SWfr lFormgfrysics h

*Ia,[eSimp
CapeUrtit 2

PrestonKissoon
DiplomaEducation,
BSc.(Physics),
DiplomaEngineering(UK
Engineering
Council)

A n y u n a u t h o r i z ecdo p y i n go f t h e
c o n t e n t so f t h i sb o o kw i l l b e i n
v i o l a t i o no f t h e I n t e l l e c t u aPl r o p e r t y
R i g h t sa c t o f T r i n i d a da n dT o b a g o

T o o r d e rc o p i e so f t h i s b o o k ,p l e a s e
c a l l 7 8 7 - 9 1 5 0o r e m a i l:

k p r e s 1 8@
2hotmail.com

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 CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE

E l e c t r o m o t i vfeo r c ea n d P o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e

Resistivity

ElectriC
c ircuita
s n dC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 12

Kirchoff'sLaws 18

Resistance 28

Electrostatics 44

Capacitors 61

M a g n e t i cF i e l d s 78

M a g n e t i cF o r c e s 86

Electromagnetism 93

HallEffect 97.

E l e c t r o m a g n e tIincd u c t i o n 99

Alternating
current 113

Semiconductors 121

O p e r a t i o n aAl m p l i f i e r s I29

D i g i t aE
l lectronics 159

Photoelectricity 185

X-Rays 197

L i n eS p e c t r a 204

AtomicStructure 209

Radioactivity 222
 %of,ufe1
tr fectricityanf,%-agnetism
I M P O R T A NFTO R M U L A E

(1-)Quanti.tyof Electri"c charge Q : It

W
( 2 ) P o t e n t i a l D t f f e r e n c eV - =, *
Q
^v2
(3) Electri.calPower P : IV : I'R :
T
RA
(4)Resi.stivi.ty p :
I
I
((s)Dri.ft uelocity v -
71EA
QtQ'
(6)Electrostattc Force on each of 2 potnt charge F -
4rctsrz
Q
(7)Etectrtcf teld due to apoint charge Lr :- ,
' Av E
ttesQ

( B ) E L e c t r i .Pco t e n t t a ld u e t o a p o i n t c h a r g e , -
#
( 9 ) C a p a c i t a n c eC - ?
V
eA
( 1 0 ) F o r a p a r a l l e l p l a t e c a p a c t t o r , C-
z
( 1 1 )E n e r gsyt o r e d o r- r y
t na c a p a c i . tW -y -y
222C
(Iz)TlveeCapaci,tors
tn rrrrc, ! - : +: +:
\.r. cI c2 c3
-
(1,3)Threeapaci.torsi"nParallel C7 Cr * Cz* Cz

: -
( 1 4 ) W h e no c a p o c i t o r d i s c h a r g e s Q Q o e - ' l c n; V : Voe-'lcn;I : I o e - t l c n'
 ELECTRICITY

A b a s i ce l e c t r i c asly s t e mh a sf o u r ( 4 )m a i np a r t s :

( 1 ) T h es o u r c ee ' g ' b a t t e r y w
- h i c hi s u s e dt o p r o v i d ee l e c t r i c aeln e r g y ;
t h i si s c a l l e da n
ACTIVE D E V I C,Ea si t s u p p l i e es n e r g y .
( 2 ) T h el o a d -e ' g .a r e s i s t o rl-t a b s o r b os r converte s l e c t r i c aeln e r g ya n d i s c a l l e da PASSIVE
DE V I C E .
( 3 ) T h et r a n s m i s s i osny s t e mw - h i c hi s a s e to f c o n n e c t i nign s u l a t e w
d i r e st h a t c o n n e c t tsh e
s o u r c e . t toh e l o a d .
(a) The controlsystem-eg. A switchto controlthe periodsfor whichthe active
device
s u p p l i etsh e p a s s i v d ee v i c e .

The e.m.f.in a circuitis associated

with the totaramount of energy that is availablefrom the
activedevicein the circuit'.The e.m.f.of a sourceis
definedas the TOTALenergyper coulomb
it deliversround a circuitjoinedto it.

Theterminalpotentialdifferencein a circuitis associated

with the amountof electrical
energyavailableto the passivedevicesin the circuit.
The terminatpotentialdifferenceof a- .
sourceis'definedas the amountof energyper coulomb
it deliversto the EXTERNALcircuitto
which it is connected.

I l n t h e c a s eo f a n e l e c t r i cf i e l d ,t h e p . d .b e t w e e nt w o p o i n t si n t h e f i e l d
i s t h e w o r k d o n eo n u n i t
c h a r g ea s i t i s m o v e db y t h e f i e l df r o mo n e p o i n tt o t h e
other)
A n ya c t i v ed e v i c es u c ha sa b a t t e r y h, a si n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e
t o t h e i n t e r n am l o v e m o not f c h a r g e .
w h e n t h e d e v i c ei s n o t c o n n e c t e tdo a c i r c u i t , , a ntdh u s
d o e sn o t h a v ea c u r r e n t t h r o u g iht , t h e
p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e ni t st e r m i n a l si s e q u a lt o i t s e m f .
H o w e v e rw, h e nt h a t d e v i c eh a sa
c u r r e n t h r o u g hi t , t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e ni t st e r m i n a l si s l e s st h a n i t s e m f .
T h i si s
becausp e a r to f t h e e m f i s d r o p p e da c r o s st h e i n t e r n a l
resistanca en, dt h e r e s ti s d r o p p e d
a c r o s st h e l o a do r e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e .
L e t t h ei n t e r n arl e s i s t a n cbee r a n dt h e e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n coer l o a db e R .l f t h e e m f o f t h e s o u r c e
i s E a n dt h e c u r r e n it n t h e c i r c u i its l , t h e n :

E=lr+lR

l o a da n di s t h e t e r m i n apl . d . a n d i s u s u a l l y
H e r e t, h e q u a n t i t yl R r e p r e s e n t s t hpe. d .a c r o s s t h e
represented by V. The quantity(lr), represents the voltageacrossthe internalresistance of the
battery.

H e n c ew e c a nw r i t e E = V + l r .

lf however,a currentis beingsuppliedto the battery, then V = E + lr. Thiscan occurwhen the
battery in questionis connectedto anotherone of a highere.m.f.

Electriccharge:

l f a c o n s t a nct u r r e n tI ( A )f l o w si n a c i r c u i ft o r a g i v e nt i m e t ( s )i n a c i r c u i tt,h e n t h e q u a n t i t yo f
c h a r g eQ t h a t w o u l dh a v e f l o w e d p a s ta n yp o i n ti n t h e c i r c u i ti,s g i v e nb y Q = I t .

T h eu n i t o f e l e c t r i c h a r g ei s t h e C o u l o m b( C ).

The Coulombis definedas the total chargethat would haveflowed pasta point in a circuit
after one secondif a constantcurrentof 1 Ampereflows throughthat point.

T h eC o u l o m bi s t h e r e f o r ed e f i n e da st h e A m p e r es e c o n d .

i.e.1C= l-As.
Letthe internalresistance be r and the externalresistanceor loadbe R. lf the emf of the source
i s E a n dt h e c u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u i ti s l , t h e n :

E=lr+lR

l o a da n di s t h e t e r m i n apl . d . a n d i s u s u a l l y
H e r e t, h e q u a n t i t yl R r e p r e s e n t s t hpe. d .a c r o s s t h e
represented by V. Thequantity(lr), represents the voltageacrossthe internalresistance of the
battery.

Hencewe canwrite E = V + lr .

tf however,a currentis beingsuppliedto the battery, then V = E + lr. Thiscan occurwhen the
battery in questionis connectedto anotherone of a highere.m.f.

Electriccharge:

l f a c o n s t a nct u r r e n tI ( A )f l o w si n a c i r c u i ft o r a g i v e nt i m e t ( s )i n a c i r c u i tt,h e nt h e q u a n t i t yo f
c h a r g eQ t h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dp a s ta n yp o i n ti n t h e c i r c u i ti,s g i v e nb y Q = I t .

T h eu n i t o f e l e c t r i c h a r g ei s t h e C o u l o m b( C ).

The Coulombis definedas the total chargethat would haveflowed pasta point in a circuit
after one secondif a constantcurrentof 1 Ampereflows throughthat point.

T h eC o u l o m bi s t h e r e f o r ed e f i n e da st h e A m p e r es e c o n d

i . e .1 C= 1 A s .
 PotentialDifference:

The unit of potentialdjfferenceis the Volt (V).

1 Volt = l- Jouleper coulomb,or LV=l-JC-

The potentialdifferencebetweentwo pointsin a circuitis definedas the amount of electrical

energyconvertedto other forms of energyper coulombof chargepassingfrom one point to
the other.

T h ev o l t i s d e f i n e da sf o l l o w s :

The potentialdifferencebetweentwo pointsin a circuitis 1 volt if l Jouleof electricalenergy

is convertedto other forms of etectricalenergywhen 1 Coulombof chargepassesfrom one
point to the other.

energy converted W
P otenttal di"ff erence =
char g e a
R e c a lal n d u s et h e f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o n s :

V : I R , P _ I V , P_ I Z RP
, -+, E _I(r+R)

RESISTIVITY:

F o ra u n i f o r ml e n g t ho f c o n d u c t ohr a v i n ga l e n g t hl , c r o s ss e c t i o n aal r e aA a n d r e s i s t a n cRe,t h e

resistivity
of the materialfrom whichthe conductoris made,is givenby the formula:

RA
0-
T
The unitsof resistivity
are Om. Notethat the resistivity
is a propertyof the materialand is
t h e r e f o r ei n d e p e n d e notf t h e d i m e n s i o n sh,e n c ea 2 c m 3s a m p l eo f c o p p e rh a st h e s a m e
r e s i s t i v i toyf a 5 m 3 s a m p l e .

F r o mt h e e q u a t i o na b o v e t, h e R e s i s t i v i t y w o ubl de e q u a lt o t h e r e s i s t a n ci e
f the length'l'was
L m a n dt h e c r o s ss e c t i o n aal r e aw a s 1 m 2 '
Henceresistivity can be definedasfoilows:

I The Resistivityof a specirnenof materialis the productof its crosssectionalarea

anUits etectricalresistanceper unit length.
i
 DRIFTVELOCITY

s c o n d u c t oAr B i n t h e c i r c u ist h o w n :
C o n s i d ear p . d .b e i n ga p p l i e da c r o s a

A E+

A n e l e c t r i cf i e l di s E i s s e t u p a c r o s sA B i n t h e d i r e c t i o nf r o m A t o B .

