CORDILLERA CAREER DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Buyagan, Poblacion, La Trinidad, Benguet

THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY,

SCHOOL CULTURE AND
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

COURSEBOOK

Prepared by: MARINA I. SAGANDOY

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 INTRODUCTION

Dear students, this module is your reference material for the course
The Teacher and the Community, School Culture and Organizational
Leadership. This course focuses on society as a context upon which
schools have been established. Educational philosophies that are related
to the society as a foundation of schools and schooling shall be
emphasized. Further, principles and theories on school culture and
organizational leadership, and school policies and procedures are included
to prepare you to become school leaders and managers in the future.

The module is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 is the

introduction. This chapter provides you definitions of concepts covered in
the course. Chapter 2 focuses on educational philosophies. This chapter
provides discussions on the foundations of education. Chapter 3 focuses
on the teacher and the community. This chapter discusses the context of
teachers in the community, within the community, and the variables
affecting their relationship with the community. Chapter 4 is on school
culture. This chapter introduces you to the concept of school culture, the
factors affecting school culture and how to develop a positive school
culture. Chapter 5 is on organizational leadership. This chapter provides
information on leadership, the role of teachers as educational leaders, and
school leadership.

The Coursebook is intended for students enrolled in the College of

Teacher Education.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

TITLE PAGE i
INTRODUCTION ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES iv
CHAPTER 1. Introduction 1
Lesson 1.1 Defining Basic Concepts 1
CHAPTER 2. Educational Philosophies 4
Lesson 2.1 Philosophical Perspectives 4
Lesson 2.2 Sociological Perspectives 9
CHAPTER 3. The Teacher and the Community 14
Lesson 3.1 The Teacher and the Students 14
Lesson 3.2 The Teacher, the Parents and the
Community 23
Lesson 3.3 The Teacher and the Code of Ethics for
Professional Teachers 25
CHAPTER 4. School Culture 34
Lesson 4.1 The School as an Organization 35
Lesson 4.2 The School as a Social System 37
Lesson 4.3 The School as Learning Community 39
Lesson 4.4 The School as Cultural Institution 41
Lesson 4.5 Creating Positive School Culture 45
CHAPTER 5. Organizational Leadership 49
Lesson 5.1 Defining Leadership 49
Lesson 5.2 Primary Types of Leadership 49
Lesson 5.3 The Teacher as Leader of Educational
Reforms 50
Lesson 5.4 School leadership 51
REFERENCES 55

Page iii of liii

 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE

Figure 1. Factors Contributing to Learning Styles 18

Figure 2. The Pedagogical Cycle 21
Figure 3. Social Systems Model for Schools 38
Figure 4. Typology of School Cultures 43
Figure 5. DepEd’s Vision, Mission, Values 44
Figure 6. The Four Paths Framework of School
Leadership 52

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 Chapter 1. Introduction

Chapter Objective:

After studying this chapter, you will be able to define basic concepts
necessary to understand the course.

Self-assessment 1.1. What is your own definition of education?

Lesson 1.1 Defining Basic Concepts

Education

The word “education” was first recorded in 1250-1300 from the

Middle English word techer (Dictionary, 2020).

Education is defined by Dictionary (2020) as the “act or process of

imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of
reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others
intellectually for mature life.” It is also defined as the “process of inviting
truth and possibility, that is deliberate and hopeful, informed, respectful
and wise, and is grounded in a desire that all may flourish and share in
life” (Smith, 2020), and “brings about an inherent and permanent change
in a person’s thinking and capacity to do things” (ACS Distance Education,
2020). Also, education can be thought of as the transmission of the values
and accumulated knowledge of a society (Meyer, 2020).

What does a teacher do? The teacher “aspire to educate, to inspire,

to learn, and to affect positive change” (Calaby, 2020; Healy, 2020). To
be able to educate, a teacher should love educating his/her students, and
should set for himself/herself to be the best educator he/she can be. To
be able to inspire, a teacher should seek to inspire students in all aspects
of their lives, and to be a role model to them. To be able to learn and
provide learning, a teacher seeks to provide something new to learn each
day, and should also learn a great deal about himself/herself each day
through teaching. To be an instrument for change, a teacher should make
it his/her goal to improve the quality of education for everyone (Healy,
2020). Teachers also impart knowledge to their students to help them
learn new things, and find new ways of supporting their students’ learning
styles (Calaby, 2020).

Community

Merriam Webster (2020) defines community as “a group of people

with common characteristics or interests living together within a larger
society.” In particular, a community is:
 a unified body of individuals such as people with common interests
living in a particular area, for example, people living in La Trinidad;
 a body of persons with common and especially professional
interest scattered through a larger society, for example, the
academic community or scientific community;

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  a body of persons or nations having a common history of social,
economic, and political interests; for example, the international
community; and
 an interacting population of various kinds of individuals (such as
species) in a common location, for example, the State.

School
A school is an organization that provides instruction such as an
institution for teaching of children, a college or university, a group of
scholars and teachers pursuing knowledge together, an institution for
specialized education often associated with a university (e.g. the school of
engineering), or an establishment offering specialized instruction (e.g.
driving school, secretarial school) (Merriam Webster, 2020).

School Climate
School climate refers to the school’s effect on students, including
teaching practices, diversity and the relationships among administrators,
teachers, parents, and students (ASCD, 2020) or the feel of the school
(the school’s attitudes), and the behaviors and point of views exhibited
and experienced by students, teachers and other stakeholders (Alliance
for Education Solutions, 2020).

School Culture
School culture refers to the way teachers and other staff members
work together and the set of beliefs, values, and assumptions they share
evident in the way the school operates (ASCD, 2020; Fisher, 2012). It
also refers to the way things are done in the school (personality of the
school), and the underlying norms and values that shape patterns of
behaviors, attitudes and expectations between stakeholders in a school
(Alliance for Education Solutions, 2020).

Organization
An organization refers to a group or collection of people who are
organized for a particular purpose or involved in pursuing defined
objectives (e.g. association or business). It can be understood as a social
system which comprises all formal human relationships (Surbhi, 2017;
Your Dictionary, n.d.).

Leadership
Prentice (1961) as quoted in the Harvard Business Review (2004)
defines leadership as “the accomplishment of a goal through the direction
of human assistants.” He also explains that a successful leader is one who
can understand people’s motivations and can enlists employee
participation in a way that marries individual needs and interest to the
group’s purpose.

Kruse (2013) gave a more detailed definition and explanation of

leadership. According to him, leadership is a process of social influence,
which maximizes the efforts of others, towards the achievement of a goal.
There are key elements in this definition:
 leadership stems from social influence, not authority or power;

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  leadership requires others, and that implies, they do not need
to be “direct reports”;
 no mention of personality traits, attributes, or even a title;
there are many styles and many paths to effective leadership;
and
 it includes a goal, not influence with no intended outcome.

As applied to business, Twin (2020) defines leadership as the

“capacity of a company’s management to set and achieve challenging
goals, take fast and decisive action when needed, outperform the
competition, and inspire others to perform at the highest level they can.”

Chapter 2. Educational Philosophies

Chapter Objectives

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1. describe the manifestations of various educational philosophies and

applications of sociological theories in practical classroom situations
in response to community context; and
2. explain the importance of the different educational philosophies and
sociological theories to education and how they change the
educational landscape in response to the needs of the society and
the community.

Self-assessment 2.1. What is your philosophy in life?

Lesson 2.1 Philosophical Perspectives

1. Classical philosophies

Idealism

Idealism, as a philosophical approach, was credited to Plato, who

espoused the view about 400 BC in his famous book, The Republic. Plato
believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental
world, which is, eternal, permanent, orderly, regularly, and universal. The
second is the world of appearance, which is, the world experienced
through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound. These two worlds are often
referred to as the duality of mind and body (Cohen, 1999).

As a philosophical view, idealism stresses the central role of the

ideal or the spiritual in the interpretation of experience. In this view, the
world or reality exists essentially as spirit or consciousness, that
abstraction and laws are more fundamental in reality than sensory things,
or at least, that whatever exists is known in dimensions that are chiefly
mental (Robinson, 2020).

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  Reality – nonfictional prose and are basis of agreement and
argumentation (Britannica, n.d.).
 Consciousness – psychological condition defined by the English
Philosopher John Locke as “the perception of what passes in a
man’s mind” (Britannica, n.d.).
 Abstraction – the cognitive process of isolating or “abstracting,” a
common feature or relationship observed in a number of things, or
the product of such process, for example, the property of electrical
conductivity is abstracted from observations of bodies that allow
electricity to flow through them, similarly, observation of pairs of
lines in which one line is longer than the other can yield the relation
of “being longer than” (Kim, n.d.).

Idealism in the context of education. According to Cohen (1999), the

aim of education in idealism is to discover and develop each individual’s
abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The
curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature, history,
philosophy and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas
through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching
that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge.
Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring
consciousness (the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind).
Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes.

Realism
Aristotle, a student of Plato, is the father of realism. In this
metaphysical view, Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its
ultimate form had to be understood. For example, a rose exists whether
or not a person is aware of it. A rose exist in the mind without being
physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other
roses and flowers (its form), although, one rose may be red and another
peach colored (Cohen, 1999).

Realism, in philosophy, is the viewpoint which accords to things

which are known or perceived, an existence or nature which is
independent of whether anyone is thinking about or perceiving them
(Hale, 2020). There are two general aspects of realism. First, there is a
claim about existence. Tables, rocks, the moon, and so on, all exist, as do
the following facts: the table’s being square, the rock’s being made of
granite, and the moon’s being spherical and yellow. Second, is about the
everyday world of macroscopic objects and their properties that concerns
independence, the fact that the moon exists and is spherical is
independent of anything anyone happens to say or think about the matter
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2019).

Realism in the context of education. The realist curriculum

emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science
and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content
systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making
decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills
through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate

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the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and
experimentation. The curriculum should be scientifically approached,
standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed
through training in the rules of conduct (Cohen, 1999).

Existentialism

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher,

is considered to be the founder of existentialism. His philosophy was a
Christian orientation (Cohen, 1999). The French philosopher, Jean-Paul
Sartre explicitly adopted the term existentialism as a self-descriptive
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2020). Existentialism was most
influential in continental Europe from about 1930 to the mid-20 th century
(Abbagnano, 2020). According to the European existentialists, we must
recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather
than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed
in an afterlife, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of
hope or despair. American existentialists, on the one hand, have focused
more on human potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values
clarification is an outgrowth of this movement (Cohen, 1999).

According to existentialism: (1) existence is always particular and

individual-always my existence, your existence, his existence; (2)
existence is primarily the problem of existence; it is therefore also the
investigation of the meaning of Being; (3) that investigation is continually
faced with diverse possibilities, from among which the existent (i.e., the
human individual) must make a selection, to which he must then commit
himself; (4) because those possibilities are constituted by the individual’s
relationships with things and with other humans, existence is always a
being-in-the-world (i.e., in a concrete and historically determinate
situation that limits or conditions choice) (Abbagnano, 2020).

