. .

uaed for CUl'l1Mlt regardin the d1rect1on of flow They a11

. . . . - : tfere the- direction of this current is taken he dire
. . transferred i
nal current · The direction of t 1s current is

h magnitude and direction of cwrent does not v ry with t1

current la perloclc I e magnitude varies pe
•• alternating current (AC)

asth
mlnal, when an
~ ~
Also r = these two eq. V d = -m E whe
lty of e _,'Ons to the electric field Intensity. It I
order of
ity a a point 1s defined as the quantity of
ea, ta en perpendicular to the direction
11le current density J or a current I flowing across a
I
A I Curre density is a vector qua
 st
. ~t con ant temperature, the current ,.) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference (I/) across its ends , . ··-

As I = [(
1
~ 1~
2
t ) 1] V For a given ma~erial ~t " onstant temprature and similar physcial dimension the value
of all the element in bra :ket remains constant. so Ia V
Here [(~)A]
m L = K conductance it depends uro n nature, temprature as well as on physical dimensions.

R= ¾= [( n:zt ); ] Resistance is reciprocal of K and depends upon same factors.

a) Ohm's law is not a universal law.

b) . Conductors which obey Ohm's law are called ch mic (or) linear conductors . Ex. metals .
c) The graph between V and I for ohmic conductcr is straight line passing through the ongifl.
nd
d) Co uctors which do not obey Ohm's law are called Non ohmic (or)Non linear conductors
Ex:Carbon compounds, electrolytes, transi stors , diodes, semiconductors , discharge ·tubes,
Thermionic valves , vacuun;i tubes .

· e) The' graph between V and i'for non ohmic resis:ance is a curve

Resistance : R = [ ( ~ ) ~]
n eZt A
a) The property by virtue of which a conductor opposes the flow of charge in it is known as resistance.
b) It is measured as the ratio between potential c,fference between the ends of the c.onductor and
current flowing in the·conductor ⇒ R= Vii.
c) SI unit of resistance is Ohm.
1 ohm = 1 volt I 1 amp
d) Ohm is the resistance of a conductor through wr,-sh a curreni of 1 ampere flows when the potential
difference between its ends is 1 volt
e) Dimensions formula R is ML 2T 3 1-2 .
f) For good conductors resistance is very low and fc insulators or bad conductors It is high.

Conductanc e : _.
a). The reciprocal of resistance is known as cond~cta1ce ⇒ K = 1 /R.
-1 '
b) SI unit of K is siemen (S) (ohm or mho)
c) Conductance decreases on increasing temperat~n~· "'= ,

Dependence of resistance :
, a) Resistance of a conductor•is directly proportio~al t'.l its length and inversely proportional to its area of
cross section. ;
R cc .!_
A
=R = p .!.... R =P !....2
A rrr
Where r is radius of cross section.

Here pis known i:!_S resisti~i,!Y~ or'specific resistance

c) Resistance does not-depend on _current and potential difference.
Though resistance of a linear ,~onductor is indepen~ent of applied voltage, for a ,given body it is not
unique and depends on Ieingth and area of cross section. (i.e how the potentlal difference is

app lied)lf [ ,b, h denote length, breadth and tr, ckness of a slab ' ( f>b>h)
. '
R
max
= P!..
bh
and

R = ph
min Cb

Specific resistance :
a) It is equal to resistance of the conductor of unit lengtr and unit area of cross section .
~
b) - Ra AC or R= A or p = -C-
RA

c) S.I. unit : Ohm - metre

d) It depends only on the material of the conductor and If cnperature
e) It is independent of dimensions of the conducto~.
f) For·silver and coppef spedfi~ resistance is small
g) For Nichrome, constantan, Magani~ it is large.
Conductivity : (or) specific conductance (cr):
1 C
a) It Is reciprocal of resistivity. cr = p= RA
b) S.I unit : siemen Im,
c) For insulators cr = O
d) For perfect conductors, cr = infinity
 3

. of resistance (<1) : • .
T, ,e~m~p~e~ra~t:u::re:,.:c::o:.-.::.e_ffi-:-1c:--•e_n-:t=:,"' •fie resista, ce (or resistance) per 1 C nse of temperature lo
- ange in spec1 I
a) It is defined as the ch ·stance) at o•c
. t ce (or res1
original specific res1s an 1 + ant) .
. .. (1)
_ Pt - Po c) Pt = Po ( ,
b) Cl - ---;- • • (1 + r,ti.t) .. . (2)
PO d) Rt = RO ""
R -Ro
c) ex= __J__ · 1

Rot . e and resistan ce at o•c.