E l e c t r ifci e l d sa r e a l w a y sd i r e c t e df r o m p o s i t i v et o n e g a t i v eT. h ee l e c t r i cf i e l di s a v e c t o r
quantity.

E l e c t r o nisn t h e c o n d u c t oar r et h e n a c c e l e r a t ei dn t h e d i r e c t i o n- E , ( e x p l a i w
n h y ), a n di n t h e i r
) u t t h e y c o n t i n u et o
m o t i o n ,t h e y c o n s t a n t lcyo l l i d ew i t h a t o m s( c a u s i nhge a td i s s i p a t i o n, b
movetowardsA with an avbrasevelocitv calledthe DRIFT VELOCITY.

: h y a r et h e y c o n s i d e r etdo h a v ea n a v e r a g ev e l o c i t y ?
Q u e s t i o nW

A n s w e r: T h e ya r e a c c e l e r a t ebdy t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d, a n dt h e y c o l l i d ew i t h c o n d u c t oar t o m s ,
w h i c hc a u s e s o m ed e c e l e r a t i o nH.e n c et h e v e l o c i t yi s n o t c o n s t a nbt u t i n s t e a dc o n t i n u o u s l y
i n c r e a s easn d d e c r e a s e s .
 Derivati"on of the equation I - nAve

C o n s i d ear s e c t i o no f a u n i f o r ml e n g t ho f c o p p e rw i r e o f c r o s ss e c t i o n aal r e aA , t h r o u g hw h i c ha
c u r r e n tI i s f l o w i n g .

<-- Electronflow

C u r r e n It

Assumethat there are 'n' electronsper unit volume,with eachelectroncarrying

a c h a r g e' e ' a n d e d c hh a v i n ga n a v e r a g e
drift velocity'v'.

T h ev o l u m ep e r s e c o n do f e l e c t r o n p
s a s s i ntgh r o u g ht h e p l a n eA i s e q u a lt o A v .

Vol
_- Av
.s
T h e n u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n p
s e r s e c o n dw i l l b e t h e p r o d u c o
t f t h e n u m b e ro f
e l e c t r o np
s e r u n i tv o l u m ea n dt h e v o l u m ep e r s e c o n d .

H e n c et h e n u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n p
s e r s e c o n dw i l l b e g i v e nb y :

A/
t

T h ec u r r e n tI i s d e f i n e da st h e t o t a lc h a r g ef l o w i n gp e r s e c o n d .

_ T otal cltar g e a Ne
t- - nAve
time t f
L
 sheet
TUTORIAL

a c r o s sa 1 . 2 Vs u p p l yw h i c hc a nd e l i v e r1 5 0 0 0 Ci n a o n e h o u r
( 1 ) A c o i lo f w i r e i s c o n n e c t e d
period.
C a l c lua t e
(i) T h ea v e r a g e b y t h e p o w e rs u p p l y .
c u r r e n td e l i v e r e d
(ii) T h et o t a l c h a r g et h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dt h r o u g ht h e w i r e d u r i n gt h e f i r s t8
m i n u t e sa f t e rt h e s w i t c hi s c l o s e d
(iii) T h et i m e f o r w h i c ht h e s t e a d yc u r r e n tm u s tf l o w i n o r d e rf o r t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c
c h a r g et o d r a w nf r o m t h e s u p p l yt o b e 2 2 5 C .
;5 4 s e c o n d s )
@ . I 7A ; 2 0 0 0 C

( 2 ) A d r y c e l lh a sa n e m f o f 1 , . 5 2 Vl t st e r m i n a p l . d .d r o p st o z e r ow h e n a c u r r e n to f 2 5 A
p a s s etsh r o u g hi t . W h a t i s i t i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e( ?r = 0 . 0 6 1 O )

( 3 ) A d i r e c tc u r r e n tg e n e r a t o rh a sa n e m f o f 1 2 0 V t; h a t i s ,i t st e r m i n avl o l t a g ei s 1 2 0 V
w h e n n o c u r r e n ti s f l o w i n gf r o m i t . A t a n o u t p u to f 2 0 At h e t e r m i n a pl . d .i s 1 1 5 V .( a )
W h a t i s t h e i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n creo f t h e g e n e r a t o r(?b )W h a tw i l l b e t h e t e r m i n a l
voltageat an outputof 40A?
(r=0.250V=110V)

( 4 ) N u m b e r1 0 A l u m i n i u m w i r e h a sa d i a m e t eor f 2 . 5 8 m mH . o wm a n ym e t r e so f
n u m b e r l 0a l u m i n i u mw i r e a r e n e e dt o g i v ea r e s i s t a n coef L O ,i f t h e r e s i s t i v i toyf
i s 2 . 8x 1 0 - B O m(. A N S t = ( 1 8 6 m )
aluminium

(b) A w i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef o f 5 0 a n d i s p a s s e dt h r o u g ha n e x t r u d e sr o a st o m a k ei t
. h a ti st h e n e w r e s i s t a n c e ?
i n t o a n e w w i r e t h r e et i m e sa s l o n ga st h e o r i g i n a lW
ANS(r =45O)
( H i n t :T h ev o l u m eo f t h e w i r e i s u n c h a n g e ds ,o t h a t t h e a r e aw i l l c h a n g ef;i n dt h e n e w
a r e ai n t e r m so f t h e o r i g i n aol n e )

(5) Two resistors of 40 and 12Oare connectedin parallelacrossa 22Vbattery,havingan

i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n coef l O . C a l c u l a t(ea ) T h eb a t t e r yc u r r e n t (, b )t h e c u r r e n ti n t h e 4 0
the terminalvoltageof the battery,(d)the currentin the 12Oresistor.
resistor,(c)
(Ans 5.5A;/+:.A;t7V; 1.4A)

10
(6) Threeresistors of 40O,60Q,and1200,areconnected in parallel
andthisparallel
groupisconnected in series
witha 15Oin series
witha 25O.Thewholesystemisthen
connected to.a120Vsource. (a)Thecurrentin the 25O,(b)the p.d.across
Determine
the parallelgroup,(c)the p,d.across
the 25O,(d)thecurrentin the 600, (e)the
currentin the40O.
(2A;4Ov;50V;0.67A;1A.)

(7) Two coilsof wire are madefrom l.0m of wire eachhavinga diameterof 0.05mm.
Oneof the coilsis madeusingcopperwire, while the other is madefrom
aluminiumwire.
Ifthe resistivityofcopperis 1.59x10-8Om and the resistivityof aluminiumis 2.7x
10-80rn,find the resistanceof eachcoil.(Ans:81O;138O)

( 8 ) A l e n g t ho f w i r e h a sa d i a m e t e o r f 0 . 4 5 m ma n da r e s i s t a n coef 4 0 0 0 . F i n dt h e
r e s i s t a n coef t h e s a m el e n g t ho f w i r e i f t h e d i a m e t e irs :
(i) Doubled
(ii) '
T r ip l e d.
(Ans1000; 44.40)

( 9 ) H i g ht e n s i o nc a b l e sh a v ea d i a m e t e o r f 2 c ma n d a 3 0 k ml e n g t hh a sa r e s i s t a n coef - 4 . O .
'
Determine:
(i) T h er e s i s t i v i toyf t h e m a t e r i aul s e di n m a k i n gt h e c a b l e s .
(ii) T h er e s i s t a n coef a n o t h e rc a b l eo f t h e s a m em a t e r i ahl a v i n ga d i a m e t e o
r f 1.5cm
a n d a l e n g t ho f 1 5 0 m .
( A n s4 . I x 1 0 - 8 O m0;. 0 3 6 0 )

(10) O n ep i e c eo f w i r e P h a sa l e n g t hI a n dd i a m e t e d r a n d r e s i s t a n cRe .W h a t i s t h e
r e s i s t a n ci en t e r m so f R f o r a n o t h e rp i e c eo f w i r e Q o f t h e s a m em a t e r i ahl a v i n ga
l e n g t h4 . 5 1a n dd i a m e t e2r . 4 d ( A n s0 . 7 8 R )

TT
 ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS

A g r a p ho f c u r r e n ta g a i n svt o l t a g ef o r a n yp a r t i c u l acro m p o n e n ti ,s n o r m a l l yc a l l e dt h e I - V
c h a r a c t e r i s tfiocr t h a t c o mp o n e n t .

T h e r ea r ea f e w g r o u p so f c o m p o n e n ttsh a t h a v et h e i rd i s t i n cIt- V c h a r a c t e r i s t i casn,dt h e s ea r e

( a ) M e t a l l i c o n d u c t o r s I-V characteristic
for a METALLIC
CONDUCTOR
at constant
( b ) S e m i c o n d u c tD o ri o d e temperature
( c ) F i l a m e nJta m p s .

p.d./v

T h eg r a p hi n d i c a t etsh a t t h e c u r r e n ti s a l w a y sd i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n at ol t h e a p p l i e dv o l t a g e
a n dt h a t w h e nt h e v o l t a g ei s r e v e r s e dt h
, e r ei s n o c h a n g ei n t h e b e h a v i oor f t h e m e t a l l i c
c o n d u c t oirn t e r m so f i t s c o n d u c t i o n

T h i st y p e o f c o n d u c t oirs a l s or e f e r r e dt o a sa n O H M I CC O N D U C T OsRi n, c ei t s g r a p h
i n d i c a t etsh a t i t o b e y sO h m ' sL a wa t a l lt i m e s ,P R O V I D ETD
H A TT H ET E M P E R A T Ul R
SE
C O N S T A N Tt .hI ef t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s ehso w e v e rt,h e r e s i s t a n coef t h e c o n d u c t ow r ill
a l s oi n c r e a s ea,n dt h e g r a d i e not f t h e g r a p hw i l l d e c r e a s eT.h i sd e c r e a s ien g r a d i e n its
d u e t o t h e f a c tt h a t t h eg r a d i e n t - :\ / R- :

1.2
 I - V characteristic for a FITAMENT LAMP.

p.d./v

T h i sg r a p hs h o w st h a t t h e c u r r e n ti s p r o p o r t i o n a l t toh e a p p l i e dv o l t a g eo n l yw h e nt h e r ei s a
r e l a t i v e lsym a l a
l p p l i e dv o l t a g eF. r o mt h e p o i n t ' a ' t ot h e p o i n t ' b ' ,t h e g r a p hi s l i n e a a
r n dt h e
' a '
f i l a m e n tl a m po b e y sO h m ' sl a w o n l yi n t h e r e g i o nf r o m t o ' b ' .