Existentialism in the context of education. Educators start with the

student, rather than the curriculum. The subject matter of existentialist
classrooms should be a matter of personal choice. Teachers view the
individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must
confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development
emphasizes individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come
from within the individual, not from outside authority. Examining life
through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning
experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as
objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such educators want
the educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for self-
direction and self-actualization (Cohen, 1999).

Pragmatism

Pragmatism originated in the United States during the 19 th century

(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n.d.) from the teaching of Charles
Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must produce
action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness (Cohen,
1999). It is derived from the Greek pragma, meaning “action” or “affair”

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(Thayer, n.d.). According to Thayer, there are six fundamental theses of
pragmatism. These are:

1. pragmatists emphasized the “plastic” nature of reality and the

practical function of knowledge as an instrument for adapting to
reality and controlling it;
2. pragmatism emphasized the priority of actual experience over fixed
principles and a priori (nonexistential) reasoning in critical
investigation;
3. the pragmatic meaning of an idea, belief, or proposition is said to
reside in the distinct class of specific experimental or practical
consequences that result from the use, application, or
entertainment of the nation;
4. pragmatism generally hold that truth, like meaning, is to be found
in the process of verification;
5. pragmatists interpreted ideas as instruments and plans of action;
and
6. pragmatism was a broad philosophical attitude toward the
formation of concepts, hypothesis, and theories and their
justification.

Pragmatism in the context of education. For pragmatists, teaching

methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects,
often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the
disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary
way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new
learners. Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge
to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for
citizenship, daily living, and future careers (Cohen, 1999).

2. Modern Philosophies

Perennialism

The advocates of perennialism are Robert Maynard Hutchins who

develop a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further
developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of Western
civilization (Cohen, 1999). In perennialism, the importance of certain work
transcends time (Edupedia, 2018).

Perennialism in the context of education. Perennialists are primarily

concerned with the importance of the mastery of the content and
development of reasoning skills (Teach Academy, n.d.). The goal of
perennialist education is to teach students to think rationally and develop
minds that think critically. A perennialist classroom aims to be a closely
organized and well-disciplined environment, which develops in students a
lifelong quest for the truth. Perennialists believe that education should
epitomize a prepared effort to make these ideas available to students and
to guide their thought processes toward the understanding and
appreciation of the great works, works of literature written by history’s
finest thinkers that transcend time and never become outdated (Edupedia,

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2018). For Cohen (1999), the aim of education among perennialists
is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of
Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in
any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring
truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds
at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging
principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to
be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a
worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining
cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The
loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works
of literature and art, the laws or principles of science.

Progressivism

The progressive education philosophy was established in America

from the mid-1920s through the mid-1950s. John Dewey was its foremost
proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way
of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in
schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students,
student- selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than
authority (Cohen, 1999).

Progressivism in the context of education. Progressivists believe

that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content
or the teacher. It stresses that students should test ideas by active
experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise
through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a
problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her
individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective
teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing.
Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The
scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that students can
study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on
process-how one comes to know (Cohen, 1999).

Humanism

Humanism was developed as an educational philosophy by

Rousseau (1712-1778) and Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature and the
basic goodness of humans, understanding through the senses, and
education as a gradual and unhurried process in which the development of
human character follows the unfolding of nature (Cohen, 1999).

Humanism in the context of education. Humanists believe that the

leaner should be in control of his or her own destiny, hence personal
freedom, choice, and responsibility should be the focused of his or her
education (Cohen, 1999). The Faculty Web (n.d.), identified five basic
principles of humanistic education. These are: (1) students should be able

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to choose what they want to learn. Humanistic teachers believe that
students will be motivated to learn a subject if it is something they need
and want to know; (2) the goal of education should be to foster students'
desire to learn and teach them how to learn. Students should be self-
motivated in their studies and desire to learn on their own; (3) humanistic
educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only self-evaluation
is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a grade and not
for personal satisfaction. In addition, humanistic educators are opposed to
objective tests because they test a student's ability to memorize and do
not provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher and student; (4)
humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are
important to the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic
teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains; and (5)
humanistic educators insist that schools need to provide students with a
non-threatening environment so that they will feel secure to learn. Once
students feel secure, learning becomes easier and more meaningful.

3. Post Modern Philosophies

The terms “postmodernism” first entered the philosophical lexicon

in 1979, with the publication of The Postmodern Condition by Jean-
Francois Lyotard (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2015).

Duignan (n.d.) summarized the most important viewpoints of

postmodernism. These are:

1. there is no objective natural reality, a reality whose existence

and properties are logically independent of human beings – of
their minds, their societies, their social practices, or their
investigative techniques;
2. the descriptive and explanatory statements of scientists and
historians can, in principle, be objectively true or false;
3. through the use of reason and logic, and with the more
specialized tools provided by science and technology, human
beings are likely to change themselves and their societies for the
better;
4. reason and logic are universally valid – i.e., their laws are the
same for, or apply equally to, any thinker and any domain of
knowledge;
5. there is such a thing as human nature; it consists of faculties,
aptitudes, or dispositions that in some sense present in human
beings at birth rather than learned or instilled through social
forces;
6. language refers to and represents a reality outside itself;
7. human beings can acquire knowledge about natural reality, and
this knowledge can be justified ultimately on the basis of
evidence or principles that are, or can be, known immediately,
intuitively, or otherwise with certainty; and
8. it is possible, at least in principle, to construct general theories
that explain many aspects of the natural world with a given
domain of the knowledge – e.g. a general theory of human
history.

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Lesson 2.2 Sociological Perspectives

1. Social dimensions of education

Consensus and conflict theories

Consensus theory seeks to determine what all people in a society

have in common. It revolves around culture. Conflict theory, on the other
hand, seeks to determine who, why and how those with power have
imposed specific aspects of culture on a society. According to conflict
theory, culture is the means by which the powerful, those with wealth or
social status, impose their will on the society (Johnson, n. d.).

Conflict theory in the context of education. In conflict theory, the

fulfillment of one’s education is closely linked to social class. Students of
low socioeconomic status are generally not afforded the same
opportunities as students of higher status, no matter how great their
academic ability or desire to learn. Conflict theorists do not believe that
public schools reduce social inequality. Rather, they believe that the
education system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise
from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity (Lumen Learning,
n.d.). Hence, for conflict theorists, education promotes social inequality
through the use of tracking and standardized testing and the impact of its
“hidden curriculum.” Schools differ widely in their funding and learning
conditions, and this type of inequality leads to learning disparities that
reinforce social inequality (University of Minnesota, n.d.).

Structural Functionalism

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Talcott Parsons are two major

theorists of structural functionalism. According to Durkheim, for society to
function, there must exists an unwritten moral code that people follow.
These are common set of values and morals. Structural functionalism
therefore is a body of theories that understand the world as a large
system of interrelated parts that all work together (Robson, n.d.).

Structural functionalism in the context of education. The role of

education, according to Durkheim, in society is to instill society’s morals in
the minds (or actions) of young people. He argued that it is through
education that a given society can forge a commitment to an underlying
set of common beliefs and values, as well, as create a strong sense of
community or nationhood. Like Durkheim, Parsons argued that schools
existed to socialize students. The school plays a central role in bridging
individuals to society. It is within schools that children are assessed in a
standardized universalistic way that does not take their social background
characteristic into account (Robson, n.d.). The University of Minnesota
(n.d.) summarized the functions of education according to structural
functionalism. These are: (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social
placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent (hidden)
functions include child care, the establishment of peer relationship, and

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lowering unemployment by keeping high school students out of full-time
labor force.

Symbolic Interactionism

George Herbert Mead (1861-1931) is considered as the founder of

symbolic interactionism though he never published his works on it (La
Rosa & Reitze, 1993 cited by Lumen Learning, n.d.). It was Herbert
Blumer who coined the term “symbolic interactionism” and outlined the
basic premises: (1) humans interact with things based on meanings
ascribed (assigned) to those things; (2) the ascribed meaning of things
comes from our interactions with others and society; and (3) the
meanings of things are interpreted by circumstances (Blumer, 1969 cited
by Lumen Learning, n.d.). Hence, symbolic interactionism is a micro-level
theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society
(Lumen Learning, n.d.).

Symbolic interactionism in the context of education. Symbolic

interactionism focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on the
playground, and in other school venues. Social interaction in school affects
the development of gender roles and that teachers’ expectations of pupils’
intellectual abilities affect how much pupils learn (University of Minnesota,
n.d.).

2. Schools and Social Institutions

Contemporary sociologists use the term “social institutions” to refer

to complex social forms that reproduce themselves such as governments,
the family, human languages, universities, hospitals, business
corporations and legal systems (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
2019). The Sociology Guide (2020) identified five basic institutions. These
are family, government, economy, education and religion. The five
primary institutions are found among all human groups. They exist
everywhere and their universality indicates that they are deeply rooted in
human nature and that they are essential in the development and
maintenance of orders.

Activity 2.1 Refer to the discussions on philosophies and complete the

table: (42 points)

Philosophy Identify the major assumptions (ideas) in relation

to the following:
Aims of Curriculum Teaching
Education Content Methods
Classical
Idealism
Realism
Existentialism
Pragmatism
Modern
Perennialism

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 Progressivism
Humanism

Activity 2.2 Refer to the discussions on social dimensions of education

and complete the table: (28 points)

Theory Identify the major assumptions (ideas) in relation

to the following:
Aims of Curriculum Teaching
Education Content Methods
Conflict theory
Structural
functionalism
Symbolic
interactionism
Chapter 3. The Teacher and the Community

Chapter objectives

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1. discuss reasons for becoming a teacher, student diversity and

teacher effectiveness;
2. explain the six types of involvement in building relationships
and partnerships with parents and the wider community; and
3. demonstrate understanding of the teachers’ responsibilities to
the state and the community as specified in the code of ethics
for professional teacher.

Self-assessment 3.1. Why do you want to become a teacher?

Lesson 3.1 The Teacher and the Students

1. Becoming a teacher (Sadker & Sadker, 2005; Sadker & Zittleman,

2016))

This lesson offers you a teacher’s perspective of what teaching is

and an opportunity to consider the pros and cons of a teaching career. At
the end of the lesson, you will reflect on this question: Will you and
teaching be a good match?

In the past teachers were often considered second-class citizens,

pressured to conform to strict moral and social codes while being paid
meager salaries. Today, teaching is now center stage, a common topic in
the media and political debates. Hence, your taking up teaching (or
education) comes at the right time, at a period when teachers are striving
for more influential roles in society. What role might you play in
tomorrow’s classrooms?

