 28
Novomer, Inc. polyols process 28
Newlight Technologies AirCarbon process 28
Econic Technologies polyols process 29
CarbonCure Technologies, CarbonCure process 29
TM
Solidia Technologies Cement process 30
Carbon8 Systems Accelerated Carbonation Technology (ACT) 30

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 5 Haldor Topsoe’s eCOTM process for CO2 electroreduction to CO 31
CO2 utilization to CO 31
Thermodynamics of CO2 electrolysis 32
CO2 electrolysis 32
Solid oxide electrolysis 33
Molten carbonate electrolysis 33
Low-temperature electrolysis 34
SOEC configuration and operation 34
Carbon monoxide purification 35
Patents information 37
Haldor Topsoe’s eCO TM
process 46
Performance monitoring of an electrolyzer 46
Faradaic efficiency 46
Current density and electrode area 47
Polarization curves 48
Energetic efficiency (EE) 48
Overpotentials and applied cell voltage 48
Electric power consumption 49
Degradation rate and stability of the electrodes 49
Challenges and future prospects 49
Process design basis 50
Storage and transportation 52
Material of construction 52
Process description 52
Process discussion 55
CO2 feed source, composition and carbon capture 55
Process scheme and design capacity 56
Oxygen recovery system 56
SOEC configuration 56
Product CO purification 57
Cost estimates 59
Fixed capital costs 60
Production costs 60

6 Carbon Recycling International (CRI) VulcanolTM process to produce

methanol 62
CO2 hydrogenation to methanol 62
Patent information 63
Carbon Recycling International’s process 66
Process design basis 67
Storage and transportation 69
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 Material of construction 69
Process description 69
Process discussion 75
CO2 feed source, composition and carbon capture 75
Process scheme and design capacity 75
Hydrogen recovery system 76
Reactor arrangement 76
Catalyst 78
Methanol separation and purification 78
Cost estimates 83
Fixed capital costs 83
Production costs 83

7 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ Methanation 85

Biogas 85
Biogas upgrading to biomethane by CO2 removal 85
Biogas upgrading to biomethane by CO2 utilization 86
Removal of sulfur contaminants from raw biogas 87
CO2 utilization by chemical processes 87
Catalytic methanation 87
Catalyst 88
Reactors 89
Reaction conditions 89
Biological methanation 90
Haldor Topsoe technology for SNG 91
Background of the TREMP™ methanation technology 92
Solid oxide electrolyzer cell 94
Process design basis 95
Process description 96
Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation 98
Process discussion 101
Feedstock 101
Renewable electric energy 101
Selection and design of methanation reactors 102
Design choices 103
Plant size 103
Materials of construction 103
Cost estimates 106
Fixed capital costs 107
Production costs 107
Economics for integrated H2 SOEC with biogas methanation 108
Cost conclusions 109

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 Natural gas price 111

Appendix A — Design and cost basis 113

Design bases 114
Cost bases 114
Capital investment 114
Project construction timing 115
Available utilities 115
Production costs 116

Appendix B — Cited references 118

Appendix C — Process flow diagrams 132

Tables
Table 2.1 Economic comparison of the three processes 11
Table 5.1 Energy and CO2 balances for CO2 electroreduction (Patent US8591718) 38
Table 5.2 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high-purity CO production — Design bases and assumptions 51
Table 5.3 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high-purity CO production — Major stream flows 53
Table 5.4 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high-purity CO production — Major equipment 54
Table 5.5 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high-purity CO production — Utility summary 55
Table 5.6 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high-purity CO production — Total capital investment 57
Table 5.7 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high-purity CO production — Variable costs 58
Table 5.8 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high-purity CO production — Production costs 59
Table 6.1 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 —
Design bases and assumptions 68
Table 6.2 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 —
71
Major stream flows
Table 6.3 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 —
73
Major equipment
Table 6.4 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 —
75
Utility summary
Table 6.5 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 —
80
Total capital investment
Table 6.6 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 —
Variable costs 81
Table 6.7 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 —
Production costs 82
Table 7.1 CO2 methanation catalyst systems 88
Table 7.2 Typical chemical composition of biogas 95
Table 7.3 Typical SNG product pipeline specifications by TREMP™ 96
Table 7.4 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation — Design bases and assumptions 97
Table 7.5 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation — Major stream flows 99
Table 7.6 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation — Major equipment 100
Table 7.7 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation — Utility summary 101
Table 7.8 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation — Total capital investment 104
Table 7.9 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation — Variable costs 105
Table 7.10 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation — Production costs 106
Table 7.11 SOEC biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ methanation —
108
Integrated production costs