B e y o p d ' a ' a n d ' b ' t hg

e r a d i e not f t h e g r a p hD E C R E A SaEnSdt h i si n d i c a t etsh a t t h e R E S I S T A N C E
I SI N C R E A S I N G .

T h i si n c r e a s ien r e s i s t a n caet t h e h i g h e rc u r r e n t si s e x p l a i n e a
d sf o l l o w sA
: h i g h e rc u r r e n t
m e a n st h a t t h e r ea r e m o r ee l e c t r o nfsl o w i n gp e rs e c o n dw
, h i c hm e a n sm o r ee l e c t r o n cs o l l i d e
w i t h t h e l a t t i c es t r u c t u r eo f t h e t u n g s t e n .

T h en u m b e ro f c o l l i s i o npse r s e c o n di s a l s oa m e a s u r eo f t h e r e s i s t a n coef t h e m a t e r i a l .

A t e a c hc o l l i s i o nt h
, e r ei s a c o n v e r s i oonf s o m eo f t h e k i n e t i ce n e r g yo f t h e e l e c t r o ni n t o h e a t
e n e r g yh, e n c et h e t e m p e r a t u r e
rises.

13
 DIODE
for a SEMICONDUCTOR
I-V characteristic

I/mA

I n t h i sc a s et h e c o n d u c t i ocnu r r e n its i n t h e o r d e ro f m i l l i a m pws h i l et h e a p p l i e d

p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c ies i n t h e o r d e ro f V o l t s .

T h ec o n d u c t i o cnu r r e n ti n t h e r e v e r s ed i r e c t i o ni s z e r oo r i t m a yb e s o s m a l tl h a t i t i s
c o n s i d e r etdo b e n e g l i g i b l e .

l n t h e f o r w a r dd i r e c t i o nt ,h e c o n d u c t i o cnu r r e n tr e m a i n sa t z e r ou n t i lt h e a p p l i e d
voltagereachesa particularvaluecalledthe SATURATION VOLTAGE whichis
a p p r o x i m a t e 0l y. 6 V .

t h e nt h e a p p l i e dv o l t a g er e a c h e as n d e x c e e dtsh e
T h ed i o d eo n l yb e g i n st o c o n d u c w
s a t u r a t i o vn o l t a g e .

e f t h e i n f i n i t e l yh i g h
T h ed i o d ed o e sn o t c o n d u c itn t h e r e v e r s ed i r e c t i o nb e c a u s o
r e s i s t a n ci en t h e r e v e r s ed i r e c t i o n .

I n t h e f o r w a r dd i r e c t i o nt h e r e s i s t a n ci es i n i t i a l l yi n f i n i t eb u t b r e a k sd o w nt o a v e r yl o w
v a l u ew h e nt h e a p p l i e dp o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c ies i n c r e a s eudn t i lt h e s a t u r a t i o vno l t a g ei s
a t t ai n e d .

t4
 THERMISTORS

T h e r m i s t o rasr es p e c i asl o l i dt e m p e r a t u r es e n s o rw
s h o s er e s i s t a n cceh a n g e rsq p i d l ya n d
p r e d i c t a b lwy i t h t e m p e r a t u r eT. h e i rn a m ei s a c o n t r a c t i oonf " t h e r m a l "a n d " r e s i s t o r , , .
There
are basically
two broadtypes,NTC-Negative
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmostlyin
temperaturesensingand PTC-Positive
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmosttyin electriccurrent
control.

T h ec o n v e n t i o n as ly m b o fl o r a t h e r m i s t o irs :
/
+
J

A g r a p ho f R e s i s t a n cvee r s u sT e m p e r a t u ries c a l l e da n R - Tc h a r a c t e r i s t i c

R-Tcharacteristic for a
p . t . c .t h e r m i s t o r
R-Tcharacteristic for a
n . t . c t. h e r m i s t o r

15
 THERMISTORS

T h e r m i s t o rasr es p e c i asl o l i dt e m p e r a t u r se e n s o r w
s h o s er e s i s t a n cceh a n g e rsq p i d l ya n d
p r e d i c t a b lwy i t h t e m p e r a t u r eT. h e i rn a m ei s a c o n t r a c t i oonf " t h e r m a l "a n d " r e s i s t o r , , .
There
are basically
two broadtypes,NTC-Negative
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmostlyin
temperaturesensingand PTC-Positive
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmostlyin electriccurrent
control

T h ec o n v e n t i o n as ly m b o fl o r a t h e r m i s t o irs :
/
+
-J

A g r a p ho f R e s i s t a n cvee r s u sT e m p e r a t u ries c a l l e da n R - Tc h a r a c t e r i s t i c

R-Tcharacteristic
for a
p.t.c.thermistor
R-Tcharacteristic for a
n . t . c t. h e r m i s t o r

15
 Typesof NTCThermistors:

(1) Beadin glass

T h e m o s tc o m m o nf o r m o f t h e t h e r m i s t oirs a b e a dw i t h t w o w i r e sa t t a c h e dT. h eb e a d
d i a m e t ecr a nr a n g ef r o m a b o u t0 . 5 m m( 0 . 0 2 "t)o 5 m m ( 0 . 2 " ) .

Lii::;*t lfifii

Ti-r*l-f-rii::;[t:if ,r'y'i
!"h
t-ll;3.1"i,:":l-t
E il,:-:;::.f:.,:j

M e c h a n i c a ltl hy e t h e r m i s t o irs s i m p l ea n d s t r o n g p, r o v i d i n tgh e b a s i sf o r a h i g hr e l i a b i l i t y

s e n s o rT. h e m o s tl i k e l yf a i l u y em o d ei s f o r t h e l e a dt o s e p a r a t fer o m t h e b o d yo f t h e t h e r m i s t o r
- a n u n l i k e l ye v e n ti f t h e s e n s o ri s m o u n t e ds e c u r e l yT. h es i n t e r e dm e t a lo x i d em a t e r i ails
i n g l a s so r e p o x ye n c a p s u l a t i o n .
p r o n et o d a m a g eb y m o i s t u r es, o i t i s e n c a s e d
, e r m i s t o ras r eo f t e nm o u n t e di n s t a i n l e ssst e e lt u b e s ,t o
L i k eo t h e r t e m p e r a t u rsee n s o r st h
p r o t e c t h e m f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e ni tn w h i c ht h e ya r et o o p e r a t eG . r e a s ei s t y p i c a l l yu s e dt o
t e t w e e nt h e s e n s o a
i m p r o v et h e t h e r m a lc o n t a c b r n dt h e t u b e .
T h e R - Tc h a r a c t e r i s toi cf a t h e r m i s t o cr a nb e m a d em o r el i n e a rb y c o n n e c t i nag r e s i s t oirn
p a r a l l ewl i t h i t .
T l-r+r nt i::lttr Fl+:iti r:rns+

T h ep l o t i n t h e d i a g r a ms h o w st h e
impactof a 2200ohm resistorin
5 :l thernri,:tut'',tiiIrErlrri.llEl
parallelwith a 2252ohm (at 25'C)
rl ._._, !l[tt_lrt re:ri*tr]r
-:r t-
rl'
thermistor
'=
qr
+] =\=\_
1
ii
iL'
|I l'-

I tlel tfrliitLrf ul-llU

10 ill
fiJ
TernPer+tr.tre

1.6
 (2) DiscThermistors:

D i s ct h e r m i s t o ras r e m a d eb y p r e p a r i n tgh e v a r i o u sm e t a lo x i d ep o w d e r sb, l e n d i n g

them
w i t ha s u i t a b lb e i n d e ra, n dt h e nc o m p r e s s i ns gm a l a l m o u n t so f t h e m i x t u r ei n a d i e u n d e r
s e v e r a l t o nos f p r e s s u r eT.h ed i s c sa r et h e n f i r e da t h i g ht e m p e r a t u r etso f o r m s o l i dc e r a m i c
bodies.

A t h i c kf i l m e l e c t r o d em a t e r i a lt,y p i c a l l ys i l v e ri,s a p p l i e dt o t h e o p p o s i t es i d e so f t h e d i s ct o
p r o v i d et h e c o n t a c t fso r t h e a t t a c h m e not f l e a dw i r e s .A c o a t i n go f e p o x y p , h e n o l i co, r g l a s s
i s a p p l i e dt o e a c hd e v i c et o p r o v i d ep r o t e c t i o n
f r o m m e c h a n i c a ln de n v i r o n m e n t a l
s t r e s s eT s .y p i c aul n c o a t e d i s cs i z e sr a n g ef r o m 0 . 0 5i n .t o 0 . 1 0i n .( 1 . 3m m t o 2 . 5m m ) i n
d i a . ;c o a t e dd i s c t h e r m i s t ogr e
s n e r a l lm
y e a s u r 0e . 1 0i n .t o 0 . 1 5i n . ( 2 . 5m m t o 3 . 8m m ) i n
di a .

-\'

H- h= F ;*ri
.LJ*

(3) Rod-shapedthermistors:

R o d - s h a p et h
d e r m i s t o ras r e m a d eb y e x t r u d i n g
a viscouo
s x i d e - b i n d emr i x t u r et h r o u g ha d i e ,
h e a t - t r e a t i ni gt t o f o r m a c e r a m i cm a t e r i a la, p p l y i n g
e l e c t r o d e sa,n d a t t a c h i n gl e a d sR. od
t h e r m i s t o rasr e u s e dp r i m a r i l yf o r a p p l i c a t i o nr se q u i r i n vg e r yh i g hr e s i s t a n caen d / o rh i g hp o w e r
di s s i p a t i o n .