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 The following presents several sides of an issue, and encourages
you to sort out where you stand. In this discussion, you will be presented
the pros and cons of teaching.
The Good News . . .
You are not working alone,
staring at a computer screen or
shuffling papers. If you enjoy
being in contact with others,
particularly young people, teaching
could be the right job for you.
Almost the entire day, working is
spent is human interaction.
The smell of the chalkboard,
the roar of the crowd. When you
have taught well, your students
will let you know it. On special
occasions, they will come to you
after class or at the end of the
year to tell you “This class is
awesome.” At the younger grade
levels, they may write you notes
(often anonymous), thanking you
for a good class or a good year.
I am proud to be a teacher.
When you become a teacher,
many people will accord you
respect, because they admire
teachers. You will be someone
whose specialized training and
skills are used to benefit others.
As a teacher, you are
constantly involved in
intellectual matters. Teaching
offers a natural channel for sharing
your expertise and interests with
others.
Portrait of the teacher as an
artist. You can construct
everything from original simulation
games to videotapes, from
multimedia programs to
educational software. Even the
development of a lesson plan is an
exercise in creativity, as you strive
to meet the needs of the diverse
children who come to your
classroom each day.
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The Bad News . . .
Stop the crowd-I want to get
away. Right in the middle of
language arts lesson, when fifteen
kids have their hands in the air,
you may feel like saying “Stop
everybody, I feel like being alone
for the next fifteen minutes, I am
going out of the classroom.” For
the major part of each day, your
job demands that you be involved
with people.
Is anybody there? After your
very successful class session, you
want to share it with your
colleagues but nobody is giving
you much attention.
I do not get no respect.
Unfortunately, in our materialistic
society, people’s work is frequently
measured by the size of the
paycheck – and most teachers’
wallets are modestly endowed.
The same matter year after
year after year. Teaching, like
most other jobs, entails a lot of
repetition. You may tire of
teaching the same subject matter
to new group of students each
year.
The bog of mindless routine.
The job breaks down into a lot of
mindless routine. A large
percentage of the day is consumed
by clerical work, child control,
housekeeping, announcement, and
participation in ceremonies.
 To touch a life, to make a The tarnished idealist. Too
difference. Teaching is more than often, idealistic goals give way to
helping a child master lessons or survival – simply making it through
subject matter. Each classroom is from one day to the next.
a made up of the anguish and joy
of all its students and you can be
the one who makes a difference in
their lives.
Better salaries, longer But salaries still have a long
vacations. In the last two way to go. Although teachers’
decades, the average salary of salaries have improved, they still
teachers in the Philippines lag behind what most people would
increased particularly in the public call a good income.
schools. Occupational benefits,
such as health and retirement as
well as vacations also improved.

Self-reflection 3.1. Which of these arguments and issues are most

influential in determining if teaching is a good fit for you? Is there a
particular point that is most persuasive, pro or con? What does that tell
you about yourself? On a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 is “most
committed” to teaching, and 1 is “I want no part of that job.”
Remember that number as you go through this course (subject) and see
if that rating will change in the weeks ahead.

After going over the discussions, you may find yourself not fit for
teaching, but you are already committed to become a teacher, so what
steps can you take between now and graduation to make yourself an
attractive teaching candidate?
 Become informed about the job market – begin gathering
information about the job market and search out those particular
content areas and skills that will increase your marketability.
 Make sure your coursework is planned carefully – plan to develop a
transcript of courses that will reflect a unique, competent, and
relevant academic background. Your transcript will be an important
part of your overall candidacy for a teaching position.
 Do not underestimate the importance of extracurricular activities –
employers are likely looking for candidates whose background
reflects interests and experience in working with children.
 Begin networking – through your coursework and your
extracurricular activities, you will come into contact with teachers,
administrators, and other school personnel.
 Begin collecting recommendations now – extracurricular activities,
coursework, part-time employment, and volunteer work can all
provide you with valuable recommendations.
 Develop a resume and portfolio – traditionally, a resume has been a
central document considered during job applications, typically
including specific career objective and summarizing education, work
experience, membership, awards, and special skills. Portfolios, on

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 the other hand, is a more comprehensive reflection of a candidate’s
skills.
 Make good first, second, third, fourth impressions – in your
education course, you will be asked to participate in local school
activities. This participation may take the form of observing or
being a teacher’s aide or as a student teacher. Consider every visit
to a school as an informal interview. Dress and act accordingly.
Demonstrate your commitment and enthusiasm in ways that are
helpful to school personnel.

2. Student diversity (Sadker & Sadker, 2005; Sadker & Zittleman,

2016))

This lesson describes the demographic and conceptual changes

reshaping schools, as well as provide you with insights into and strategies
for successful teaching in tomorrow’s classroom. It is a review of your
prior knowledge on child and adolescent development, mother tongue and
multicultural education, and special and inclusive Education.

Learning Styles

Students have diverse ways of learning, comprehending, and

knowing. For example, some students do their best work late at night,
while others set an early alarm because they are most alert in the
morning. Many students seek a quiet place in the library to prepare for
finals; others learn best in a crowd of people; still others study most
effectively in a state of perpetual motion, constantly walking in circles to
help their concentration. Some students seem unable to study without
eating and drinking. At least three types of factors (Figure 1) contribute to
each student’s learning style.
1. Cognitive (information processing). Individuals have different ways
of perceiving, organizing, and retaining information, all components
of the cognitive domain. Some students prefer to learn by reading
and looking at materials, while others need to listen and hear
information spoken aloud. Still others learn best kinesthetically, by
whole body movement and participation. Some learners focus
attention narrowly and with great intensity; others pay attention to
many things at once. While some learners are quick to respond,
others rely on a slower approach.
2. Affective (attitudes). Individuals bring different levels of
motivations to learning, and the intensity level of this motivation is
a critical determinant of learning style. Other aspects of the
affective domain include attitudes, values and emotions, factors
that influence curiosity, the ability to tolerate and overcome
frustration, and the willingness to take risks. A fascinating aspect of
the affective domain is a concept termed locus of control. Some
learners attribute success or failure to external factors (“Those
problems were confusing,” “The teacher did not review the material
well,” or “My score was high because I made some lucky guesses”).
These learners have an external locus of control. This means, they
do not take responsibility for their behavior. Others attribute
performance to internal factors (“I did not study enough” or “I did

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 not read the directions carefully”). These students have an internal
locus of control because they have the sense that they control their
fate, and that they can improve their performance.
3. Physiology. A student who is hungry and tired will not learn as
effectively as a well-nourished and rested child. Different body
rhythms cause some students to learn better in the day, while other
find it more effective to study at night. Some students can sit still
for long periods of time, while others need to get up and move
around. Light, sound, and temperature are yet other factors to
which students respond differently based on their physiological
development.

Affective factors

Individual
Learning
Style

Physiological
Cognitive factors
factors

Figure 1. Factors contributing to learning styles

Practice: Take a learning styles assessment (you can search online) to

determine your own learning styles.

Intelligence

The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Score, developed in the 20 th century,

is supposed to be a measure of a person’s innate intelligence, with a score
of 100 defined as normal, or average. The higher the score, the brighter
the person. Since the score is considered a fixed, permanent measure of
intellect, the scores cause strong feelings and contradictions. Some
individuals with IQs of 150 could not even follow the simplest driving
instructions, while others who scored low on an IQ test became famous
and rich.

Puzzled by the contradiction, Harvard professor Howard Gardner

broadened the concept of intelligence and define it as the “capacity to
solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more

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cultural settings.” Gardner identified eight kinds of intelligences, not all of
which are commonly recognized in school settings, yet he believes that his
theory of multiple intelligences accurately captures the diverse nature
of human capability. These intelligences include the following:
1. logical-mathematical - skills related to mathematical manipulations
and discerning and solving logical problems;
2. linguistic – sensitivity to the meanings, sounds, and rhythms of
words, as well as to the function of language as a whole;
3. bodily-kinesthetic – ability to excel physically and to handle objects
skillfully;
4. musical – ability to produce pitch and rhythm, as well as to
appreciate various forms of musical expression;
5. spatial – ability to form a mental model of the spatial world and to
maneuver and operate using that model;
6. interpersonal – ability to analyze and respond to the motivations,
moods, and desires of other people;
7. intrapersonal – knowledge of one’s feelings, needs, strengths, and
weaknesses; and ability to use this knowledge to guide behavior;
and
8. naturalist – ability to discriminate among living things, to classify
plants, animals, and minerals; and sensitivity to the natural world.

Another concept that contributed to broadening the idea of

intelligence is emotional intelligence quotient (EQ) by Daniel Goleman.
Goleman argued that when it comes to predicting success, EQ may be a
better predictor than IQ. Emotional intelligence is a “type of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s
emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to
guide one’s thinking and actions.”

Cultural Diversity
You will not be a national teacher, you will be a local teacher, and
the demographic realities of your experience will be shaped by where you
teach. If you teach in large, urban school systems, you will likely
encounter classrooms where the majority of students are of different
ethnicity. Some information and strategies for dealing with diversity
include the following:
1. generalize, do not stereotype – as you assimilate information about
your students, their culture, and their experiences, you will need to
distinguish between stereotypes and generalizations;
2. model skills and behaviors that reflect sensitivity – ensure that your
knowledge is reflected in your behavior. Being responsive to
cultural norms is another way to demonstrate cultural sensitivity;
3. use classroom strategies that build on student learning types – to
get a sense of each student’s unique approach to learning, observe
each of them doing work and analyze how each approaches the
curriculum; and
4. give equal instructional attention – avoid biases.

Exceptional Learners
In a typical classroom, a teacher faces students with a great range
of abilities, from students’ reading years behind grade level to students

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reading years ahead. Typically, exceptional learners are categorized as
follows:
 students with mental retardation;
 students with learning disabilities;
 students with emotional disturbance or behavior disorders;
 students with hearing and language impairments;
 students with visual impairments;
 students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder;
 students with other health and physical impairments;
 students with severe and multiple disabilities; and
 gifted and talented students.

3. Teacher Effectiveness (Sadker & Sadker, 2005; Sadker & Zittleman,

2016))

This lesson will describe teaching skills and models of instruction

that raise student achievement. It is a review of your prior knowledge on
principles and strategies of teaching, and facilitating learning.

Academic Learning Time

Research shows that students who spend more time pursuing

academic content achieve more. To analyze the use of classroom time,
researchers have developed the following terms: allocated time, engaged
time, and academic learning time.

 Allocated time – time a teacher schedules for a subject. The more

allocated time for a subject, the higher student achievement in that
subject is likely to be.
 Engaged time – part of allocated time in which students are actively
involved with academic subject matter (intently listening to a
lecture, participating in a class discussion, writing an essay, solving
math problems).
 Academic learning time – engaged time with a high success rate.

Classroom Management

Research shows that effective classroom managers are nearly

always good planners. They do not enter a room late, after noise and
disruption have had a chance to build. They are waiting at the door when
the children come in. Starting from the very first day of school, they teach
standards or norms of appropriate student behavior, actively and directly.
Following are three basic principles for setting expectations, in order to
develop a classroom community: (1) rules should be few in numbers, (2)
they should seem fair and reasonable to students, and (3) rules should fit
the growth and maturation of the students.

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 Good managers also carefully arrange their classrooms to minimize
disturbances, provide students with a sense of confidence and security,
make sure that instruction can proceed efficiently. They set up their
rooms according to the following principles:

 teachers should be able to see all students at all times;

 teaching materials and supplies should be readily available;
 high-traffic areas (such as desks, supply cabinets, pencil
sharpeners) should be free of congestion;
 students should be able to see instructional presentation; and
 procedures and routines should be actively taught in the same way
that academic content is taught.