Po and Ro are the specific res1stanc t t·C
d values a .
p and R 1 are the correspon mg
1 •c and ti°C then
If R1 and R2 are resistaf}ces at 11
R2 - R1
a=--.
R1t2 - R2t1

Series connection
i) Current is the same through all th e resiS t0 rs
ii) Total p.d.= sum of individual P d.s across cacl • resistor
iii) Individual p.d . is directly proportional to ind1v1d 1n l resi stor
iv) Total resistance Is greater than the greate st in fividua l rc:,1stance .
v) -Total resistance= sum of the individual re s1stw ices .
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + .. . ... .
vi) Two resistances in series ·
a) The total resistance Rs= ~1 + R2
, VR
b) V 1 = - -1-
R1 + R2

c) V 2 = ~ L
R1 + R2

d) i= 'i....t:'.!J...
R1 R2
Parallel connection :
i) Potential difference remains the same across t.; ach resisJor.
ii) Total current=sum of the individual currents,
iii) Individual currents are inversely prope:rtional fo the individual resistances .
iv) Effective res istance is less than the least indiv1dual.resIstance
v) When a number of conductors are connec,ed in parallel, the reciprocal value of the resultant
resistance is equal to t~_e sum o{ the reciproca, values of the individual resistances .
1 1 1 A '
- = - + - + .- + .... .
R R1 R2 R3
vi) Two resistances in parallel
R,
a) The total resistance
R1R2
Rp= - - -
, R1 +R2

b)l 1 = ~
R1 +R 2
IR . _
B ' .

c) h= - -1 - , V - l1R1 = 12R2
R1 +R 2

If n equal resistances each of resistance R are connected to form triangle (or) Square, (or) Polygon then
effective resistance between any two adJ·a • R1 _ ( n
cent corneI s 1s - ,-n--)
-1+R .
If n equal resistances each of r · t . then
. . esis ance R are connected to form triangle (or) Square (or) Polygon
effective resistance between any tw .
R-1 mn NR
° . ·
corners which divide the polygon m side ratio m:n is
- (m + n)2 where N is total no. of sides o' polygon
.
Examp l e A wire has res·15t b tween tJJe~
. ance 12 Q It is be:1t in the form of a circle. The effective resistance e
pomts on any diamete1..
is equal to
(a) 12 n
Solution '. (c) Equivalent resista Cb) 6 n (c) 3 n
. . .
· 'nee of the follo" ,ng CU"cu1t \\'Ill be
6
R,y = - "'3Q
2
 ELECTRICAL POWER: 6

r
~ -:-;::~~~~ --:-------:
The rate at which work is done in mainta· . --==-=~~ ;;-;:;:;:--- -~.---.-·
in1ng the curre nt in electric circuit.Electrical power
w v2
p =t =VI = 12R = Rwatt (or) joule/ sec

The electric energy consumed in a circuit is defined as the total workdone in maintaing the current in
an electric circuit for a given time.
Elec!rica l Energy = VII = Pt= I2 Rt =~
R
S.l. unit of electric energy is joule
1 Joule=1 watt x 1 sec= 1 volt x ampere x se c
1 1 Kwh =1OOOWh = 3.6 x 10 6 J
Joule's Law : Current passing th,rough a resi ~tor produces heat.
The heat' produced in a resislor· is due to th e co llision of free electrons with the lattice under the
action of electric field. . ·
The heat produced in a given time 't' isi Q = icRT.
1:he heat produced in a given resistor is proportional to
(1) squ_are of the current (ii) time of flow (iii) resistance
Electric heater, electric iron, electric bulb, electric stove are the instruments which work on .Joule's law.
Electncal energy can be converted into heat energy similarly heat energy can als~ be converted into · ·-~ · ·
electrical energy .

Consumption of electric power in bulbs :

If a bu lb is m arked as 1OOW - 220V, then is power will be 1OOW when connected to 220V mains
only. ',
2 ~ •
The resistance of the filament of the bulb is ' Z = y_ where V is marked·, mlJage and P is marked
p .. '\ ' · ,.,;-
power or rating power.
If the applied vo ltage changes, its electric power also changes.