17
 LAWS
KIRCHOFF'S

Kirchoff's FirstLaw :

T h i si s n o r m a l l yc a l l e dt h e j u n c t i o nr u l e ,a n d i t s t a t e st h a t t h e a l g e b r a iscu mo f t h e c u r r e n t sa t a
j u n c t i o ni s z e r o .T h i sm e a n st h a t t h e s u mo f t h e c u r r e n t se n t e r i n ga j u n c t i o n ,i s e q u a lt o t h e
thejunction.
s u mo f t h e c u r r e n t sl e a v i n g

Thisrule impliesthat there is neithera build-up of chargenor a depletionof chargeat a

junction.The rule is thereforean applicationof the conservationof charge.

Sincethe law refersto the algebraic sum of the currents,then the signs(positive or negative)of
t h e c u r r e n t sm u s tb e t a k e ni n t o c o n s i d e r a t i oC n .u r r e n t es n t e r i n gt h e j u n c t i o na r eg i v e na
p o s i t i v es i g n w t h e j u n c t i o na r eg i v e na n e g a t i v e
, h i l ec u r r e n t sl e a v i n g sign.

H e n c ei n t h e a b o v ej u n c t i o n, t h e f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o nc a nb e a p p l i e d :

1 ,+ I s -I +- I s - l r = 0 o r 1 , + I s = I ++ I : + l r

18
 Kirchoff'sSecondlaw

Kirchoff's
2nd Lawstates:

In any closedloop of a circuit,the algebraicsum of the emf's of the sourcesis equalto the
algebraicsum of the potentialdifferencesof the loads;ORthe algebraicsum of all the
voltagesin the loop is zero.

ThissecondLawis an applicationof the conservation

of energy.In its simplestform the
f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i tc a nb e u s e dt o d e m o n s t r a t iet s m e a n i n g .

T h ea l g e b r a iscu mo f t h e e m f ' s i s ( E 1- E z ) .T h em i n u ss i g ni s u s e da s t h ec e l l so p p o s ee a c h
other.

T h eA l g e b r a iscu mo f t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c eiss V r + V , + V r .

secondlaw, (Et - Er) = Vr + V2 + V3

Henceby Kirchoff's

o r ( E t - E r ) = I R r + 1 P 2+ I R a

T h es e c o n dl a w i n d i c a t etsh a t t h e t o t a le n e r g ys u p p l i e db y t h e s o u r c e si s e q u a lt o t h e t o t a l
energyconvertedby the loads.

I n m o s tq u e s t i o n sb,o t h l a w sm u s tb e a p p l i e ds i m u l t a n e o u st loy s o l v eu n k n o w nc u r r e n t s .

19
 W o r k e de x a m p l e s

U n k n o w nc u r r e n t sa n d p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c ei sn a c i r c u i ct o n t a i n i n g t w o r m o r el o o p sc a nb e
s o l v e db y K i r c h o f f 'lsa w su s i n ga t e c h n i q u e
c a l l e dM E S HA N A L Y S I S .

( 1 ) F i n dt h e c u r r e n t h r o u g he a c hr e s i s t oirn t h e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t :

a
6V

s r E P( 1 ):

AssigncurrentsIr and Iz to the individualloops.The directionof the currents-

is not important here.

S T E P( 2 ) ,

Apply Kirchoff s secondlaw to eachloop separatelyso that two sets of

simultaneousequationsinvolving Ir and lz canbe obtained.

S T E P[ 3 ) '

Solvefor Ir andIz.

20
 OV

For loop 1, imagineyourselfwalking aroundthe loop in the direction

of the current
Ir'Remeberthat current flows from a high potential to a low potential and
a negative
sign is usedto indicatea drop in potentialand a positivesign to indicate
a rise in
potential. .

starting from a ,movingto b then to c and back to a, we get:

- 7 l t - 4 - 6= 0 > - 7 l r : 1 0 ; t ' : # . 4 H e n c et , :
T A (anti.clockwi.se)
For loop 2, startingfrom b to d to c and backto b and movingin the direction
of lr*"
get :

-5lz+B+4=0 p 5Iz- 12; Iz = 2.4A

[clockwise)
The current through the 4v battery is equalto lz-[- Ir)=lz+lr=3.83A

The minus sign for Ir indicatesthat the wrong directionwas assignedto it,
and hence
its correctdirectionshouldhavebeen anticlockwisein the loop.

2I
 what happensif we reversethe assumedcurrentsIr and Iz:
Investigate

F o rl o o p( 1 ), i n g o i n g f r o ma t o b t o c a n db a c k t oa :

- 7 h + 6 + 4 = 0 ; H e n c e- 7 l r - - 1 0 D 1 r - | A

Here we get a positivevalue for Ir,which indicatesour assumeddirection was correct.

Considerloop (2) ,in going from d to a to c and back to d:

-5lz -4-B'=0 ; Hence -5lz='J.2> Iz : - -2.4A

+

The minus sign indicatesthat the assumedanticlockwisedirection of Iz was incorrect,and

that it should have been clockwise.

This mesh analysistells us that Ir= +A [anticlockwise)and 12=2.4 A [clockwise)which is

identicalto the result obtainedwhen we initially assumedthat both currentswere
clockwise.

22
Considernow the casewherewe assumeIr to be clockwise,and lztobe anticlockwise
initiallv

F o r l o o p[ 1 J , w eg e t - 7 h - 4 - 6 - 0 ; H e n c e T l l _ - 1 0 , s o t h a t I t :
]e.

Rememberthat the minr, ,ign is used as we drop from a high potential to a low a potential.

Thismeansthat Ir :
I e(anti"clockwi.se)
-1")
F o rl o o p( 2 ) , w eg e t- 5 I z- 4 - B= 0 ; H e n c e- 5 / , - t 2 , s o t h a t I z :
;A

Thismeansthat Iz =?,4 [clockwise)

Theseresultsare identicalto those obtainedwhen we assumeddifferent directionsfor the

currents.

It is thereforesafeto assumethat regardlessof which initial directionswe assumefor the

currents,the results are the same,and that the negativesigns in the answerstell us that we
must reverseour initial directionsof the currents.

23
 SHEET
TUTORIAL

q u e s t i o ntso d e t e r m i n teh e c u r r e n t tsh r o u g he a c ho f t h e b a t t e r i e s :

N o wt r y t h e f o l l o w i n g

(1)
I r =0 . 7 5 A ;

1,1,4
Iz =
rS
-T-
BV

||l
tl
(2)

I r =0 . 7 5 4; b : *A
9
lz:lz-2sA

12V

( 3 ) D e t e r m i n teh e c u r r e n ti n e a c hr e s i s t o r :

S o l u t i o no n p g 2 6

12V

24
(4)

2
,I E
_
O-g A(anttclockwise)

1,1,
/rso : (clockwi"se)
4SA

7
1so: (upwards)
1,SA

(s)

24
I:cr: clockwtse
BA
lrso : 1rca0.29Aclockwise

1so: 0'27A

(6)

Izsa
'10Q : 0.37 7A(anticlo ckwise)

lrso : lrocr
- 0.1 37Aanttclockwi.se

lscr: O.24Aupwards

25
 f o r q u e s t i o n( 3 )
Solution

12V

F o r l o o p [ 1 J ' - 2 0 1 r- 1 0 l 1+ 1 0 1 2- 1 2 = 0 ; - 3 0 1 r+ 1 0 l z= 1 ' 2- t ( 1 )

F o r l o o p [ 2 ) - 2 5 1 2 ' + 6 - 1 , 0+1120 l r - 0 ; - 3 5 1 2+ 1 0 l r = - 6 - s ( 2 )

Solvingsimultaneouslygives:

Multiplyingeq'n (2)by 3 ; 30h -10512= -LB --> (3)

R e w r i t i n g[ 1 ) : - 3 0 h + 1 0 1 2= L 2 t1)

Adding [1J and [3J gives -9512--6; henceIz = 0.063A

Ir= -0.379.The minus sign here indicatesthat the clockwise

direction that we assignedfor Ir was actuallyin the reverse
directionof what it was supposedto be. HenceIrwas 0.379Ain
an anticlockwisedirection.

26
 lroo : Izoa: 0.21A anttclockwi"se

l r s o : / s o : 0 . 0 1 7 Ac l o c k w i s e

I z s a: 0 ' 2 2 7A

(8)

I +e : I oa : 0'77A anttclockwise

1go: lrso : 0'0764 clockwtse

/so : 0.8464 upwards

1 r s 0: 1 s o: 0 . 2 1 Ac l o c k w i s e

It aa : It+a : 0.0066Aclockwise

lrso : 0'2034 downwards

27
 RESISTANCE

S E R I ECSO M B I N A T I O N :

R1

A current Ir leavesthe battery and enters into resistor R1.The current that leavesRL i s I r
and this is equal to Ir by Kirchoff s first law. [The current enteringa componentmust b e
equalto the current leavingit by the principle of conservationof charge)

When Ir enters R2,it leavesasIz,but Iz = It by Kirchoffs First Law.

-
Iz entersR: and the emergingcurrent is I3,but I:= Izby Kirchoffs first Law. Ir = Ir Iz = l :

Kirchoff'sF i r s t
Hencein the seriescircuit,all of the resistorshavethe SAMECURRENT.[By
Law)

By Kirchoff s secondLaw, the e.m.f.of the battery is equalto the algebraicsum of the
voltagesacrosseachof the resistors.

H e n c eE = V t + V z + V : a n d V r = I t R r = l r R r ; V z= l z R z= l r R z ; V : = I : R : = I r R :

By Ohm'slaw, E = IrRr where Ir and Rr representthe total current and total resistance
respectively.

IrRr = IrRr+lrRz+lrR:

If this equationis divided by Ir, w€ get Rr = Rr + Rz + Rs (You must learn this

derivation).

28
 PARALTELCOMBINATION:

T h ed i f f e r e n lto o p sa r e i d e n t i f i e d
w i t ht h e n u m b e r s
h a v i n ga n o v a ls h a p ea r o u n dt h e m .H e n c et h e r ea r e 3
loops.

C o n s i d et h
r e p o i n ta .

T h ec u r r e n te n t e r i n ga i s e q u a lt o I r a n d t h e t o t a l
currentleavinga is equalto

h + Iz+ I: .