The Pedagogical Cycle

There are four steps that make up a pedagogical cycle (Figure 2).

Structure
The teacher provides
information, provides
direction, and introduces the
topic.

React
The teacher reacts to the Questions
student’s answers and The teacher asks a
provides feedback. question.

Respond
The student answers the
question, or tries to.

Figure 2. The Pedagogical Cycle

Clarity and Academic Structure

Students need a clear understanding of what they are expected to

learn, and they need motivation to learn it. Effective academic structure
sets the stage for learning and occurs mainly at the beginning of the
lesson. Although the specific structure will vary depending on the
students’ background and the difficulty of the subject matter, an effective
academic structure usually consists of:

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  objective – let the students know the objective (or purpose or
outcome) of each lesson;
 motivation – help students review prior knowledge before
presenting new information. If there is confusion, reteach;
 transition – provide connections to help students integrate old and
new information;
 clarification – break down a large body of information (This is
sometimes called “chunking.”); and
 scaffolding – step-by-step practice and well-crafted questions that
support and encourage student understanding: (a) examples – give
several examples and illustrations to explain main points and ideas,
(b) directions – give directions distinctly and slowly, (c) enthusiasm
– demonstrate personal enthusiasm for the academic content, and
(d) closure – close the lesson with a brief review or summary.

Questioning

Good questioning is at the very core of good teaching. Since

questioning is key in guiding learning, all students should have equal
access to classroom questions and academic interactions.

Ask lower-order questions when students are:

 being introduced to new information;

 working on drill and practice; and
 reviewing previously learned information.

Ask higher-order questions when students are:

 working on problem-solving skills;

 involved in creative or affective discussion;
 asked to make judgments about quality, aesthetics, or ethics; and
challenged to manipulate already established information in more
sophisticated ways.

Student Response

Although it is important to keep classroom moving at a brisk (fast)

pace, sometimes teachers push forward too rapidly. Slowing down during
class discussion can usually improve the effectiveness and equity of
classroom responses (also called “wait time”).

Reaction to Productive Feedback

Attention has been directed not only at how teachers ask questions
but also how they respond to student answers. Research have found that
teachers generally use four types of reactions:

a. praise – positive comments about student’s work, such as

“excellent, good job;”
b. acceptance – comments such as “uh-uh” and “ok.” Which
acknowledge that the student’s answers are acceptable;

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 c. remediation – comments that encourage a more accurate student
response or encourage students to think more clearly, creatively, or
logically. For example, “try again,” “sharpen your answer,” “check
your addition;” and
d. criticism – a clear statement that an answer is inaccurate or a
behavior is inappropriate. This category includes harsh criticisms
(“This is a terrible paper”), as well as a milder comment that simply
indicate an answer is not correct (“Your answer to the third
question is wrong.”).

Variety in Process and Content

Effective teachers provide variety in both content and process. In
elementary school, variety in content can involve moving from one subject
area to another. In secondary instruction, the move might be in the same
subject area, such as the switch from memorizing vocabulary to analyzing
symbols in a short story.

Technology as a Tool for Effective Teaching

Today’s technology transport students around the world via virtual

field trips, provides individualized tutorials, and drill-and practices of
certain skills and inexpensively adds millions of books, articles, and videos
to a teacher’s curriculum.

Models for Effective Instruction

Some of these effective teaching strategies include the following:

 Direct teaching. Also called systematic, active, or explicit teaching.

It emphasizes the importance of a structured lesson in which
presentation of new information is followed by student practice and
feedback.
 Flipped instruction (or flipped classroom). It encourages teachers to
combine their creativity with technology to “flip” student learning.
Students access their lessons outside of class time via online
videos.
 Cooperative learning. In a classroom using cooperative learning,
students work on activities in small, heterogeneous groups, and
they often receive rewards or recognition based on the overall
group performance.
 Mastery learning. In mastery learning, students typically work at
their own place, perhaps at a computer terminal or with
individualized materials. The teacher provides assistance and
facilitates student’s efforts, but mastery still remains a student
responsibility.
 Problem-based learning. Learning focuses on authentic or real-life
problems that often go beyond traditional subject areas.
 Differentiated instruction. In differentiated instruction, instructional
activities are organized in response to individual differences, such
as learning style, life experience, and readiness to learn by offering
multiple options for instruction and assessment.

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Lesson 3.2 The Teacher, the Parents and the Community

For many children, the most significant adults in their lives on a

day-to-day basis are immediate family members and caregivers (primarily
parents), and their teachers. Hence, a positive connections between
parents and teachers have been shown to improve children’s academic
achievement, social competencies and emotional well-being when parents
and teachers work as partners. Children also do better in school and at
home (Sheridan, 2018).

Also, a school that has strong constructive relations with the

immediate community is most likely to flourish (MKHabela, 2019). Hence,
the role of the teacher in a positive school community relationship is
extremely important since it is the teacher who is the backbone of the
educational system (Nebor, n. d.).

Joyce L. Epstein, a professor at Johns Hopkins School of Education,

has developed a framework for involvement. She divided this involvement
into six categories. These are: (1) parenting – the first way parents can
support their children’s education is by providing a healthy home, (2)
communicating – keeping parents informed and making it easy for them
to ask questions or express their concerns is vital to parent involvement,
(3) volunteering – one of the most direct ways for parents to involve
themselves in their children’s education is to volunteer in the classroom
and/or school, (4) learning at home – parents and other family members
can be of great educational resources for students, (5) decision-making –
good schools and districts run as a partnership between parents and
educators, and (6) collaborating with the community – parents who are
involved in the community are typically going to be involved in the school
system (Walden University, 2020).

Epstein et al (2009) illustrated how the six types of involvement

can be used to create a welcoming, family-oriented school and to help
students reach important results.

Type 1 – Parenting activities illustrate how schools are working to

increase a family’s understanding of child and adolescent development.
Sample activities include the following:

 strengthen the school climate by helping elementary school parents

discuss age-appropriate topics concerning school and school work
with their young children, and
 assist high school parents to gain confidence about guiding their
teens to apply for college or university, or any postsecondary
education and training.

Type 2 – Communicating activities illustrate ways to increase

two-way communications about school programs and students’ progress.
Sample activities include the following:

 systematize communications in a weekly folder in order to

encourage ongoing exchanges from school to home and home to

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 school. After exploring the folders, parents can send reactions,
ask questions, and respond in other ways, and
 improve parent-teacher conferences by including students, who
lead the discussions about their work, goals, and next steps in
school.

Type 3 – Volunteering activities mobilize parents and others

who can share their time and talents to support the school, teachers, and
student activities at the school or in other locations. Sample activities
include the following:

 increase the number of parent volunteers from groups who

may feel excluded, and
 help parents who cannot volunteer at the school building to
contribute to students’ career awareness and understanding
of how different jobs use school skills.

Type 4 – Learning at Home activities provide families with

information about the academic work that their children do in class, how
to help their children with home-work, and other curriculum-related
activities and decisions. Sample activities include:

 encourage parents and children to enjoy reading and provide

parents with ideas about how to help at home in ways that will
improve students’ reading skills and attitudes about reading, and
 increase student and parent interest in science.

Type 5 – Decision-Making activities enable families to participate

in decisions about school programs that affect their own and other
children. These include the work of parent representatives on the School
Council, School Improvement Team, and various committees. It includes
also the work of leaders and members of a PTA, or other parent
organization. Sample activities include the following:

 increase PTA participation by, periodically, taking PTA meetings and

information to community centers in neighborhoods served by the
school, and
 increase parents’ voices in school processes by including parents
with teachers on a special-project committee of the School
Improvement Team.

Type 6 – Collaborating with the Community activities

encourage the cooperation of schools, families, community groups,
organizations, agencies, and individuals. Connections go in both ways:
Community resources assist the school, students, and families; education,
students, and families can assist the community. Samples include the
following:

 develop mentoring and “pen pal” connections that increase

students’ writing and other school skills, as well as positive adult-
student relationships, and

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  involve families and students in field trips in the community that
enrich learning in sciences and in other subjects.

Lesson 3.3 The Teacher and the Code of Ethics for Professional
Teachers

As explained by DepEd Tambayan (2018), the Code of Ethics for

Professional Teachers serves as guide for teachers specifically to new
teachers for them to exhibit proper behavior to the learning community at
all times. Hence, it is imperative that teachers observe this set of ethical
and moral principles, standards and values. Further, as mandated in the
Code of Ethics for professional teachers, teachers have the responsibility
to interact positively with parents, community members, and other
stakeholder of the school.

Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

Pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e). Article 11, of R. A.. No. 7836. otherwise
known as the Philippines Professionalization Act of 1994 and Paragraph (a), section
6. P.D. No. 223. as amended, the Board for Professional Teachers hereby adopt the
Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

PREAMBLE

Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with
high moral values as well as technical and professional competence in the practice
of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to. observe, and practice this set of
ethical and moral principles, standards, and values.

ARTICLE 1 – SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Section 1. The Philippine Constitution provides that all educational institution shall
offer quality education for all competent teachers committed of it’s full realization
The provision of this Code shall apply, therefore, to all teachers in schools in the
Philippines.
Section 2. This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational
institutions at the preschool, primary, elementary. and secondary levels whether
academic, vocational, special, technical, or non-formal. The term “teacher” shall
include industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing
supervisory and /or administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid levels,
whether on full time or part-time basis.

ARTICLE 11 – THE TEACHER AND THE STATE

Section 1. The schools are the nurseries of the future citizens of the state: each
teacher is a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is
under obligation to transmit to learners such heritage as well as to elevate national
morality, promote national pride, cultivate love of country, instill allegiance to the
constitution and for all duly constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the

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laws of the state.
Section 2. Every teacher or school official shall actively help carry out the declared
policies of the state, and shall take an oath to this effect.
Section 3. In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as much as of his
own. Every teacher shall be physically, mentally and morally fit.
Section 4. Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full commitment and
devotion to duty.
Section 5. A teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any political, religious,
or other partisan interest, and shall not directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect,
or receive any money or service or other valuable material from any person or
entity for such purposes.
Section 6. Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights
and responsibility.
Section 7. A teacher shall not use his position or facial authority or influence to
coerce any other person to follow any political course of action.
Section 8. Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall have privilege of
expounding the product of his researches and investigations: provided that, if the
results are inimical to the declared policies of the State, they shall be brought to
the proper authorities for appropriate remedial action.

ARTICLE III – THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY

Section 1. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the

youth: he shall, therefore, render the best service by providing an environment
conducive to such learning and growth.
Section 2. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively
participate in community movements for moral, social, educational, economic and
civic betterment.
Section 3. Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which
purpose he shall behave with honor and dignity at all times and refrain for such
activities as gambling, smoking, drunkenness, and other excesses, much less illicit
relations.
Section 4. Every teacher shall live for and with the community and shall, therefore,
study and understand local customs and traditions in order to have sympathetic
attitude, therefore, refrain from disparaging the community.
Section 5. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community
informed about the school’s work and accomplishments as well as its needs and
problems.
Section 6. Every teacher is intellectual leader in the community, especially in the
barangay. and shall welcome the opportunity to provide such leadership when
needed, to extend counseling services, as appropriate, and to actively be involved
in matters affecting the welfare of the people.
Section 7. Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and
official relations with other professionals, with government officials, and with the
people, individually or collectively.
Section 8. A teacher possess freedom to attend church and worships as

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appropriate, but shall not use his positions and influence to proselyte others.