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Figures
Figure 3.1 World CO2 emissions 12
Figure 3.2 World consumption of liquid and solid carbon dioxide 13
Figure 4.1 Various pathways for CO2 utilization 17
Figure 4.2 Block flow diagram for Sunfire syngas technology 22
Figure 4.3 Process schematic for DNV ECOFORM electrolysis reactor 24
Figure 4.4 Process schematic for Carbon Engineering’s direct air capture for CO2 26
Figure 4.5 Process schematic for BSE Engineering methanol process 26
Figure 5.1 Process scheme for CO2 electroreduction to CO using SOEC (Patent US8591718) 37
Figure 5.2 Process scheme for CO2 electroreduction to CO using SOEC (Patent WO 2013/131778) 39
Figure 5.3 Impurities level in CO product (Patent WO 2013/131778) 40
Figure 5.4 Process scheme for CO2 electroreduction to CO using SOEC (Patent US 10494728) 42
Figure 5.5 Multilayer SOEC scheme for co-electrolysis of steam and CO2 (Patent US 2008/0023338) 43
Figure 5.6 Steam and CO2 co-electrolysis test results (Patent US 2008/0023338) 44
Figure 5.7 Block flow diagram for Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process 53
Figure 5.8 Effect of plant capacity on capital investment 61
Figure 5.9 Effect of electricity price on net production cost and product value 61
Figure 6.1 Process schematic for an integrated CO2 to synthetic liquid fuel conversion plant (Patent US 8,506,910) 64
Figure 6.2 Block flow diagram for the CRI VulcanolTM process 69
Figure 6.3 Process schematic for methanol synthesis by CO2 hydrogenation (Patent WO 2021/149013) 76
Figure 6.4 Methanol synthesis reactor (Patent US 2022/0226795) 77
Figure 6.5 Raw methanol separation scheme (Patent WO 2019/111155) 79
Figure 6.6 Effect of plant capacity on capital investment 84
Figure 6.7 Effect of electricity price on net production cost and product value 84
Figure 7.1 Cleaning and upgrading biogas routes 86
Figure 7.2 Methanation reactors 89
Figure 7.3 Effect of biogas composition 90
Figure 7.4 Overall energy consumption in Haldor TREMP™ 91
Figure 7.5 Layout of demo plant for upgrading biogas with H2 from SOEC 92
Figure 7.6 Haldor Topsoe TREMP™ process scheme 93
Figure 7.7 Haldor Topsoe methanation with H2 from SOEC 94
Figure 7.8 Hydrogen production by electrolysis of water through SOEC 95
Figure 7.9 Hydrogen and CO2 ratio confirm highest methane content 102
Figure 7.10 Effect of electricity price on production cost and product value of synthetic methane 109
Figure 7.11 Effect of plant capacity on capital investment 110
Figure 7.12 Natural gas price in Germany 111
Figure 7.13 Natural gas price in North America 112

Appendix C Figures
Figure C1 Haldor Topsoe eCOTM process for high purity CO production by electroreduction of CO2 133
Figure C2 CRI VulcanolTM process for methanol production by direct hydrogenation of CO2 134
Figure C3 Biogas upgrading by Haldor Topsoe TREMPTM methanation process 135

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Glossary
AMP 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol
atm Atmospheres
bcm Billion cubic meters
BFD Block flow diagram
BLI Battery limits investment
capex Capital expenditure
CC Carbon capture
CCS Carbon capture and sequestration
CCU Carbon capture unit
CCUS Carbon capture utilization and/or sequestration
cP Centipoise
ft3 Cubic feet
g Grams
GHG Greenhouse gas
h Hours
kg Kilograms
kJ Kilojoules
kPa Kilopascals
kWh Kilowatt-hour
lb Pounds
M Thousand
mgal Thousand gallons
mlb Thousand pounds
mm Millimeters
mol% Molar percent
mPa Megapascals
opex Operating expenditure
PEP Process Economics Program
PFD Process flow diagram
ppb Parts per billion
ppm Parts per million
PSA Pressure swing adsorption
psi Pounds per square inch
psia Pounds per square inch absolute
psig Pounds per square inch gauge
PZ Piperazine
ROI Return on investment
s Second(s)
scf Standard cubic feet
scm Standard cubic meter
SOEC Solid oxide electrolysis cell
SNG Substitute natural gas/synthetic natural gas
t Metric ton
t/y Metric tons per year
TFC Total fixed capital
vol% Volume percent
w/w Weight for weight
y Year

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Abstract
Overreliance on fossil fuels has contributed to a critical energy crisis and increased the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
in the atmosphere. Human activities like industrialization and deforestation are primarily responsible for most of the GHG
emissions. Carbon dioxide is one of the most dangerous GHGs to global warming and climate changes. According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA), about 36 billion tons of CO2 are emitted each year through transportation, power
generation, cement manufacturing, deforestation, agriculture and many other practices.[1, 2] The United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) proposed a treaty to limit global warming to below 2°C, preferably
to 1.5°C, namely the Paris Agreement in 2015.[3, 4]
CO2 accounts for more than 75% of the total GHG emissions, seriously affecting the environment and having detrimental
effects on human health, such as headaches and respiratory diseases. Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS)
technologies can play a key role in curbing the CO2 emissions by capturing the CO2 at source, recycling and utilizing as
feedstock to other value-added chemicals production. A plethora of CO2 novel capture methodologies are under
investigation by different institutions and organizations. The intent of these technologies is to capture CO2 from air or
industrial waste gases and sequester it in the ground. Many companies are working on the same issue, i.e., to reduce the
CO2 emissions, capture at source, recycle or utilize to produce some other value-added products. These companies
include Sunfire, Hitachi Hozen Inova/ETOGAS, Haldor Topsøe, Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Carbon Recycling
International (CRI), Carbon Engineering, BSE Engineering, Dimensional Energy, and others.
Process Economics Program (PEP) has previously evaluated Sunfire and ETOGAS CO2 utilization technologies for
production of synthesis gas and methane, two major feedstocks for several chemical products. These evaluations and
analyses were provided in PEP Report 285A. In this report, we have examined the following technologies to utilize CO2 to
produce value-added chemical products:
– Haldor Topsøe eCOTM technology to produce carbon monoxide using high-temperature solid oxide electrolysis
cell (SOEC) process
– CRI’s VulcanolTM technology to produce methanol via syngas route
– Haldor Topsøe TREMPTM technology to produce methane by upgrading biogas with hydrogen produced from
high-temperature SOEC

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Contacts
Rajesh Verma
Director, Process Economics Program
rajesh.verma@spglobal.com

Dipti Dave
Associate Director, Process Economics Program
dipti.dave@spglobal.com

Richard Charlesworth
Executive Director, Process Economics Program
richard.charlesworth@spglobal.com
CONTACTS

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