Economy of London

The economy of London is dominated by service industries,

Economy of London
particularly financial services and associated professional
services, which have strong links with the economy in other
parts of the United Kingdom (UK) and internationally.[6] In
addition to being the capital city of the United Kingdom,
London is one of the world's leading financial centres for
international business and commerce and is one of the
"command centres" for the global economy.[7][8][9]

London is the most populous region, urban zone and

metropolitan area in the United Kingdom.[10] London had the
fifth largest metropolitan economy in the world in 2011
according to the Brookings Institution.[11] Some of its
neighbourhoods have estimated per capita GVA as high as
£116,800 ($162,200).[12] The London fiscal surplus, £32.5
billion in 2016–17,[13] mostly goes towards funding services in
other parts of the UK.[14]

London generates approximately 22 per cent of the UK's

GDP.[15][16] 841,000 private sector businesses were based in
London at the start of 2013, more than in any other region or
country in the UK. 18 per cent are in the professional, scientific
and technical activities sector while 15 per cent are in the London is the largest urban
construction sector. Many of these are small and medium- economy in Europe[1] and,
sized enterprises.[17] alongside New York, the city in the
world most integrated with the
GDP global economy.[2]
Statistics
Greater London produced £503 billion[18] while the economy
of the London metropolitan area — the largest in Europe with Population 8,796,628
Paris generates around 1/3 of the UK's GDP or around $1.0 (2021)[3]
trillion(in PPP).[19] GDP £526.5 billion
(2021)[3]
Service industries GDP per capita £59,855
(2021)[3]
London shifted to a mostly service-based economy earlier than
Labour force 4,829,000 /
other European cities, particularly following the Second World
76.1% in
War. A number of factors contribute to London's success as a
employment
service industry and business centre:
(Oct–Dec
English being the native language and the dominant 2023)[a][4]
international language of business; Labour force by List [show]
its past role as the capital of the former British occupation
34.5%
Empire;[20][21] Professional
 its position in Europe, since Europe has a population larger 16.6% Associate
than that of the US,[22] and a central time zone that allows professional
London to act as a bridge between US and Asian
12.5%
markets;[23]
Managers,
the Special Relationship between the United Kingdom and directors and
United States,[24] and the United Kingdom's close
senior officials
relationships with many countries in Asia, Africa and the
Middle East, particularly those in the Commonwealth of 9.1%
Nations;[25] Administrative
English contract law being the most important and most and secretarial
used contract law in international business;[26] 6.6% Elementary
a business friendly environment (e.g. relatively low taxes occupations
for corporations and non-domiciled foreign
6.2% Caring,
individuals;[27][28] in the City of London the local
leisure and other
government is not elected by the resident population but
instead by resident businesses – the City of London is a service
business democracy);[29][30] 5.9% Skilled
good transport infrastructure particularly its aviation trades
industry;[31][32] 5.1% Sales and
a high quality of life.[33][34][35] customer service
Currently, over 85% (3.2 million) of the employed population 3.1% Process
of Greater London works in the service industries. Another plant and
half a million employees resident in Greater London work in machine
manufacturing and construction, almost equally divided operatives
between the two.[36] (Oct 2022 – Sep
[b][4]
2023)

Business districts Unemployment 191,000 / 3.8%

(Oct–Dec
London has five major business districts: the City,
2023)[c][4]
Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and
Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative Average gross £796.30 per
salary week (2023)[d][4]
importance is to look at relative amounts of office space:
Greater London had 26,721,000 m2 of office space in 2001. External
Exports £190.0 billion
Business Office space (2021)[e][5]
Business concentration
district (m2) Export goods £37.8 billion
The City 7,740,000
Finance, broking, insurance, legal, (2021)[f][5]
fund managers, banking
Imports £138.5 billion
Head offices, real estate, private (2021)[e][5]
Westminster 5,780,000
banking, hedge funds, government
Import goods £62.6 billion
Camden & Creative industries, finance, design,
Islington
2,294,000
art, fashion, architecture, media (2021)[f][5]