ARTICLE IV – A TEACHER AND THE PROFESSION

Section 1. Every teacher shall actively insure that teaching is the noblest
profession, and shall manifest genuine enthusiasm and pride in teaching as a noble
calling.
Section 2. Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality
education, shall make the best preparations for the career of teaching, and shall be
at his best at all times and in the practice of his profession.
Section 3. Every teacher shall participate in the Continuing Professional Education
(CPE) program of the Professional Regulation Commission, and shall pursue such
other studies as will improve his efficiency, enhance the prestige of the profession,
and strengthen his competence, virtues, and productivity in order to be nationally
and internationally competitive.
Section 4. Every teacher shall help, if duly authorized, to seek support from the
school, but shall not make improper misrepresentations through personal
advertisements and other questionable means.
Section 5. Every teacher shall use the teaching profession in a manner that makes
it dignified means for earning a decent living.

ARTICLE V – THE TEACHERS AND THE PROFESSION

Section 1. Teacher shall, at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional
loyalty, mutual confidence, and faith in one another, self sacrifice for the common
good, and full cooperation with colleagues. When the best interest of the learners,
the school, or the profession is at stake in any controversy, teacher shall support
one another.
Section 2. A teacher is not entitled to claim credit or work not of his own. and shall
give due credit for the work of others which he may use.
Section 3. Before leaving his position, a teacher shall organize for whoever
assumes the position such records and other data as are necessary to carry on the
work.
Section 4. A teacher shall hold inviolate all confidential information concerning
associates and the school, and shall not divulge to anyone documents which has
not been officially released, or remove records from the files without permission.
Section 5. It shall be the responsibility of every teacher to seek correctives for what
he may appear to be an unprofessional and unethical conduct of any associates.
However, this may be done only if there is incontrovertible evidence for such
conduct.
Section 6. A teacher may submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism
against an associate, preferably in writing, without violating the right of the
individual concerned.
Section 7. A teacher may apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified:
provided that he respects the system of selection on the basis of merit and
competence: provided, further, that all qualified candidates are given the
opportunity to be considered.

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ARTICLE VI – THE TEACHER AND HIGHER AUTHORITIES IN THE PROFESSIONS

Section 1. Every teacher shall make it his duties to make an honest effort to
understand and support the legitimate policies of the school and the
administration regardless of personal feeling or private opinion and shall faithfully
carry them out.
Section 2. A teacher shall not make any false accusations or charges against
superiors, especially under anonymity. However, if there are valid charges, he
should present such under oath to competent authority.
Section 3. A teacher shall transact all official business through channels except
when special conditions warrant a different procedure, such as when special
conditions are advocated but are opposed by immediate superiors, in which case,
the teacher shall appeal directly to the appropriate higher authority.
Section 4. Every teacher, individually or as part of a group, has a right to seek
redress against injustice to the administration and to extent possible, shall raise
grievances within acceptable democratic possesses. In doing so. they shall avoid
jeopardizing the interest and the welfare of learners whose right to learn must be
respected.
Section 5. Every teacher has a right to invoke the principle that appointments,
promotions, and transfer of teachers are made only on the basis of merit and
needed in the interest of the service.
Section 6. A teacher who accepts a position assumes a contractual obligation to
live up to his contract, assuming full knowledge of employment terms and
conditions.

ARTICLE VII – SCHOOL OFFICIALS TEACHERS AND OTHER PERSONNEL

Section 1. All school officials shall at all times show professional courtesy,
helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers and other personnel, such practices
being standards of effective school supervision, dignified administration,
responsible leadership and enlighten directions.
Section 2. School officials, teachers, and other school personnel shall consider it
their cooperative responsibility to formulate policies or introduce important
changes in the system at all levels.
Section 3. School officials shall encourage and attend the professional growth of
all teachers under them such as recommending them for promotion, giving them
due recognition for meritorious performance, and allowing them to participate in
conferences in training programs.
Section 4. No school officials shall dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher
or other subordinates except for cause.
Section 5. School authorities concern shall ensure that public school teachers are
employed in accordance with pertinent civil service rules, and private school
teachers are issued contracts specifying the terms and conditions of their work:
provided that they are given, if qualified, subsequent permanent tenure, in
accordance with existing laws.

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 ARTICLE VIII – THE TEACHERS AND LEARNERS

Section 1. A teacher has a right and duty to determine the academic marks and
the promotions of learners in the subject or grades he handles, such determination
shall be in accordance with generally accepted procedures of evaluation and
measurement. In case of any complaint, teachers concerned shall immediately take
appropriate actions, of serving due process.
Section 2. A teacher shall recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of
first and foremost concerns, and shall deal justifiably and impartially with each of
them.
Section 3. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be prejudiced nor discriminated
against by the learner.
Section 4. A teacher shall not accept favors or gifts from learners, their parents or
others in their behalf in exchange for requested concessions, especially if
undeserved.
Section 5. A teacher shall not accept, directly or indirectly, any remuneration from
tutorials other what is authorized for such service.
Section 6. A teacher shall base the evaluation of the learner’s work only in merit
and quality of academic performance.
Section 7. In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent love develop
between teacher and learner, the teacher shall exercise utmost professional
discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and preferential treatment of the learner.
Section 8. A teacher shall not inflict corporal punishment on offending learners
nor make deductions from their scholastic ratings as a punishment for acts which
are clearly not manifestation of poor scholarship.
Section 9. A teacher shall ensure that conditions contribute to the maximum
development of learners are adequate, and shall extend needed assistance in
preventing or solving learner’s problems and difficulties.

ARTICLE IX – THE TEACHERS AND PARENTS

Section 1. Every teacher shall establish and maintain cordial relations with parents,
and shall conduct himself to merit their confidence and respect.
Section 2. Every teacher shall inform parents, through proper authorities, of the
progress and deficiencies of learner under him, exercising utmost candor and tact
in pointing out learners deficiencies and in seeking parent’s cooperation for the
proper guidance and improvement of the learners.
Section 3. A teacher shall hear parent’s complaints with sympathy and
understanding, and shall discourage unfair criticism.

ARTICLE X – THE TEACHER AND BUSINESS

Section 1. A teacher has the right to engage, directly or indirectly, in legitimate

income generation: provided that it does not relate to or adversely affect his work
as a teacher.
Section 2. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial

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 matters such as in the settlement of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily
his private financial affairs.
Section 3. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially
interested in. any commercial venture which furnish textbooks and other school
commodities in the purchase and disposal of which he can exercise official
influence, except only when his assignment is inherently, related to such purchase
and disposal: provided they shall be in accordance with the existing regulations:
provided, further, that members of duly recognized teachers cooperatives may
participate in the distribution and sale of such commodities.

ARTICLE XI – THE TEACHER AS A PERSON

Section 1. A teacher is, above all. A human being endowed with life for which it is
the highest obligation to live with dignity at all times whether in school, in the
home, or elsewhere.
Section 2. A teacher shall place premium upon self-discipline as the primary
principles of personal behavior in all relationships with others and in all situations.
Section 3. A teacher shall maintain at all times a dignified personality which could
serve as a model worthy of emulation by learners, peers and all others.
Section 4. A teacher shall always recognize the Almighty God as guide of his own
destiny and of the destinies of men and nations.

ARTICLE XII – DISCIPLINARY ACTIONS

Section 1. Any violation of any provisions of this code shall be sufficient ground
for the imposition against the erring teacher of the disciplinary action consisting of
revocation of his Certification of Registration and License as a Professional Teacher,
suspension from the practice of teaching profession, reprimand or cancellation of
his temporary/special permit under causes specified in Sec. 23. Article HI or R.A.
No. 7836 and under Rule 31, Article VIII of the Rules and Regulations Implementing
R.A. 7836.

ARTICLE XIII – EFFECTIVITY

Self-reflection 3.2. What is your most your significant learning from

the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers?

Activity 3.1. Interview a classmate (using any available technology) on

the following topics and submit a short report of the interview. (30 points)

Classmate interviewed: ________________________________

Date and time of interview: _____________________________
Means of interview (technology or application): _____________

Interview guide:

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 1. What motivated you to take up an education course?
2. What were/are the struggles, problems, issues you have
encountered or are encountering while you are preparing yourself
to become a teacher?
3. What strategies or solutions are you doing or implementing to
address these struggles, problems and issues?

Activity 3.2. Go over the following and assess your own EQ. (30 points)

Indicator Criteria Assessment

Knowing my emotions Always aware of my
emotions
Usually aware
Sometimes aware
Out of touch
Clueless
Managing my emotions Always manage my emotions
Usually manage my emotions
Sometimes manage
My emotions manage me
Motivating myself Always self-motivated
Usually self-motivated
Sometimes self-motivated
I can’t focus (an I don’t care)
Recognizing emotions in Always empathetic
others (Empathy)
Usually empathetic
Sometimes empathetic
I rarely “get it”
Handling relationships I am rich in friendship and
am often asked to lead
activities and events
I have many friends
Actually, I’m pretty
desperate for friends

Ratings
Give 4 points for each time you selected the first choice, 3 points for the
“usual” or “many” second option, 2 points for the “sometimes” selection,
and 1 point for the last choice.
18 – 20 A grade – Wow! Impressive!
14 – 17 B grade – You have considerable skills and talents 10
-13 C grade – Feel free to read further on the topic
5 -9 D grade – This may be a perfect subject to
investigate in greater detail.

Follow-up question: Are you satisfied with your rating? If you earned a
high rating, to what do you attribute your high EQ? If your rating was
lower that you liked, how can you work on increasing your EQ? Submit a
written copy of your answer.

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 1``
Chapter 4. School Culture
Chapter Objectives

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1. discuss the school as an organization, as a social system,

as a learning community, and as a cultural institution and how
they impact individual learners, classrooms, schools, and the
larger community;
2. describe social interactions of schools and their importance
to in building harmonious relationship with the wider
community; and
3. propose plans on how to develop positive school culture.

Self-assessment 4.1. What is your understanding of culture?

Introduction

Deal and Peterson (2016) in their book Shaping School Culture

explains that the culture of an enterprise plays a dominant role in
exemplary performance. Highly respected organizations have evolved a
shared webbing of beliefs, informal folkways, and traditions that infuse
work with meaning, passion and purpose. However, this shared beliefs,
informal folkways and traditions are compromised because educators are
being pressured by policy makers to adopt practices that sometimes-run
counter to the shared beliefs, folkways and traditions. For decades,
educational organizations have been battered by external reform
initiatives. Most of the well-intended efforts of these reforms have striven
to make schools more rational and technically advanced, emulating what
people assume to be more like successful businesses: producing
measurable results. Example of this external reform in the Philippines is
the current K to 12 curricula. But curriculum standardization, increased
testing, and research-based methods have often replaced local discretion,
faith, creativity, and teacher ingenuity. What were once joyful places of
promise and hope have too often become semi-mechanized factories bent
on producing a small fraction of what we people think as a well-educated
person (i.e., board “topnotchers”, receiving awards and recognitions). As
a result, we see the public losing faith in schools and educators losing
faith in themselves.