By Kirchoffs first law, the total current enteringa

point, must be equalto the total current leavingthe
p o i n t .H e n c e

Ir=lr+lz+l:

l f K i r c h o f f 'sse c o n dL a wi s n o w a p p l i e dt o L o o p1 , t h e nw e g e t E = I r R i

A p p l y i n gK i r c h o f f ss e c o n dl a w t o l o o p z , w e g e t 0 = I r R r - I z R z ;I r R r = I z R z= E

If the secondlaw is now appliedto loop 3 we get,0= IzRz-IsR: I:R: = IzRz=E

;
This applicationof the secondlaw tells us that in a parallelcombination
of resistorsor
other components,the potentialdifferenceacrosseachbranch is the same.

Henceif Vr ;Vz i and V: are the potentialdifferencesacrossRr Rz; and R:

;
respectively,then Vr = Vz=Vs = E

By Ohm'sLaw, ,VtE
It: -V:2_- E ,
-J : _V :E_ E
and T, ,R:T
E
&: ^'t'- R2 R2' R3 R3

Sincelr=lt+lz+

-E+E E- + - ' R 3
E
Rr R1 R2

And hence
1,1,1,I
'R3
Rr Rl R2

29
 DLI V I D E R
T H EP O T E N T I A

of threeterminals,two or more resistors connectedin seriesand

The potentialdividerconsists
a v o l t a g ea p p l i e da c r o s tsh e e n t i r ec o m b i n a t i oonf r e s i s t o r s .
'tap off' fractionsof the appliedvoltage,and in so
Thefunctionof the potentialdivideris to
d o i n g t, o p r o d u c ea v a r i a b l es u p p l yf r o m a s i n g l ed . c .s o u r c e '
a ss h o w n :
c o n s i d etrh e f o l l o w i n gp o t e n t i adl i v i d e rc i r c u i t sc o n t a i n i ntgh r e er e s i s t o r s

dividedby the total

I n c i r c u i t( 1 ) ,t h e c u r r e n t h r o u g he a c hresistoris givenby the total voltage
r e s i s t a n ci e. e .
' I J tr E
Ir : - :
Rr Rr * Rz+ R3

A n dt h e v o l t a g eV r t h a t i s t a p p e do f f i s e q u a lt o :
ERt
Vt : IrRt:
Rr*R2+R3

s i m i l a r l yi ,n c i r c u i t( 2 )t h e v o l t a g eV zt h a t i s t a p p e do f f i s e q u a lt o :

. E [ R 1+ R 2 ]
Vz: It(Rt * Rr) :
R;- &

s u c ha sV r a n d
T i r . .s S o v ee x a m p l es h o w st h a t w h i l et h e s o u r c eh a sa v o l t a g eE ,s m a l l evr o l t a g e
V 2c d nb e o b t a i n e df r o m i t .

30
 THEPOTENTIOMETER

l f i n s t e a do f u s i n gt h r e er e s i s t o risn seriesa one metrelengthof resistance

wire is usedand a
s l i d i n gc o n t a c it s u s e d t, h e n s e v e r atla p p e do f f v o l t a g e cs a nb e o b t a i n e da, n d a v a r i a b l ed . c .
s u p p l yc a nt h u s b e p r o d u c e d .

A st h e s l i d i n gc o n t a c it s m o v e d a l o n gA B ,
t h e r e s i s t a n ci en c r e a s ef sr o m A t o B a n d
hencethe tappedoff voltageincreases
s i n c eV = l R ,w i t h t h e c u r r e n tI b e i n g
c o n s t a ntth r o u g h o utth e e n t i r el e n g t ho f
resistor.
D r i v e rc e l l
\.

T h ew h o l er e s i s t ocr a nb e c o n s i d e r eadsa n
i n f i n i t en u m b e ro f t i n y r e s i s t o rasl t
connectedin series,so that the current
t h r o u g ht h e m i s c o n s t a n t .

W h e na s l i d ew i r e i s u s e da s i n t h e a b o v ea p p l i c a t i o nt h, e p o t e n t i adl i v i d e ri s r e f e r r e dt o a sa
POTENTIOMETER.

T h e b a t t e r yo r c e l lt h a t i s a p p l i e da c r o s st h e e n t i r el e n g t ho f t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e , i s c a l l e d
the
.D R I V E R CELL
D r i v e rc e l l

S t a n d a r cde l l
31
 ONFT H EP O T E N T I O M E T E R
APPLICATIO

( 1 ) M e a s u r e m e not f e . m . f .

i f a n o t h e rc e l l
O n eo f t h e p r i m a r yu s e so f t h e p o t e n t i o m e t eirs i n t h e m e a s u r e m e notf t h e e . m . f .o f a c e l l
c e l l )i s a v a i l a b l e
o f k n o w ne . m . f .( c a l l e da s t a n d a r d

c e l l . S a fyo r e x a m p l et h e s t a n d a r cd e l lh a sa n e . m ' f
l e n g t hi s f o u n df o r t h e s t a n d a r d
F i r s t l yt ,h e b a l a n c e
o f 1 . 1 5 Va, n dt h e b a l a n c ep o i n tw a sf o u n dt o b e 3 6 c m .
the
T h e s t a n d a r dc e l li s t h e n t a k e no u t o f t h e c i r c u i ta n d r e p l a c e db y t h e c e l lo f u n k n o w ne . m . f .a n d
b a l a n c ep o i n ti s a g a i nf o u n d .S a yf o r e x a m p l ea g a i n t, h e b a l a n c ep o i n tw a sf o u n dt o b e 5 4 c m .

D r i v e rc e l l D r i v e rc e l l

S t a n d a r cd e l l C e l lo f u n k n o w n
e.m.f.

T h ec a l c u l a t i ofno r t h e u n k n o w ne . m . f .i s a sf o l l o w s :

l e n g t ho f 3 6 c m .
s a balance
1 . 1 5 Vc o r r e s p o n dt o

1.15
H e n c e1 c m w i l l h a v ea n e q u i v a l e nvt o l t a g eo f E ;

1.15
5 4 c m w i l l h a v ea n e q u i v a l e nvt o l t a g eo f E x 54 =1,.725V

H e n c et h e e . m .f . o f t h e u n k n o w nc e l li s 1 ' . 7 2 5 V

32
 ( 2 1 M e a s u r e m e not f t h e i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c oe f a c e l l :

T h eb a l a n c el e n g t ho f t h e e . m . f .o f t h e c e l li s f i r s tf o u n dw h e nt h e c e l li s o n o p e nc i r c u i ti,. e .n o
l e n g t hi s 6 8 c m
s c o n n e c t etdo i t . S a yf o r e x a m p l et ,h i sb a l a n c e
e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n ci e
D r i v e rc e l l

E
T h e n e x ts t e pi s t o i n s e r ta K n o w nr e s i s t a n cien s e r i e sw i t h t h e c e l lo f e . m . f .E .U s ef o r
e x a m p l ea 2 0 Or e s i s t o rT.h en e w b a l a n c el e n g t hw i l l d e c r e a steo s a y4 6 c m ,f o r t h e
n e w v o l t a g eV
D r i v e rc e l l

T h e e . m . f .E o f t h e c e l ln e e d
not be known in this case

E
R e c a ltlh e f o r mu l aV : 1 R - - R
R*r

VR46
Hence-: :- i
E R*r 68

68R=46R+46r

22R -- 46r, but R =20C), hence 46r = 440Q ; r = 9.560

33
 THEWHEATSTONE
BRIDGE

T h i sb r i d g ec i r c u i w
t a sd e s i g n e tdo p r o d u c ea v e r ya c c u r a t em e a n so f m e a s u r i nrge s i s t a n c e .

I n n o r m a l a b o r a t o r py r a c t i c e
t h e r e s i s t a n coef a c o m p o n e nits d e t e r m i n e d
byapplying
a
p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c a
e c r o s si t , m e a s u r i n g t hceu r r e n t t h r o u g iht , a n dt h e n a p p l y i n gR - y .

H o w e v e rt,h e a b o v em e t h o di n t r o d u c eus n c e r t a i n t i ei ns t h e m e a s u r e m e ndtu et o U o t ht f ' r .

i n s t r u m e n tasn dt h e o b s e r v e r .

T h eW h e a t s t o n eB r i d g eu s e sa n u l lm e t h o d w, h i c hm e a n st h a t t w o o p p o s i n g c u r r e n t sa r e
p r o d u c e dw h o s em a g n i t u d easr e a d j u s t e du n t i lt h e y b a l a n c e a c ho t h e r ,s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t
c u r r e n ti s Z E R Oa, n d a t t h i s p o i n t ,a n u n k n o w nr e s i s t a n ci en t h e c i r c u i ct a nb e d e t e r m i n e d .

A current I leavesthe battery and entersthe junction

of A and B, where it splits into Ir and Iz.

The resistorsA and C are in seriesand thereforethe

samecurrent Ir flows through both of them. Similarly,
the resistorsB and D are in series,and the same
current Iz flows through both of them.

If the resistancesare adjustedso that no current

flows from X to Y then the potential at X is equalto
the potential at Y and a BALANCEPOINTis reached.

This would also mean that the potential difference

acrossA is equalto the potential differenceacrossB.

The p.d.acrossA is equalto IrA and the p.d.acrossB

is equalto IzB.

Henceat the balancepoint IrA = IzB t1)

A l s oa t t h e b a l a n c ep o i n t ,t h e p . d .a c r o s sC i s e q u a lt o t h e p . d .a c r o s sD , s o t h a t : I r C = l z D ( 2 )

If equation [1) is divided by equation[2) we get:

AB
CD
I
I

I If the rraluesof three of the resistancesare known, then the fourth one can be calculated.
I
I

34
 BRIDGE
T H EM E T R E

e r i d g ea, n d i t i s u s e dt o m e a s u r e
T h em e t r eb r i d g ei s a m o d i f i e dv e r s i o no f t h e W h e a t s t o n B
u n k n o w nr e s i s t a n c ewsi t h m u c hm o r ee a s et h a nt h e W h e a t s t o n vee r s i o n .