Canary Wharf 2,120,000 Banking, media, legal

Lambeth & Accountancy, consultancy, local

1,780,000
Southwark government

A useful guide to the distribution of wealth across London is the cost of renting office space.
Mayfair and St. James's are historically and currently the most expensive areas – approximately
£146 per sq ft per annum. The least expensive commercial districts are Waterloo & Southwark and
East London Tech City, a new, but growing hub of start up
technology companies, also known as Silicon Roundabout –
approximately £65 per sq ft per annum.[37]

Domestic and international corporate

headquarters
The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock
exchange and the largest in Europe.[38][39] More than half of
the London Stock Exchange top 100 listed companies (the
FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies are
headquartered in central London. Over 70% of the FTSE 100
are located within London's metropolitan area, and 75% of
Fortune 500 companies have offices in London. According to
research by Deloitte, "London has the most internationally Waterside, the headquarters of
diverse executive community in the world, attracting business British Airways in the Borough of
leaders from 95 nationalities and with alumni working in 134 Hillingdon
countries".[40]

Financial services
London's largest industry remains finance. It is the largest financial exporter in the world, and
makes a significant contribution to the UK's balance of payments.[41][42] In the 2017 Global
Financial Centres Index, London was ranked as having the most competitive financial center in the
world.[43] However, in the 2018 ranking, London had lost that title to New York City. In the same
ranking for 2020, London came second after New York City (with cities such as Shanghai, Tokyo,
Hong Kong, Singapore, Beijing, San Francisco, Shenzhen and Zurich in the top 10).[44] The City of
London is home to exchanges, banks, brokers, investment managers, pension funds, hedge
funds,[45] private equity firms, insurance companies and reinsurance markets. London is notable
as a centre of international finance where foreign participants in financial markets come to deal
with one another.[8][46] It is also home to the Bank of England, the second oldest central bank in
the world, and the European Banking Authority, although the latter was moving to Paris in March
2019 following the Brexit referendum of 2016.[47][48] Other key institutions are Lloyd's of London
for insurance and the Baltic Exchange for shipping.[49][50]

A second financial district has developed at Canary Wharf to the east of the City, which includes
the global headquarters of two of the world's largest banks, HSBC and Barclays, the rest-of-the-
world headquarters of Citigroup and the headquarters of the global news service Reuters. London
handled 36.7% of global currency transactions in 2009 – an average daily turnover of
US$1.85 trillion – with more US dollars traded in London than in New York, and more Euros
traded than in every other city in Europe combined.[51][52][53][54][55] London is the leading centre
for international bank lending,[56] derivatives markets,[57] money markets,[58] international
insurance,[59] trading in gold, silver and base metals through the London bullion market and
London Metal Exchange,[60] and issuance of international debt securities.[61][62][63]

Financial services in London benefited from the UK's membership of the European Union
(EU),[64] although there were concerns following the decision of the United Kingdom to leave the
EU. However, Britain’s exit from the EU in early 2021 (Brexit) only marginally weakened London's
position as an international financial center (IFC).[65]
The combination of lax regulation and London's financial institutions providing sophisticated
methods to launder proceeds from criminal activity around the world, including those from the
drug trade, makes the City a global hub for illicit finance and London a safe haven for the world's
malfeasants, according to research papers and reports published in the mid-
2010s.[66][67][68][69][70][71]

Professional services
London is a leading global centre for professional
services.[72][73] Many different types of professional service
providers are located in the city including the big four
accountants and major management consulting firms. London
is the headquarters for four of the world's six largest law firms
and is a leading international centre for legal
services.[74][75][76]

BT Centre, the headquarters of BT Media

Group, in the City of London Media companies are concentrated in London, and the media
distribution industry is London's second most competitive
sector.[77] The BBC is a key employer, and other broadcasters
also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers are edited in London:
historically in Fleet Street in the City, but now dispersed across the capital. Soho is the centre of
London's post-production industry. Hollywood's links with the United Kingdom are centred on
London, and contribute billions to the economy.[78][79]

Tourism
Tourism is one of London's prime industries. London is the most visited city in the world by
international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors forecast in 2015, ahead of Bangkok
(18.2 million) and Paris (16.1 million).[80] Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited
tourist attractions.[81] Tourism employed the equivalent of 350,000 full-time workers in London in
2003,[82] whilst annual expenditure by tourists is around £15bn.[83]