What should schools do then to bridge educational initiatives with

shared beliefs, folkways and traditions of an organization? According to
Deal and Peterson (2016), we can do this by reviving cultural beliefs and

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practices in the organization because culture in successful organizations is
the glue, the hope, and the faith that hold people together. Williard Waller
(1932) (as cited by Deal & Peterson, 2016) said “Schools have a culture
that is definitely their own. There are, in the school, complex rituals of
personal relationships, a set of folkways, mores, and irrational sanctions,
a moral code based upon them. There are games, which are sublimated
wars, teams, and an elaborate net of ceremonies concerning them. There
are traditions and traditionalists waging their world-old battle against
innovators” (p.96). Waller’s observations are still relevant today in school
organizations. For teachers to contribute to the revival of school culture, it
is important to understand the school as a social institution.

This chapter will describe the school as an organization, the school

as a social system, the school as a learning community, the school as a
cultural institution, and how to creative a positive school culture.

Lesson 4.1 The School as an Organization

The term “organization” is defined as “assembly of people working

together to achieve common objectives through division of labor”
(Organization theory, n.d.), and “group of people intentionally organized
to accomplish an overall, common goal or set goals which have major
subsystem that functions with other subsystems in order to achieve the
overall goal of the organization” (McNamara, n.d.) (cited by Pawilen,
Reyes, Rivera & Sison, 2019).

1. Organizational theories

Organizational theory refers to the sociological study of formal

social organizations, and their interrelationships with the environment at
which they operate. The list of the organizational theories are as follows:
(1) Classical or traditional theory, (2) human relations or neo-classical
theory, (3) decision-making theory, (4) systems approach, (5) Weber’s
ideal bureaucracy, (6) modern theory, (7) Hawthorne study, (8)
contingency theory, (9) motivation theory, (10) decision theory, (11)
scientific management theory, and (12) administrative theory (Bhardawaj,
n.d.; Pawilen, Reyes, Rivera & Sison, 2019).

 Classical Theory. This theory concentrates on the formal structure

of organizations and leaves the human aspect of the organization to
personnel specialists. The emphasis is on structural framework in
which group activities are assigned to people, authority relations
are established, individual efforts are properly coordinated and
responsibilities fixed.
 Human Relations Theory (also known as Neo-classical Theory).
This theory concentrates on the people who are employed in the
organization and their behavior. The manager has to think not only
of job descriptions but also think of why people behave as they do
and what influences their behavior.
 Decision-Making Theory. This theory is attributed to Herbert A.
Simon, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978 for this theory. In

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 this theory, the structure of decision-making is given emphasis. In
an organization, decisions are made at all levels, but important
decisions tend to be made at the higher levels. This theory
recognizes the hierarchical form of organization, that is,
organizational structure must be designed through an examination
of the points at which decisions must be made and the persons
from whom information must be required if decisions are to be
satisfactory.
 Systems Approach. This approach is concerned with the
interaction between the different aspect of the organization, people,
technology, formal structure, the physical setting, and
environment. It emphasizes that we should not deal with problems
in isolation, but consider their interactions.
 Weber’s Ideal of Bureaucracy. This theory is attributed to Max
Weber, a German sociologist. In this theory, the emphasis is on the
order according to rules and laws already implemented. There is an
office hierarchy; a system of super- and subordination in which
there is supervision of lower office by higher ones. When a
bureaucracy is implemented, they can provide accountability,
responsibility, control, and consistency. The hiring of employees will
be an impersonal and equal system.
 Rational System Perspective. In this perspective, there are two
significant parts- Specificity of Goals and Formalization. Goal
specification provides guidelines for specific tasks to be completed
along with a regulated way for resources to be allocated.
Formalization is a way to standardize organizational behavior. As a
result, there will be stable expectations, which create the rational
organizational system.
 Scientific Management Theory. This theory is attributed to
Frederick W. Taylor. In this theory, the emphasis in on maximizing
the amount of output with the least amount of input. This can be
done by (1) dividing work between managers and workers, (2)
provide incentive system (based on performance), (3) scientifically
trained workers, (4) create a science for each individual’s
responsibilities, and (5) make sure work is done on time/efficiently.
 Modernization Theory. The emphasis of this theory is the
cessation of traditional methods in order to pursue more
contemporary effective methods of organization. The modernity of
organizations is to generate maximum profit, through the uses of
mass media, technological innovations, and social innovations in
order to effectively allocate resources for the betterment of the
global economy.
 Hawthorne Study. Elton Mayo and his colleagues were the most
important contributors to this study because of their famous
Hawthorne study from the “Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric
Company between 1927 and 1932.” The Hawthorne study
suggested that employees have social and psychological needs

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 along with economic needs in order to be motivated to complete
their assigned tasks.
 Contingency Theory. This theory claims that there is no best way
to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to make decisions.
An organizational, leadership, or decision-making style that is
effective in some situations, may not be successful in other
situations. The optimal organization, leadership, or decision making
style depends upon various internal and external constraints
(factors).

2. The School as an Educational Organization

The school is one of the social organizations founded by society to

meet educational needs and to maintain educational activities. Schools are
organized educational centers to achieve educational functions of bringing
change to students’ behaviors (Turkkahraman, 2015).

Like any business enterprise, there are requirements in putting up

or establishing a school. In the Philippines for example, an elementary
school business will need (1) a principal and teachers who are all licensed.
The principal must be at least having a master’s degree in education; (2)
at least 500 to 1000 square meters of property which is not traffic
hazardous; (3) must have strong and safe structures, fire escapes, fire
alarm, fire extinguishers on every floor and in every room and corner,
good ventilation, well-kept rest rooms, spacious classrooms, playground
and sport facilities, ample library, laboratory, computer room,
administration offices, teachers’ lounge, and a clean canteen; (4) must
have an organization composed of the school administrator, principal,
head teacher, teachers, librarian, office staff, nurse, security,
maintenance, and canteen staff (this is for the DepEd side of the school
requirements), and a board of trustees officers (chairman, vice-chairman,
secretary, and treasurer), or president and vice-president (this is for the
SEC side of the school requirements), and (5) other pertinent documents
and organizations to complete certain government requirements
(Philippine Guides, 2020).

3. Organizational Structure of the Department of Education

Department Order No. 52, s. 2015, otherwise known as the “New

Organizational Structures of the Central, Regional, and Schools Division
Offices of the Department of Education” contains the provisions of the new
DepEd organizational structure (Department of Education, 2015). Refer to
your USB digital resource material for the pdf copy of DO 52, s. 2015.

Lesson 4.2 The School as a Social System

Merriam Webster (2020) defines social system as the “patterned

series of interrelationships existing between individuals, groups and
institutions and forming a coherent whole.” As a social system, the school
aims to prepare students to occupy social roles according to their
capacities after leaving the school (Reddy & Sailakshmi, 2018).

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 To understand how the school works as a social system, you are
introduced to the concept or idea of social systems theory and elements of
the school as a social system.

1. Social Systems Theory

Systems theory, also called “Social Systems Theory,” in social

science, is the study of a society as a complex arrangement of elements,
including individuals and their beliefs, as they relate to a whole (e.g.,
country). Systems theory is also involved in analyzing how society adapts
to its environment through adjustments in its structure, with important
implications for the understanding of the social order (Gibson, n.d.)

Hoy (2013) developed a Social System Model for schools (Figure 1).

Environment

Transformation Process

Structural System
Inputs (Bureaucratic Transformation) Outputs
Environmen Achievement
tal concerns
Job
Learning Teaching
Human and satisfaction
capital
resources Cultural Political Absenteeism
System System Drop out
Mission and (Shared (Power
board policy Orientations) Relations) Overall
Materials quality
and Learning Teaching
methods

Individual System
(Cognition and
Motivation) Discrepancy
between actual
and expected
performance

Figure 3. Social Systems Model for Schools (Source: W.K. Hoy, 2003, 2008,
2011)

2. Elements of the school as a social system

In Figure 3, Hoy (2003, 2008, 2011) (as cited in Hoy & Miskel,
2013) explains that all schools are open systems that comprise of inputs,
the transformation process, outputs, feedbacks and the environment.
These processes involve a network of statuses and roles that defines the
elements of the school as a social system. Reddy and Sailakshmi (2018)
identified some of these elements: (1) the headmaster (or the principal)

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who is at the top of the hierarchy. He or she is responsible for the smooth
functioning of the school, (2) the teachers. Every teacher wields authority
in matters concerning his or her class, (3) extra-curricular activities which
are also for the development of the school as a school organization, (4)
the school management which consists of representatives of the public
who help the headmaster (or principal) and the teachers carry out various
functions in the school as part of the general community, and (5) parents
who, if invited to school functions, the cooperation between the school
and the community increases.

Lesson 4.3 The School as Learning Community

1. Community of Practice

Eckert, Goldman and Wenger (n.d.) in their paper “The School as a

Community of Engaged Learners” mentioned that the school must provide
not only the very best intellectual resources; it must also provide the
social affordances that best support a meaningful community for its
participants—both teachers and students in order to benefit from the
tremendous learning energy that comes with social membership. As a
learning community, schools should foster shared enterprise,
participation, engagement, contribution, connection, experimentation,
inquiry, reflection, identity, and these can be done through the following:

 Shared vision. Individual responsibility is the sense of

connectedness that grows out of membership and participation in a
community. In our learning community, all members—
administrators, teachers, aides and students alike—are mutually
engaged in reflection about their shared mission. All participants,
not just a privileged few, have time for reflection. Vision can thus
be a practice—an ongoing debate, rather than something handed
down. And leadership can be something that is shared and that
spreads through learning.
 Supporting Common Purposes. Rewards within any community
are an inherent part of, and reflection of, community practice. A
community that rewards solo bravado (boasting) will be a
community in which personal success is sought at the expense of,
and in competition with, others.
 Fostering diversity. A school that emphasizes standardized
learning and activity prevents its students from creating meaningful
roles and identities through participation in school. In our ideal
learning community, students are valued for their diverse
backgrounds, experience, abilities, concerns, knowledge, interests
and accomplishments. And activities are conceived in such a way as
to encourage diversity in forms of participation, contribution, and
knowledge.
 Internal Openness. A learning community invites participation by
striving to make itself transparent to its members. Members find
easy access to the resources they need in order to be full
participants: information, connections, opportunities. And with

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 direct access to people, places, and activities, members’
participation brings a sense of what the community is about, what
possibilities it holds, what their own futures can be.
 Openness to the world. It is part of the school’s purpose to help
students forge connections between school, their home
communities, and the global community—and to develop strong
identities as members of all of these communities. To do this, the
school must be open to the world at large, enabling connections
between participation in school and participation in surrounding
communities.
 Freedom to experiment. Active and engaged learning involves
the risk of error. Schools must encourage students to take risks,
and provide support for interpreting and building on error. It is the
quality of the risk taken—the potential that the risk offers for
learning—that should be rewarded, rather than the glossiness or
ease of the success.