I t o p e r a t e sa s a D O U B L P DLI V I D E R .
EO T E N T I A

e r i d g et,w o r e s i s t o rasn da
I n s t e a do f u s i n g f o u r e s i s t o rass i n t h e c a s eo f t h e W h e a t s t o n b
metreof resistance wire are used.
M
M is a knownresistance, and N is
lz
t h e u n k n o w no n e .

T h es l i d ew i r ef r o m t h e
g a l v a n o m e t ei sr m o v e da l o n gt h e
r e s i s t a n cwei r e A B u n t i la b a l a n c e
p o i n ti s o b t a i n e d .

At the balancepoint,the lengthof

'c'can
wire be consideredas one
'd'
resistorand the length as
another resistor.

A currentI leavesthe battery,enterspoint A and splits into Ir and Iz.Letthe resistanceof

'c'
be kc and the resistanceof d' be kd, where k is the resistanceper unit length of the
wire.

At the balancepoint Ir kc= IzM t1) ; and Irkd = IzN (2)

When equation (1) is divided by equation(2J we get :

CM
dAl
'c' 'd'
and are measuredlengthson the resistance wire while M is a known resistance,
henceN can be calculated.

35
 TUTORIAL
on CurrentElectricity

( 1 ) A b a t t e r yo f e m f 6 V a n d i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c1e. 8 Oi s c o n n e c t e a
d c r o s sa 1 2 Or e s i s t o r .
C a l c u l a t eh e t e r m i n apl . d .o f t h e b a t t e r y . ( H i nTth: et e r m i n apl . d .i s t h e v o l t a g ea c r o s s
t h e e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n cie. e .a c r o s st h e 1 2 Or e s i s t o r )
(s.22V)

( 2 ) W h e na b a t t e r yo f e m f E a n d i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n cre i s c o n n e c t e a d c r o s sa 6 O r e s i s t o rt ,h e
t e r m i n ap l . d .i s 8 . 4 4 V . l ft h e 6 Q r e s i s t oirs n o w r e p l a c e d
b y a 1 0 Or e s i s t o rt ,h e t e r m i n a l
p . d .i s n o w 8 . 6 5V . D e t e r m i n teh e e m f a n dt h e i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n coef t h e b a t t e r y .
( H i n t :D r a w2 s e p a r a t cei r c u i t as n da p p l yt h e e q u a t i o nE =V + l r f o r b o t ho f t h e m ;t h e n
u s et h e s i m u l t a n e o uesq u a t i o ntso f i n dt h e r e q u i r e d
quantities)
( r =0 . 3 9 Q E
, =9V)

( 3 ) A b a t t e r yo f e . m . f .1 - 8 V
a n d i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n crei s c o n n e c t e tdo a n e t w o r ko f r e s i s t o r s
h a v i n gt w o r e s i s t o rish p a r a l l e(l8 Oa n d 1 2 O) i n s e r i e sw i t h a 6 0 r e s i s t oar ss h o w n :

l f t h e c u r r e n it n t h e 8 O r e s i s t oirs 0 . 4 A c, a l c u l a t e :

(i) T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e 1 2 Or e s i s t o r ( Y of iur s tn e e dt o f i n d t h e p . d .a c r o s st h e
l 2 Q r e s i s t owr h i c hi s t h e s a m ep . d .a c r o s st h e 8 O r e s i s t o r )
(ii) T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e 6 e r e s i s t o r
(iii) T h ei n t e r n arl e s i s t a n coef t h e b a t t e r y

A n s .0 . 2 6 7
A , 0 . 6 6 7 A1, , 6 . 2 Q ., Z
7V

36
(41A b a t t e r yP o f e . m . f . 1 , 2 Va n di n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c4eO i s c o n n e c t e idn s e r i e sw i t h a b a t t e r y
Q o f e . m . f .8 V a n di n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c90,
e with a 20Oresistorconnectedacrossthe
c o m b i n a t i oans ' s h o w n :
L 2 V , 4n x
V, 9Q

|l l - |
r-l
I

200

C a l c u l a t eh e t e r m i n apl . d .o f e a c hb a t t e r y .
A n s :9 . 5 8 V1 , 3.45V)
( Ad e t a i l e ds o l u t i o ni s g i v e no n p a g e3 5 )

( 5 ) D e t e r m i nteh e
below:

24V
s Yi st h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e 8 O m i n u st h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e r z r ) )
( T h ep . d .a c r o s X

s o l u t i o ni s g i v e no n p a g e3 5 )
( A n s 0: V )( A d e t a i l e d
(Ans.3.2V)

Determine thevoltmeter
r e a d i n gi n t h e g i v e n rzv 20v
c i r c ui t .

A ns :1 5. 2 V

( S e ep a g e 3 6 )

37
(7) In the followingcircuit,a voltmeterof resistance
8000 is firstlyconnectedacrossthe
6000 resistorand then acrossthe 2200O resistorseparately.
F i n dt h e r e a d i n go n t h e v o l t m e t e ri n e a c hc a s e .

12V
A n s1. 6 2 V ; 5 . 9 3 V

I
I
I

L__O_-,

(8) ln the followingcircuit,a voltmeterof resistance

400Ois firstlyconnectedacrossthe
16000 resistorand then acrossthe 200 O resistorseparately.
F i n dt h e r e a d i n go n t h e v o l t m e t e ri n e a c hc a s e .

18V
A n s1 1 . 0 8 V 1
; .38V

r__o-,

38
 FORQUESTION
SOLUTION 4:

1,2V, 4A
8V, 9C)

200

S i n c et h e b a t t e r i e sh a v et h e i r e m f ' si n t h e s a m ed i r e c t i o nt ,h e n e t e m f i n t h e c i r c u i ti s 1 2 V+ 8 V =
20v
T h e 1 2 V b a t t e r yh a sa g r e a t e re m f t h a n t h e 8 V b a t t e r ys o t h a t a c u r r e n tl e a v e st h e 1 2 V a n d
entersthe 8V battery.
20
The total resi-stancels 330, and the current i"s
TA
T h e t e r m t n a l p . d . o f t h e I z V b a t t e r y t s o b t a t n e df r o m t h e e q n V t : E - I r
v:rz-2fn>:e.sBV
55
T h ec u r r e net n t e r st h e 8 Vb a t t e r ys ot h a ti t st e r m i n apl . d .i sg i v e nb yV 2 =E+ l r
Vz:B+*(9):1,3.45V
55

FORQUESTTON
soLUTroN 5:
T h e r ea r e2 p a r a l l ebl r a n c h e s o t h a t t h e p . d .a c r o s se - a c h
b r a n c hi s 1 2 V .
T h e c u r r e n ti n t h e t o p b r a n c hi s g i v e nb y :

t' R: 2Y4 - 1 2 : 0 . 5 ^ 4
H e n c et h e v o l t a g ea c r o s st h e 8 Q r e s i s t o irs g i v e nb y
V : I R : 0 . 5 x B - 4 V ; H e n c eV e v: l V
N o w t h e n o t a t i o nV a ym e a n st h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s sA Y ,
-
that is, VA Vy 4 :

T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e l o w e rb r a n c hi s g i v e nb y :
T h e p o t e n t i aal t A i s e q u a lt o t h e p o t e n t i aal t B s i n c et h e y a r e
, _v _ 6 _1 n
- 3r 2
connectedto eachother by a conductoronly;Va- Vn
T h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s st h e 1 2 O H e n c eV A - V x : 4 a n d V A - V v : 4
r e s i s t o irs V s xa n d i s : F r o mt h e s et w o e q u a t i o n sw, e g e t :
1
Vsx:lR:;X12:4V Vx-Vy:0,soVyy:0
J

VB-v,r::4

39
S O L U T I OF
NO RQ U E S T I O5N:

T h ev o l t m e t e r e a d i n gi s
t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
acrose
s i t h e rt h e b r a n c h 1,2V
c o n t a i n i ntgh e 1 2 Vb a t t e r y
t o g e t h e rw i t h t h e 4 0
r e s i s t oor r t h e b r a n c h
c o n t a i n i ntgh e 2 0 Vb a t t e r y
withthe 60 resistor.

C o n s i d ef ri r s tt h e b r a n c hw i t h t h e j _ 2 Vb a t t e r y .

T h en e t e m f i s 8 V a n dt h e c u r r e n tw o u l db e

VB
I-R:10:o'BA

V : E t I r : 1 , 2 +( 0 . 8x 4 ) : I 5 . 2 V

I f w e u s e dt h e b r a n c h
w i t ht h e2 0 Vb a t t e r yw, e w o u l dg e t :

V:E-lr

V -20 -(0.8x6):I5.2V

Remember
that whencurrententersthe battery,we use

V=E+lr, andwhencurrentleaves
the batterywe use

V =E - l r

40
 WorkedExamples
on Potentiometerand Metre Bridge

( 1 ) T h ee m f o f a b a t t e r yX i s b a l a n c e d b y a l e n g t ho f 5 8 c mo n a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e w h i l s ta
s t a n d a r dc e l lo f e m f 1 . 0 4 Vi s b a l a n c e bd y a l e n g t ho f 4 6 c m .
(i) D e t e r m i nteh e e m f o f X
(ii) T h ec e l lX h a sa n i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n coef 4 C ) , a n ids c o n n e c t e d
i n s e r i e s t oa l - 2 O
r e s i s t o rC. a l c u l a tteh e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h .
( A n s .1 , . 5 4 V ; 5 0 . 9 c m

Solution: ( i i )T h ec i r c u i th a sa c e l lo f e m f 1 . 5 4 Vi n s e r i e s
(i)1.04h
Va sa b a l a n c lee n g t ho f 4 6 c m . w i t h a 4 Q r e s i s t oar n da 1 2 Or e s i s t o r .