Technology
A growing number of technology companies are based in London, notably in East London Tech
City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. Investment in London's technology sector was
$2.28 billion in 2015, 69 per cent higher than the $1.3 billion raised in 2014. Since 2010, London-
based technology companies have collectively raised $5.2 billion of venture capital funding.[84] A
report by Ernst & Young highlighted the importance of London to the UK's FinTech industry in
terms of availability of expertise and demand for services.[85] London has also been named as the
fastest growing technology hub in Europe, having over 100 unique tech companies with a value of
$1 billion or more.[86][87]

Retail
London is a major retail centre,[88][89] and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city
in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion.[90] The UK's fashion industry, centred on
London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.[91]

Manufacturing and construction

For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see
Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Manufacturing
suffered dramatic decline from the 1960s on.[92] Entire industries have been lost including
shipbuilding (which ended in 1912 after hundreds of years with the closure of the Thames
Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company), consumer electronics, aircraft manufacture and most of
the vehicle construction industry. This trend continues, with the loss of the pharmaceutical
manufacturing sites of Aesica (formerly Merck Sharp and Dohme) at Ponders End in 2011,[93][94]
and Sanofi-Aventis (originally May & Baker) at Dagenham by 2013.[95] Pharmaceutical and
biotechnology companies in the United Kingdom have a strong presence in London, including the
world headquarters of GlaxoSmithKline.[96][97]

Manufacturing
A substantial industrial plant remaining in operation is Ford Dagenham, the largest diesel engine
manufacturing site in the world.[98] Food and drink manufacture remain in places, for example
baking at Warburtons in Brimsdown, biscuits at United Biscuits in Harlesden, brewing at Fuller's
Brewery in Chiswick, manufacture of coffee and chocolate by Nestlé in Hayes in West London, and
refining of sugar and syrup by Tate & Lyle in Silvertown. At 2.8%, London was the region
containing the lowest proportion of employees engaged in UK manufacturing.

Construction
London was named the city with the best real estate investment opportunities for foreign investors
in 2014.[99] Office development was at a four-year high in 2013 with 9.7 million sq ft across 71
schemes under construction.[100]

A multibillion-pound 10-year construction programme has begun in Nine Elms on the South Bank
of the river Thames in central London. This will develop the area from a semi-derelict, light
industrial zone into a modern residential and business district. The programme includes
regeneration of Battersea Power Station, construction of new embassies for the United States and
the Netherlands, and regeneration of New Covent Garden Market which is the largest fresh
produce market in the UK. Transport improvement plans include two new Northern line tube
stations, riverbus piers, new bus services and a network of cycle lanes and footpaths. A new bridge
across the river Thames will link Nine Elms to Pimlico on the opposite bank. Around 25,000
permanent jobs will be created once the new buildings are occupied and around 16,000 new
homes.[101][102][103]

Other large construction projects include Kings Cross Central and Paddington Waterside. In 2014,
the government identified 20 new housing zones across London,[104] and in February 2015 the
development of the first nine zones was approved, which will create 28,000 new homes by 2025
from £260m of investment.[105]

Education
London is a leading global educational centre, with one of the largest populations of overseas
students of any city in the world.[106][107][108] The federal University of London has over 120,000
students, making it the largest contact teaching university in the United Kingdom and one of the
largest universities in Europe. It comprises 19 colleges and 12 institutes.[109] The largest and most
well-known University of London colleges include University College London, King's College
London, Birkbeck, Queen Mary, the London School of Economics and Political Science, Royal
Holloway, Goldsmiths, City, and the Institute of Education.

Imperial College London, King's College London, LSE and UCL are leading centres of research and
stand alongside MIT, Berkeley, Princeton, Yale and other US universities in terms of international
reputation.[110]

Most of the leading learned societies of the world are based in London. The Royal Institution is a
historic and important repository and proponent of the acquisition of scientific knowledge through
research and study. London is Europe's leading centre for arts education.[111]

Transport
Transportation contributes to both the service and construction sectors of the London economy.