Among the bulbs of lOOW - 230V and 40 W - 230V, lhe.J:iµlp of low wa ttage· will have mo re
resi stance as P a J as Vis same. [40 W bu lb will have mor~ res~s~a11c.e;lhan lOOW bulb].
?~--~ .. !..(4
If a bulb o f IOOW - 220V is cqnnected to 1 ne mains.,.?f a dlf{erent vol1agc, resis tance of the bulb
tern a ins ·same but power consumption cbang.,s. ; "' , ' .,,
,... ,.. '-:t. 1-,, ~ '
Bulbs connected in Sereies: l
If Bulbs (or e lectri ca l appliances) -a~e .c onne1.- .ed i~ series, the current throug h e ach resistance is
same . The n powe r of the e lectrical ·~ppliance F oc R &-V oc P = i2 R[·.- Rt]
i.e . In series com bination; the potential diffc:rence and power consumed will be more in larger resistance.

If 'n' appliances, each 7fi€iqu·a1 res[fta~ ;,are connected in series with a voltage source 'V', the

power dissipated 'Ps' ~lll._be_l;?s~= ~R\ •

>r; ~ l

When the appliances of powe~,r, are 1n series , the effective power consumed (P) is
~ = 2- + 2- + 2- + ... .... .. i.e. effective power is less than the power of individual appliance .
P P1 P2 P3

Bulbs connected in parallel:

If Bulbs (or electrical appliances) are conneded in parallel , the potential difference across each
. 1 1
resistance is same. Then P oc R and I oc R·

i.e. The current and power consumed will be rro re in smaller resistance.

When the appliances of power li'1 ,P2,P3-• •· are•in·para llel, the effective power consumed (P) is P=P +P +P + ........ .
1 2 3

If t 1.. t~ are the time taken_ by two different _coils ' or producing same heat with same supply, then
· If they are connected in series to produce sam e heat, time taken t=, t +t
1 2

If they are connected in parallel to produce sa rie heat, time taken is t = ~ .

t 1 +t 2
Fuse:
It is a metallic conducti11g wire with low melting point and high resistance. ,
It is placed in series with the appliance. ._ . ,
When the current circuit exceeds the specil iecl values, the fuse is damaged by melti"ng and breaks
the circuit and the device is saved.
The current capacity of a fuse is indepc nd cnt of its length and varies with the radius.
 lo

bee II the potentill _,.nee t,etw the term na s of a ceU in open

Thi dlredlon of cunent Inside the cell Is alWIY' fro negative to posit ve electrode

~ The unit of eledl'Omotlve force II volt

' rnlltln :
The lntemal rulatance of a cell ls the resistance off c lumn of the
ledr~lyte between the positive plate and the negabv
I) The lntemal resistance of a perfect cell or Ideal c z ro
11) lntemal resistance depends on
a) strength of electrolyte (r ex: strength)
b) dist~nce between plates (r oc d)

c) area of the plates rr·cc 1 7'

t Aj
Relation between EMF and PD •
1) In case of charging of a coll
a) The current flows from • v1~ to Vl ICHllllll.11
b) V > E
c) V = E + ir
2) In case of d1sch,1rge of a cell
a) The current flows from -vc to +vc terminal in the c
b) V < E
c) V = E - ir

3) The diffe rence between E and V .15. ca II cd lost vol

-:. lost volts= E- v = ir

4) A cell of emf
E 'E' and its resistance 'r' .is connected t resistance 'R
a) i = __ b) i = V
R ..- r R
c) r= (~ - VB
V
b) P.O. across resistance R is give.n bY ,
V = iR= ER '
R+r
Series combination of cells :

a) E= E1+ E2+ E3+ .. .E:

b) r = r, + r2 + r3+ ....... rn
c) VVhen cells of e.m.f.'s [; E
resistances r r ' 2' E3 · • .. and of , ternal
,, z, r3 ..... are conn
.
given by ected in senc • s across an external resistance R, the current i is

I= E, +E2 +E3 ....... .

R + (r, +r 2+ r3 + .... .)

d) If the e.m.f s of all the n cell

. s and their .internal r .sistances are same then • _ nE
1
Cell In arallel : ' - (R + nr) .
i) = i, + i2 + 3 + ........... ·In
ii) The e.m.f of the combinar .
- . E ion is equa1 to . .
• _ ••••••
1
,= ~ ( , the e.m f of a single cell 1.e s=E, =E2 =E 3
R.,-~) .
m