2. Learning Action Cells

The Learning Action Cell (LAC) is a K to 12 Basic Education Program

School-Based Continuing Professional Development Strategy for the
Improvement of Teaching and Learning (DO No. 35, s. 2016). LAC is a
continuing development program of DepEd for its teaching personnel
based on the principles of lifelong learning and DepEd’s commitment to
the development of teachers’ potential aimed towards their success in the
profession. The LAC functions primarily as a professional learning
community for teachers that will help them improve practice and learner
achievement (Department of Education, 2016). Refer to your USB digital
resource material for the pdf file of DO No. 35, s. 2016 and read to
understand the details of LAC.

3. Professional Learning Communities

The Great Schools Partnership (2014) defines professional learning

communities, or PLC as a group of educators that meets regularly, shares
expertise, and works collaboratively to improve teaching skills and the
academic performance of students. The term is also applied to schools or
teaching faculties that use small-group collaboration as a form
of professional development. If PLCs are managed well, these teams
can help teachers innovate in the classroom and improve student
outcomes (Miller, 2020).

Professional learning communities are often characterized by

the following features (Deal & Peterson, 2016):

 a collective sense of purpose;

 teacher influence is key decision rituals;
 concerted effort linking instruction to purpose;
 shared dedication to unremitting perfection; and
 a sense of shared responsibility for student learning.

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 The PLC as a learning team constantly engages in a cycle of
learning: analyzing data, setting goals, and learning individually
and collaboratively, as well as implementing and adjusting
practices to meet the needs of all learners. This process allows
teachers to try new teaching practices and discover what is
working and what is not (Miller, 2020).

The K-12 Blueprint (2014) identified three components of a

successful PLC.

First component. A PLC should be an environment in which the

faculty learns from each other and works together as a unit. The staff
studies a topic together and determines collectively how to apply their
new learning. At all levels of the school organization, professionals in the
school work collaboratively and continually to learn together and apply
their learning for the benefit of all students.

Second component. Collaboration is the second component of a

PLC. Staff members must learn from one another and attend outside
professional-development offerings, assuming that no one staff member is
smarter than the collective staff. Sharing their classroom practice provides
the opportunity for members to give and receive feedback, contributing to
their learning and development.

Third component. Dedication to results is the final component of a

successful PLC. Instead of merely sharing data, educators and
administrators actively respond to data. This requires ongoing assessment
of programs and initiatives in the school, and common formative
assessments are vital. Teachers meet weekly to share status reports of
their common assessments. During these sharing sessions, the focus is
not necessarily on the teacher whose performance indicators are low but
on creating an atmosphere where the success of others can be shared and
replicated.

Lesson 4.4 The School as Cultural Institution

1. Defining Culture
Schein and Schein (2017) defines culture as “as the accumulated
shared learning of that group as it solves its problems of external
adaptation and internal integration; which has worked well enough to be
considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the
correct way to perceive, think, feel, and behave in relation to those
problems. This accumulated learning is a pattern or system of beliefs,
values, and behavioral norms that come to be taken for granted as basic
assumptions and eventually drop out of awareness” (p. 21).

Other definitions of culture (TAMU People, n.d.).

 Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience,

beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of
time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material

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 objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course
of generations through individual and group striving.
 Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large
group of people.
 Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the
totality of a person's learned, accumulated experience which is
socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior through social
learning.
 A culture is a way of life of a group of people--the behaviors,
beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without
thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication
and imitation from one generation to the next.
 Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for
behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the
distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of
action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further
action.
 Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of
people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that
people and are transmitted from generation to generation.
 Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes
the members of one group or category of people from another.

2. Organizational Cultures of School

According to Schein and Schein (2017), to understand how culture

works, we need to differentiate two perspectives. The first perspective is
to look for culture content. What is the culture about, what are the key
values that we need to understand, what are the rules of behavior?
Different people have different biases and assumptions about what is
important. The second perspective is to look at the structure of culture
and develop a perspective on how to analyze the complex landscape we
encounter. Organizational culture can be analyzed at several levels: (1)
visible artifacts (structures and processes, observed behaviors); (2)
espoused beliefs, values, and behavioral norms (ideals, goals, values,
aspirations, ideologies); and (3) taken-for-granted basic underlying
assumptions (unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs and values).

The school as an organization has its own culture characterized by

deeply rooted traditions, values, and beliefs. Some of which are common
among schools and others are unique to a particular school and embedded
in the school’s history and culture (Pawilen, Reyes, Rivera, Sison, 2019).
For example, CCDC’s tagline “Home away from home” has a historical
influence. School culture, therefore, is most seen in the (1) ways people in
the organization relate and work together; (2) the management of the
school’s structure, systems, and physical environment; and the (3) extent
to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the

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nature of the focus (Stoll & Fink, 1996 as cited by Pawilen, Reyes, Rivera,
Sison, 2019).

Typology of School Culture

Stoll and Fink (1996) (cited by Pawilen, Reyes, Rivera, Sison, 2019)
developed a model (Figure 4) in determining the school culture. The
model focused on the school’s current effectiveness using two dimensions:
effectiveness-ineffectiveness, and improving-declining.

Improving Declining

Moving Cruising
Effective

Strolling
Ineffective Struggling Sinking

Figure 4. Typology of School Cultures (Source: Stoll & Fink, 1996)

Moving refers to the following:

 boosting pupils’ progress and development,
 working together to respond to changing context,
 know where they are going and having the will and skill to
get there, and possess norms for improving schools.

Cruising refers to the following:

 appear to be effective,
 usually in more affluent areas,
 pupils’ achieve in spite of teaching quality,
 not preparing pupils for changing world, and
 possess powerful norms that inhibit change.

Strolling highlights the following:

 neither particularly effective nor ineffective,
 moving at inadequate rate to cope with pace of change,
 meandering into future to pupil’s detriment, and
 ill-defined and sometimes conflicting aims to inhibit
improvement.

Struggling centers on the following:

 ineffective and they know it,
 expend considerable energy to improve,
 unproductive “thrashing about,”
 will ultimately succeed because they have the will, if not the
skill, and often identified as “failing,” which is not
motivational.

Sinking refers on the following:

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  ineffective due to norms of isolation, blame, self-reliance,
and loss of faith – theses inhibit improvement,
 staff unable to change,
 often in deprived areas where they blame parenting or
unprepared children, and need dramatic action and
significant support.

3. School Vision, Mission and Values

The vision statement describes where the organization wants to be

in the future; the mission statement describes what the organization
needs

to do now to achieve the vision. The vision and mission statements must
support each other, but the mission statement is more specific. The values
statement defines what the organization believes in and how people in the
organization are expected to behave—with each other, with customers
and suppliers, and with other stakeholders. It provides a moral direction
for the organization that guides decision making and establishes a
standard for assessing actions (Lumen Learning, n.d.). At the core of a
school’s culture are its mission and purpose—the revered (valued) focus
underlying what people believe, think, and do. Mission and purpose trigger
intangible forces that inspire teachers to teach, school leaders to lead,
children to learn, and parents and the community to have confidence and
faith in their school. Mission and purpose shape and reflect what the
school hopes to accomplish (Deal & Peter, 2016).

Each school and school system has its own vision, mission and
values statements. The Department of Education (DepEd), the agency
that governs basic education in the Philippines, created their vision,
mission and values statement that should be reinforced in all the public
schools in the Philippines. Private schools have their own vision, mission
and values statements. Figure 5 shows DepEd’s vision, mission and core
values (Pawilen, Reyes, Rivera, Sison, 2019).

The DepEd Vision The DepEd Mission

We dream of Filipinos who To protect and promote the right of

passionately love their country and
whose values and competencies
enable them to realize their full
potential and contribute
meaningfully to building the nation.
As a learner-centered public
institution, the Department of
Education continuously improves
itself to better serve its stakeholders.
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every Filipino to quality, equitable,
culture-based, and complete basic
education where:
Students learn in a child-friendly,
gender-sensitive, safe, and motivating
environment.
Teachers facilitate learning and
constantly nurtures every learner.
Administrators and staff, as stewards
of the institution, ensure an enabling
and supportive environment for
effective learning to happen.
Family, community, and other
stakeholder are actively engaged and
share responsibility for developing life-
 DepEd Core Values
Maka-Diyos
Maka-tao
Makakalikasan
Makabansa
Figure 5. DepEd’s Vision, Mission, Core Values

Lesson 4.5 Creating Positive School Culture

Raudys (2018) enumerated 11 ways on how to build a positive

school culture. Whether you will become a teacher or an administrator in
the future, these processes of developing a positive school culture are
useful.

1. Create meaningful parent involvement. Generating clear, open

communication with the parents of your students can help you avoid
misunderstandings and remove feelings of mistrust or hostility.
Involve parents through offering them a platform of bringing out their
concerns, not only during parents-teachers’ meetings, but also other
activities such as organizing workshops, seminars, trainings, and
other school activities.
2. Celebrate personal achievement and good behavior. It is not
only for students, but also teachers, and other school personnel.
One way to generate more positive reinforcement from school
personnel and teachers is to set goals for the number of compliments
each member has to give during the day or week. Encourage them to
give specific compliments that highlight what each individual student
has done well.
3. Establish school norms that build values. While school and
classroom rules has to be made clear to all students, creating school
norms that focus on building positive values in your class, helps
students to learn, not just what they should and should not do,
but why they should or should not do it.
4. Set consistent discipline. When rules are not followed, discipline
must be administered. However, broadening the range of discipline
methods can help encourage a positive school culture. Try a more
proactive approach to discipline. Giving a student detention after bad
behavior teaches him that he did something wrong. But giving him a
task that helps correct the wrong teaches him what he should have
done instead.
5. Model the behaviors you want to see in your school. All changes
have to start from the top. This means that when you interact with

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 teachers, students, and other school personnel, you need to be an
example of the behavior that you want to see in your school.
6. Engage students in ways that benefit them. Schools that help
students develop essential social skills are preparing them fon an
even deeper level for their future after graduation. One way
to engage students and develop these types of skills is through
social-emotional learning. Throughout the day, encourage teachers to
include activities that help students develop qualities such as
empathy, reliability, respect, concern, and a sense of humor.
7. Create rituals and traditions that are fun for students and
teachers. The school day — and school year — should be punctuated
with time for fun. This helps students engage with each other in
positive events and builds morale in school.
8. Encourage innovation in the classroom. Innovation in the
classroom starts with you being the school leader in your classroom
or in your school.
9. Professional development for teachers. Students are not the only
people in your school who should be learning. Helping teachers to
develop their skills will encourage a positive school culture by giving
them the ability to improve their craft.
10. Maintain the physical environment of your school. The
physical surroundings of students and teachers has a huge impact on
the culture of your school.
11. Keep tabs on your school’s culture, and make adjustments
when necessary. As a school leader, whether in the classroom or in
the school, you need to stay informed of what’s going on in your
school, and understand the attitudes and atmosphere that permeate
the hallways and classrooms.