Public transport
London has an integrated public transport system operated by Transport for London under a
single electronic ticketing system, the Oyster card. The city's network successfully provided
transport for the 2012 Summer Olympics.[112] It includes the London Underground, London
Overground, Docklands Light Railway, London Buses and London River Services. A ring of 18
main-line railway stations provides train links to cities, towns and villages around the country as
well as international services to Paris, Brussels and Amsterdam via the high-speed Eurostar.[113]

Crossrail is a railway line running east to west through London and into the surrounding
countryside, which opened in 2022. It runs on 118 km (73 mi) of track with a branch to Heathrow
Airport.[114] The main feature of the project is construction of 42 km (26 mi) of new tunnels
connecting stations in central London including a branch to Canary Wharf in east London. It was
Europe's biggest construction project with a £15 billion projected cost.[115][116] An additional line,
Crossrail 2, has been proposed.

Roads
Most of the streets of central London were laid out before cars were invented, and London's road
network is often congested. There is a £16/day congestion charge in Central London.[117] The Ultra
Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) adds an extra charge of £12.50/day for vehicles which do not meet
Euro 4 standards for petrol and Euro 6 for diesel (which corresponds to vehicles made before 2007
and 2015 respectively). The ULEZ charge will be extended to the North and South Circular from
October 2021.[118]

Airports
London is served by six international airports which are the world's busiest city airport system by
passenger traffic. These are Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted, Luton, London City, and Southend.
There are a number of proposals for expanding airport capacity for London including expansion of
London Heathrow Airport and expansion of Gatwick Airport. The principal argument in favour of
airport expansion is to support economic growth in the UK by providing an international hub for
air-transport links to fast-growing developing countries around the world.[119] The Heathrow
proposal expects to create 120,000 new jobs across the UK and bring economic benefits of more
than £100 billion.[120] It also anticipates boosting exports as a result of the expansion.[121]

Ports
Once the largest port in the world, the Port of London is today the second-largest in the United
Kingdom, handling 48 million tonnes of cargo each year.[122] The port is not located in one area –
it stretches along the tidal Thames, including central London, with many individual wharfs, docks,
terminals and facilities built incrementally over the centuries. As with many similar historic
European ports the bulk of activities has steadily moved downstream towards the open sea, as
ships have grown larger and other city uses take up land closer to the city's centre. Today, much of
the Port of London cargo passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater
London.

London Gateway, the UK's newest container port, opened in 2013. The £1.5bn facility at Thurrock,
Essex, is 20 mi (32 km) down the River Thames from London. It is expected to be able to handle
3.5 million containers a year. The development is forecast to create 27,000 jobs in London and the
South East and contribute £2.4bn a year to its economy.[123]

See also
London portal

England portal

Agriculture in London
Economy of Europe
Economy of England
Economy of the United Kingdom
List of companies based in London

Notes
a. In employment and aged 16 or over (quantity) or aged 16–64 (percent)
b. Percent is a proportion of all persons in employment aged 16 and over
c. Unemployed aged 16 and over. Percent is a proportion of economically active.
d. Median gross weekly pay for full time employees resident in London
e. Goods and services
f. Excluding services

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External links
Labour Market Profile – London (https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/lmp/gor/2013265927/rep
ort.aspx) Office for National Statistics Official Labour Market Statistics (Nomis)
 Regional accounts (https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/regionalaccounts) Office for National
Statistics
Neighbourhood Statistics (NeSS) (http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/Le
adHome.do?m=0&s=1457038436688&enc=1&nsjs=true&nsck=false&nssvg=false&nswid=136
2) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160315095149/http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.
gov.uk/dissemination/LeadHome.do?m=0&s=1457038436688&enc=1&nsjs=true&nsck=false&
nssvg=false&nswid=1362) 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Office for National
Statistics
London: The Global Powerhouse (https://www.london.gov.uk/business-and-economy-publicatio
ns/london-global-powerhouse) Greater London Authority
Economy and employment (https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/research-and-analysis/econ
omy-and-employment) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170717150500/https://www.lon
don.gov.uk//what-we-do/research-and-analysis/economy-and-employment) 17 July 2017 at the
Wayback Machine Greater London Authority
Economic research and information (http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/business/economic-resear
ch-and-information/Pages/default.aspx) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2020013009243
3/https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/business/economic-research-and-information/Pages/default.
aspx) 30 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine The City of London Corporation
Research (https://www.thecityuk.com/research) TheCityUK

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