1,.04 T h ev o l t a g ea c r o s st h e 1 2 Or e s i s t oirs t h e
Lcm correspondsto a p. d. of
46 t e r m i n apl . d .o f t h e b a t t e r ya n d i s e q u a tl o :
6 8 c mh a sa n e q u i v a l e npt. d .o f
1,2
68xry-Ls4v
+6
1,.54, 1,.1,5V
tO-
T h eb a l a n cpeo i n tc o r r e s p o n d itnogl - . 1 , 5i V
s
g i v e nb y :

( 2 )A s t a n d a r dc e l lo f e m f 1 . 3 4 Vi s b a l a n c e b
d y t h e p . d .a c r o s sa r e s i s t a n coef 2 8 0 0 0i n s e r i e sw i t h a
1 - ml e n g t ho f p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e P Qh a v i n ga r e s i s t a n coef 6 0 . A t h e r m o c o u p l e
p r o d u c i n ga n e m f o f
1 . 2 m Vi s n o w c o n n e c t e idn s e r i e st o t h e s t a n d a r d
c e l la s s h o w n C
. a l c u l a tteh e l e n g t hP Ro n t h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r et h a t p r o d u c etsh e n e w b a l a n c e
point.
Thetotal resistance
i s e q u a lt o 2 8 0 6 0 .
T h ep . d .a c r o s tsh e
1 m o f w i r ei s
a6
x 1.34
2806
- 1,.6mV
1 . 6 m Vh a sa l e n g t h

1..34V
of 100cm
l - . 2 m Vw i l l h a v ea
lengthof
loox
1.2:75cm
1..6

41,
 on the Potentiometerand the metre bridge
TUTORIAL

( 1 ) T h e e m f o f a b a t t e r y X i s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t h o f 4 4 c m o n a p o t e n t i o m e t e r w i r e w h i l s t a
s t a n d a r dc e l l o f e m f 1 . 2 0 Vi s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 2 8 c m .
(iii) D e t e r m i n et h e e m f o f X
(iv) T h e c e l l X h a s a n i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c eo f 2 C ) , a n di s c o n n e c t e di n s e r i e s t o a l - 8 O
resistorC : h e c kw o r k e d e x a m p l e )
. a l c u l a t et h e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h . ( H i n tC
( A n s1 . 8 9 V ; 3 9 . 6 c m )

( 2 ) T h e e m f o f a b a t t e r yZ i s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 7 4 c m o n a p o t e n t i o m e t e rw i r e w h i l s t a
standard.ceo l l f e m f 1 . t z V i s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 3 8 c m .
(v) D e t e r m i n et h e e m f o f Z
(vi) T h e c e l l Z h a s a n i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c eo f 6 0 , a n d i s c o n n e c t e di n s e r i e st o a 4 4 O
resistorC . a l c u l a t et h e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h .
(Ans2 : .18V;65.2cm)

( 3 ) T h e e m f o f a b a t t e r y . Yi s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 8 8 c m o n a p o t e n t i o m e t e rw i r e w h i l s t a
s t a n d a r dc e l l o f e m f 0 . 9 6 Vi s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 3 6 c m .
(vii) D e t e r m i n et h e e m f o f Y
( v i i i ) T h e c e l l Y h a s a n i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c eo f I . 2 Q , a n d i s c o n n e c t e di n s e r i e s t o a 3 6 O
resistorC . a l c u l a t et h e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h
( A n s2 . 3 5 V 8
; 5cm

( 4 ) T h e d r i v e rc e l lo f a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa n e . m . f .o f 1 . 8 Va n d n e g l i g i b l ien t e r n a rl e s i s t a n c e .
T h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef 6 0 . C a l c u l a tteh e r e s i s t a n cteh a t i s n e e d e di n s e r i e s
w i t h t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e i f a p . d .o f 2 5 0 m Vi s r e q u i r e da c r o s st h e w h o l e l e n g t ho f t h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e .
( H i n t :D r a wa c i r c u i td i a g r a mo f t w o r e s i s t o r isn s e r i e sw i t h t h e d r i v e rc e l l ,t h e n f i n d t h e p . d
a c r o s st h e e x t r ar e s i s t a n c et h, e n u s eV = l Rt o d e t e r m i n eR , r e m e m b e r i ntgh a t f o r r e s i s t a n c ei n
s
s e r i e st,h e c u r r e n ti s t h e s a m e . () A n s 3: 7.2O)

- ( 5 ) T h ed r i v e rc e l lo f a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa n e . m . f o
. f 4 . 0 Va n d n e g l i g i b lien t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e .
T h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef 2 0 . C a l c u l a tteh e r e s i s t a n cteh a t i s n e e d e di n s e r i e s
w i t h t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e i f a p . d .o f 1 2 m Vi s r e q u i r e da c r o s st h e w h o l el e n g t ho f t h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e
(Ans6
: 650)

( 6 ) T h e d r i v e rc e l !. r f a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa n e . m . f .o f 6 V a n d n e g l i g i b l ien t e r n a rl e s i s t a n c e
T.h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef 3 . 5 O .C a l c u l a tteh e r e s i s t a n cteh a t i s n e e d e di n s e r i e s
w i t h t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e i f a p . d .o f 8 m V i s r e q u i r e da c r o s st h e w h o l el e n g t ho f t h e
wire.(Ans:26220)
potentiorneter

42
( 7 ) I nt h e c i r c u i b
t e l o wt h e b a l a n c ep o i n ti s o b t a i n e df o r t h e l e n g t h si n d i c a t e od n t h e d i a g r a mF. i n d
t h e r e s i s t a n coef R .( A n s3 2 . 6 O )

20o.

(8)

I n t h e a b o v ed i a g r a mc, a l c u l a tteh e b a l a n c el e n g t h sc a n d d .

( A n s :c = 2 7. 5 c m ,d = 7 2 . 5 c m \

43
 ELECTROSTATICS

E l e c t r o s t a tpi ch e n o m e n a
i n c l u d em a n ye x a m p l eas ss i m p l ea st h e a t t r a c t i o no f t h e p l a s t i cw r a p
t o y o u r h a n da f t e ry o u r e m o v ei t f r o m a p a c k a g et o, t h e a p p a r e n t lsyp o n t a n e o uesx p l o s i o on f
g r a i ns i l o st,o d a m a g eo f e l e c t r o n ic o m p o n e n tdsu r i n gm a n u f a c t u r i ntgo, t h e o p e r a t i o no f
photocopiers.

E l e c t r o s t a t iicnsv o l v etsh e b u i l d u po f c h a r g eo n t h e s u r f a c eo f o b j e c t sd u et o c o n t a c w
t ithother
s u r f a c e sA. l t h o u g hc h a r g ee x c h a n g h
ea p p e nw
s h e n e v ear n y t w o s u r f a c ecso n t a c a
t n ds e p a r a t e ,
t h e e f f e c t so f c h a r g ee x c h a n g ae r e u s u a l l yo n l yn o t i c e dw h e na t l e a s to n e o f t h e s u r f a c ehs a sa
h i g hr e s i s t a n cteo e l e c t r i c af l o w .T h i si s b e c a u s teh e c h a r g e tsh a t t r a n s f e tro o r f r o m t h e h i g h l y
r e s i s t i v seu r f a c ea r e m o r eo r l e s st r a p p e dt h e r ef o r a l o n ge n o u g ht i m e f o r t h e i re f f e c t st o b e
o b s e r v e dT. h e s ec h a r g e tsh e n r e m a i no n t h e o b j e c tu n t i l t h e ye i t h e rb l e e do f f t o g r o u n do r a r e
q u i c k l yn e u t r a l i z ebdy a d i s c h a r g e : e . tgh. e, f a m i l i a pr h e n o m e n oonf a s t a t i c ' s h o c k 'ci sa u s e db y
t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i oonf c h a r g eb u i l tu p i n t h e b o d yf r o m c o n t a c w
t i t h n o n c o n d u c t i vseu r f a c e s .

Coulomb'sLaw:
.
T h ee l e c t r o s t a tfi oc r c eo f a t t r a c t i o no r r e p u l s i o a
n c t i n go n e a c ho f t w o s t a t i o n a rpy o i n t
c h a r g e si s, d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n at ol t h e p r o d u c to f t h e c h a r g e sa,n d i n v e r s e lpy r o p o r t i o n at ol t h e
s q u a r eo f t h e i rd i s t a n c oe f s e p a r a t i o n .

i . e .l f t w o p o i n tc h a r g eQ
s l a n de z a r ep l a c e da t a d i s t a n c rea p a r t t, h e nt h e f o r c ea c t i n go n e a c h '
o f t h e c h a r g e si s g i v e nb y ;

- QtQz
l:x -

Thiscanbe re-written
as F : !3+

Byexperiment, of proportionality
the constant wasfoundto U"
fr, sothatthefinalformulais
g i v e nb y :
QrQz
F-
4nesrz

w h e r ee i s c a l l e dt h e p e r m i t t i v i t oy f t h e m e d i u mi n w h i c ht h e c h a r g e e . h ep e r m i t t i v i t iys a
s x i s tT
p h y s i c apl r o p e r t yo f t h e r n e d i u mM . o s tq u e s t i o n isn v o l v et h e m e d i u mb e i n ga v a c u u ma n dt h e
permittivityis writtehds rs where ro=8.85x !0-t2c2N-tm-2.

1
T n e. , ' , ' r roef _ i s n o r m a l l tya k e na s9 x 1 0 ' N m ' C -.'
4ne.

44
 I

In orderto determinethe resultantforceactingon any chargethat is within

an arrangement of
charges,a vEcroR approachmust be used,that is,if a pointchargeis acteduponelectrostatic
forcesfrom two or more charges,then the force DUETo EACHCHARGE is calculatedfrom the
Coulomb'sLawformuraand then the resultantforcecanbe found by means
of VECToR
ADDITION.

Considera simplecasewherea singrepointchargeB is actedupon by forcesfrom

two other
electricchargesas shown:

Suppose
we want to find the resultantforceactingon B

A
8cm 30sC

7.
20;rC @+

I n t h i se x a m p l ea, l l
c h a r g e sa r e
positive.
1,2cm

va
50uC

T h ef i r s ts t e pi s t o f i n dt h e f o r c ea c t i n go n B D U ET o A o N L y .

T h i si s d o n eb y a p p l y i n tgh e c o u l o m b ' L
s a wF o r m u l a
i.e.