Activity 4.1 Refer to the organizational theories. Identify the emphasis

and applications of each theory. (30 points)

Theory Emphasis of the Application of the

theory theory
1. Classical theory
2. Human relations theory
3. Decision-making theory
4. Systems approach
5. Weber’s ideal of bureaucracy
6. Rational system perspective
7. Scientific management
theory
8. Modernization theory
9. Hawthorne study
10. Contingency theory

Group Work 4.1 Choose a partner (classmate). Together, craft a sample

community of practice program for CCDC. Refer to lesson 4.3. Use the
following template as your guide: (50 points)

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 Indicator Sample activities on how CCDC can
implement the identified indicator.
Provide specific details.
Shared vision
Supporting common purposes
Fostering diversity
Internal openness
Openness to the world

Group Work 4.2: Refer to lesson 4.4. What school culture did you
observed at CCDC among the following groups according to the identified
criteria? (50 points)

Group How they How The extent (range,

relate and management/ magnitude) to which
work administration they provide and
together manages them assist learning
Management
(Deans,
Program
Coordinators,
Principals)
Teaching
personnel
(Teachers)
Non-teaching
personnel
(Offices)
Students

Chapter 5. Organizational Leadership

Chapter Objectives

After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

1. describe leadership;
2. compare and contrast the different types of leadership;
3. discuss the role of teachers in educational reforms; and
4. discuss the importance and contribution of school
leadership in educational reforms.

Self-assessment 5.1. Who is a good leader to you?

Lesson 5.1 Defining Leadership

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 There are many definitions of “leadership” according to the context
by which it is being utilized and practiced. For House, Hanges, Javidan &
Gupta (2004), leadership is culturally contingent (dependent on). That is,
view on the importance and value of leadership vary across culture.
Leadership has also been described as the focus of group processes,
where the leader is regarded as central to the overall function of what a
group is trying to achieve or has also been viewed as an individual activity
that is heavily influenced by a leader’s personal traits or characteristics,
which they can use to get others to do things (Miller, 2018).

Northouse (2016) (as cited by Miller, 2018) identified four central

components associated with leadership:
• leadership is a process—can impact both leader and
followers,
• leadership involves influence—the degree to which leaders
can move individuals to achieve or even surpass their goals,
• leadership occurs in groups—there need to be followers for
there to be leadership, and
• leadership involves common goals—focus on
individuals/activities that have a mutual purpose.

A more comprehensive definition is provided by Hoy and Miskel

(2005) (cited by Miller, 2018). They define leadership as a “social process
in which a member or members of a group or an organization influence
the interpretation of internal and external events, the choice of goals or
desired outcomes, organization of work activities, individual motivation
and abilities, power relations and shared orientations. “ (p. 377)

Lesson 5.2 Types of Leadership

Martinuzzi (2019) enumerated the seven most common leadership

styles.

1. Autocratic Style. Generally, an autocratic leader believes that he

or she is the smartest person at the table and knows more than
others. Autocratic leaders make all the decisions with little input
from team members.
2. Authoritative Style. The authoritative leadership style is the mark
of confident leaders who map the way and set expectations, while
engaging and energizing followers along the way. Authoritative
leaders take the time to explain their thinking. They do not just
issue orders, they allow people choice and latitude on how to
achieve common goals.
3. Pacesetting Style. This style describes a very driven leader who
sets the pace as in racing. Pacesetters set the bar high and push
their team members to run hard and fast to the finish line.
However, while the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in
getting things done and driving for results, it is a style that can hurt
team members. For one thing, even the most driven employees
may become stressed working under this style of leadership in the
long run.

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 4. Democratic Style. Democratic leaders share information with
employees about anything that affects their work responsibilities.
They also seek employees' opinions before approving a final
decision. There are numerous benefits to this participative
leadership style. It can engender (procreate) trust and promote
team spirit and cooperation from employees. It allows for creativity
and helps employees grow and develop. A democratic leadership
style gets people to do what you want to be done but, in a way,
that they want to do it.
5. Coaching Style. A leader who coaches views people as a reservoir
of talent to be developed. Leaders who use a coaching style open
their hearts and doors for people. They believe that everyone has
power within themselves. A coaching leader gives people a little
direction to help them tap into their ability to achieve all that they
are capable of.
6. Affiliative Style. The affiliative leadership approach is one where
the leader gets up close and personal with people. A leader
practicing this style pays attention to and supports the emotional
needs of team members. The leader strives to open up a pipeline
that connects him or her to the team.
7. Laissez-Faire Style. The laissez-faire leadership style is at the
opposite end of the autocratic style. Of all the leadership styles, this
one involves the least amount of oversight. On the surface, a
laissez-faire leader may appear to trust people to know what to do,
but taken to the extreme, an uninvolved leader may end up
appearing aloof. While it is beneficial to give people opportunities to
spread their wings, with a total lack of direction, people may
unwittingly drift in the wrong direction—away from the critical goals
of the organization.

Lesson 5.3 The Teacher as Leader of Educational Reforms

In the educational arena, it is often claimed that success or failure

of the school system is explained by the type of leadership. (Saleh &
Khine, 2014). Since, teachers are the backbone of the education system
(Raiza, 2012), they are instrumental in implementing educational reforms.
Therefore, they too are school leaders who are expected to act as agents
of change and facilitators to improve the school culture and its
effectiveness by transforming the professional learning community. In
elementary and secondary schools, the principal remains the designated
leader of the school, but today, leadership is distributed across different
people and situations. Leadership effectiveness depends on how this
influence promotes leader and teacher learning (and sometimes parent
learning), in ways that improves the engagement, learning and well-being
of all students. This is not the work of one person. Distributing leadership
does not mean the principal delegates responsibility to others and remains
aloof from what is happening in students’ learning environments. It
involves interacting with teachers and developing relevant materials,
routines and structures to promote learning (Timperley, 2011 cited by

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Friese, Saar, Park, Marcotte, Hampshire, Martin et al., 2015 ). Hence,
instructional leadership is no longer solely for the principals; teachers also
exercise instructional leadership.

Instructional leadership is a deliberate process of behaviors and

practices that promote teacher instructional improvement and
effectiveness and are tightly aligned to students outcomes (Alig-Mielcarek
& Hoy, 2005; Robinson et al., 2008; Supovitz & Buckley, 2008 cited by
DiPaola & Hoy, 2015). Alig-Mielcarek (2005) (cited by DiPaola & Hoy,
2015) identified a model of instructional leadership that consists of three
primary dimensions: (1) defines and communicates shared goals, (2)
monitors and provides feedback on the teaching and learning process, and
(3) promotes school-wide professional development. Teachers as
instructional leaders can utilize these dimensions to implement
educational reforms: (1) defining and communicating shared goals.
Teachers can share in establishing a clear vision and direction for the
school and develop specific goals that are shaped and valued by
stakeholders of the school, (2) monitoring and providing feedback on the
teaching and learning. Teachers can foster an academic school climate
focused on teaching and learning, which includes both coordinating and
evaluating the curricula and instructional program, and (3) promoting
school-wide professional development. Teachers have to recognize the
importance and value of professional learning for them to participate in it.

Pawilen, Reyes, Rivera and Sison (2019) identified areas

of teacher leadership involvement. These are: (1) teacher leadership
involves administrative function, (2) teacher leadership involves
collaboration, (3) teacher leadership includes sharing of best practices,
and
(4) teacher leadership includes role-modeling.

As instructional leaders, how can teachers choose their leadership

styles? According to Martunizzi (2019), knowing which leadership works
best for you is part of a good leaders. She recommended the following in
choosing what leadership style works best for you: (1) know yourself, (2)
understand the different leadership styles, (3) practice being a leader
because practice makes a leader, and (4) develop your leadership agility.
Lesson 5.4 School leadership

The interest of school policy-makers in educational accountability

has focused the public’s attention increasingly upon the performance of
schools. Previous reform advocates and the public has emphasized on
school performance that is largely interpreted in terms of examination
results. However, in recent years, school performance has taken on a
wider interpretation to include various domains such as values-based
learning, academic value-added, physical and aesthetics, and character
development. Other Asian countries, such as Japan and Korea, are slowly
transforming their education systems in that way. There is already the
shift from a traditional teacher-directed teaching to a student-centered
approach. This involves moving toward self-directed, engaged, and
creative ways of learning (Wong, B., Hairon, S., & Ng, P. (2019). The
Philippine has also slowly shifted in that direction but there is still much to

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reform and initiatives needed to improve academic performance of
students in the Philippines. This is evident in international assessments
participated by the Philippine, where the Philippine got low results
compared to other countries.

One initiative involves an analysis of school leadership in the

context of instructional leadership. There are two general concepts of
instructional leadership according to Wong, Hairon, & Ng (2019), one is
narrow while the other is broad. The narrow concept defines instructional
leadership as actions that are directly related to teaching and learning.
The broad view of instructional leadership includes all leadership activities
that indirectly affect student learning such as school culture and
timetabling procedures. These might be considered to be aspects of
leadership that have impact on the quality of curriculum and instruction
delivered to pupils.

Leithwood, Sun and Pollock, K. (2017) conceptualized “The Four

Paths Framework” of school leadership (Figure 6).

Rational Path
(e.g. Focuses Instruction)
School-wide
Experience
Emotional Path
(e.g. Collaborative Teacher,
Efficacy, Trust)
Leadership Student
Practice Learning
Organizational Path
(e.g. Academic Optimism)
Classroom
Experience
Family Path
(e.g. Family Educational
Culture)
Figure 6. The Four Paths Framework of School Leadership
(Source: Leithwood, K., Sun, J., & Pollock, K., 2017).
This framework is premised on assumptions about leadership as the
exercise of influence and recognition (Hallinger & Heck 1996, 1998) of
such influence on students as indirect. As the figure indicates, leaders’
influence “flows” along four “paths” to reach students – Rational,
Emotional, Organizational and Family paths. Each of these paths is
populated by key conditions or variables which (a) can be influenced by
those exercising leadership and (b) have relatively direct effects on
students. Conditions or variables on the Rational Path are rooted in the
knowledge and skills of school staff members about curriculum, teaching,
and learning – the technical core of schooling. The Emotional Path
includes those feelings, dispositions, or affective states of staff members
(both individually and collectively) shaping the nature of their work, for
example, teachers’ sense of efficacy. Conditions on the Organizational

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Path include features of schools that structure the relationships and
interactions among organizational members including, for example,
cultures, policies, and standard operating procedures. On the Family Path
are conditions reflecting family expectations for their children, their
culture and support to students, and community orientations toward
school and general education (Leithwood, Sun & Pollock, 2017).

Self-reflection 5.1. As a pre-service teacher, what is the importance of

learning about the following topics: (a) school culture, and (b)
organizational leadership?

Activity 5.1 Refer to Lesson 5.1 and Lesson 5.2. (30 points)

Identify based on your observation the predominant leadership styles of

the following groups at CCDC and the indicators that you considered in
deciding their leadership style. (20 points)

Group Predominant What indicators or reason

leadership style did you consider for
choosing the leadership
style?
Elementary teachers
High School teachers
College teachers
Top Management
(president, vice-
president)
Middle management
(deans and program
coordinators)
Assess your own leadership style. (10 points)
Your own leadership style and why
did you say so.
What leadership style would you
like to develop? Why?

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