20 x10-6 x 30 x 10-6x 9 x 10e

rtrA - :843.75N
0.082
T h ef o r c ed u et o C o n l y i s g i v e nb y :

5 0 x 1 0 - 6x 3 0 x 1 0 - 6x 9 x 1 0 e
ttrc - : 937.5N
0.1,22

45
T h et w o f o r c e sc a nb e d r a w no n a v e c t o rd i a g r a ma sf o l l o w s :

F" - 937.5N

Fn : 843.75N

T h e h o r i z o n t aclo m p o n e not f F 6= 9 3 7' 5 c o s4 5 = 6 6 3 N '

forcesis 663+843.75=1506.75N
Sothe total of the horizontal

T h ev e r t i c acl o m p o n e not f F 6= 9 3 7' 5 s i n 4 5= 6 6 3 N '

S o n o w w e h a v ea v e r t i c aflt r c e o f 6 6 3 Nc o m b i n i n w l r c eo f 1 5 0 6 . 7 5 N .
g i t h a h o r i z o n t af o
a nb e u s e dt o g i v ea r e s u l t a n t f o r coef 1 6 4 6 N .
P y t h a g o r a s ' t h e o r ecm

H e n c et h e r e s u l t a nfto r c eo n B i s 1 6 4 6 N

46
 ELECTRIC
FIELD
STRENGTH
(AlsocalledElectricfield Intensityor simplyElectricField):

T h eE l e c t r i F
c i e l dS t r e n g t ha t a p o i n ti s d e f i n e da s t h ef o r c ea c t i n gp e r u n i t p o s i t i v ec h a r g e
p l a c e da t t h a t p o i n t .

E l e c t r ifci e l ds t r e n g t hi s a v e c t o rq u a n t i t ya n da s s u c h ,i t s d i r e c t i o nm u s tb e c o n s i d e r e d
in any
calculation.

F r o mt h e d e f i n i t i o n ,

Force
Electrtc Field Strength - , h e n c et h e u n i t sa r e N C - 1
Charge

l f a p o i n tc h a r g eh a sa m a g n i t u d e
o f c h a r g ee , t h e n a t a d i s t a n c er f r o m e t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d
strengthis givenby :

E-
4nes rz
A p a r tf r o m t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l dd u e a p o i n tc h a r g ee, l e c t r i cf i e l d sa l s oe x i s ti n t h e s p a c eb e t w e e n
t w o o p p o s i t e lcyh a r g e dp a r a l l epl l a t e s N
. o t et h a t t h e f i e l di s u n i f o r mb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s
m e a n i n g t h a t t h eF I E L D
S T R E N G Ti sHc o n s t a nitn t h e s p a c eb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s .A n o t h e r
i m p o r t a nfte a t u r eo f t h e f i e l di s t h a t t h e f i e l dl i n e sa r e c u r v e da t t h e e n d so f t h e p l a t e s .

++++++ +++

C o n s i d et rw o p a r a l l em
l e t a lp l a t e ss e p a r a t e b
dy a d i s t a n c e
d a n d h a v i n ga p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
V b e t w e e nt h e m .

Ti'i. ,-'iectric
fieldstrengthbetweentheseplatesis givenby

47
 V
E- a
V
Thisquantity ,talsocalledthe Potential (Unitsarevm-l)
Gradient.
i
for the parallel
Hencethe potentialgradientis numericallyequalto the electricfield strength
platearrangement.

Pleasenote that the formula

E_
a is usedto find the

4nesrz

CHARGEONLY
FIELDSTRENGTHFORA STATIONARYELECTRIC
ELECTRIC

TheformulaE : \ strengthin the

FIELD
is usedto findthe Electric
a.
regionbetweentwo chargedparallelmetalplates

i st h a t :
A n o t h e rv e r yI M P O R T A NFTO R M U L A

on
Whenevera chargee is placedin a field that hasa field strengthE,the force
that chargeis givenbY:
p= EQ
Hencefor a pair of parallelplatesthat are separatedby a distanced, and
havinga potentialdifferenceV acrossthe plates,the force on a chargeQ
that is placedin the spacebetweenthe platesis givenby:
VQ
F:
d

48
 ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL
:

c o t e n t i aal t a p o i n ti s d e f i n e da st h e w o r k d o n ei n b r i n g i n ga u n i t p o s i t i v ec h a r g e
T h eE l e c t r i P
f r o m i n f i n i t yt o t h a t p o i n t .

A t i n f i n i t yt ,h e e l e c t r i p
c o t e n t i ai ls z e r os i n c et h e c h a r g ei s n o t u n d e r t h ei n f l u e n coef a n y f i e l d .

C o n s i d e r au n i t p o s i t i v ec h a r g eb e i n gp l a c e di n t h e f i e l do f a n o t h e rp o s i t i v ec h a r g ea ss h o w n :

A s t h e p o s i t i v ec h a r g ei s m o v e df r o m p o i n tB w h i c hi s c o n s i d e r etdo b e a t i n f i n i t yt,o a p o i n tA i n
t h e f i e l d ,w o r k h a st o b e d o n eo n t h e p o s i t i v e( + 1 C c) h a r g et o o v e r c o m e
t h e f o r c eo f r e p u l s i o n
b y t h e o t h e rp o s i t i v ec h a r g eQ + .

T h i sw o r k d o n eo n t h e l - Cc h a r g ec a u s e a i n i t s e l e c t r i cp o t e n t i ael n e r g yi n m o v i n g
s nincrease
from infinityto A.

i n p o t e n t i ael n e r g yi s a s s i g n ead p o s i t i v ev a l u e .
T h i si n c r e a s e

O n t h e o t h e rh a n d ,i f Q w a sa n e g a t i v e
c h a r g et,h e n t h e i n c o m i n g+ 1 Cc h a r g ew o u l db e
attractedto it, and it would loseits own electricpotentialenergyas it fallsfrom infinitytowards
a.
i n e l e c t r i cp o t e n t i ael n e r g yi s a s s i g n ead n e g a t i v ev a l u e .
T h i sd e c r e a s e

49
Hence,at all pointsin the fieldof a positivecharge,the potentialis positive;and at all pointsin
the fieldof a negativecharge,the potentialis negative.

Potenttal: Work done per untt charge

Electrtc potential Energy _ Work done

potenttal _
charge chirge

Let Potential= V

V- + f or an isolated.charge
*TEtsT

When a chargeQ movesthrough a p.d. of V, the work done on the chargeis W = QV

whichis equivalentto the Volt.

The unit is the JC-1

BothPotentialand PotentialEnergyare SCALAR

QUANTITIES.
A v e r yu s e f u fl o r m u l at o r e m e m b e ri s t h a t :

in electricpotentialenergyof a chargeQ when it is movedthrougha

The CHANGE
DIFFERENCE
FOTENTIAL AV , is givenby A W= qAV.

V is the differencein potentialsVr and Vz.

DIFFERENCE
The POTENTIAL

in ElectricPotentialenergy is equalto the changein the KINETIC

The CHANGE of
ENERGY

the charge.HenceA W= QAV=lmvz

2
where m is the massof the chargeand v is its
speed.

Note that smallv is speedand big V is potentialdifference.

(Thesize of the future you actually experiencewill largely be determined by one

factor: the people you choose to connect with. When you choosepeople who are truly
committed to growth in every aspect of your life, your own potential for growth
becomestruly unlimited--'---DanSullivan.

50
 ELECTROSTATTCS
TUTORTAL (1)
SHEET

( 1 ) A h e l i u mn u c l e u s . h aasc h a r g eo f + 2 e a n da n e o nn u c l e u sh a sa c h a r g eo f + 1 0 e ,w h e r ee i s
electroniccharge(1.6x 10 1eC) Findthe repulsive forceexertedon one by the otherwhen
t h e y a r e3 n m a p a r ti n a v a c u u m (. A n s5 . 1 2 x 1 0 - 1 0 N )

(2) A chargeof 3;rCis 4mm awayfrom a chargeof 1.41tC

in a vacuum.What is the electrostatic
f o r c ea c t i n go n e a c ho f t h e c h a r g e s(?A n s 2 . 3 6x t 0 4 w )

(3) What is the distanceof separation

of two pointcharges20pCand-45prC
if the forceof
a t t r a c t i o nb e t w e e nt h e m i s 1 5 N ?( A n s7 3 c m )

(4) Two identicalpointchargesare separatedby a distanceof 25cmand a forceof repulsionof

e f e a c ho f t h e c h a r g e s( .A n s .L . 9 7 x1 0 6 C )
0 . 5 6 Na c t so n e a c hc h a r g eF. i n dt h e m a g n i t u d o

( 5 ) T h r e ep o i n tc h a r r " , a r e p l a c e do n t h e x a x i sa ss h o w n .F i n dt h e n e t f o r c eo n t h e - 5 U C
c h a r g ed u et o t h e o t h e rt w o . ( A n s . 0 . 6 2 5 N ) . ( HFi ni nt :dt h e f o r c ed u et o e a c hc h a r g e
s e p a r a t e ltyh e n f i n d r e s u l t a n t )

-5uc 8pc
3uc
ooo

20cm 30cm

( 6 ) F o rt h e s i t u a t i o ns h o w ni n t h e b e l o wd i a g r a mf,i n d (a)Theelectricfield at point P,(b)The

forceon a -4 x 10-8C chargeplacedat P .

-20 x 10-"C -5x108C

( A n s : 1 . 4 x 1 0 sN C - 1 ' t o w a r dtsh e l e f t ; 5 . 6 x t o 3 l v; )

51
 chargeis placed50cmawayfrom a 60prC
(7) A 20prC chargeas shown.

50cm
(3<- +€

20PrC 60PtC

D e t e r m i n et h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d s t r e n g t ht o g e t h e rw i t h i t s d i r e c t i o na t t h e f o l l o w i n gp o i n t s :

( i ) Exactlymidwaybetweenthe two charges.

( ii ) L0 cm to the left of the 20prC
charge
( i i ) 4 0 c m t o t h e r i g h to f t h e 6 0 p Cc h a r g e
( A n s :5 . 7 6x L 0 6 N Ct-o1w a r d st h e l e f t ;1 . 9 5x 1 0 7 N Ct-ot w a r d st h e l e f t ;
3 . 6x 1 0 6 N C - l t o w a rtdhse r i g h t )

( S ) A - 4 0 n C c h a r g e i s p l a c e d a t a d i s t aonf cl ,e2 c m a w a y f r o m a + 5 0 n C c h a r g e a s s h o w n .

1'2cm
*.- +g

-40nC +50nC

D e t e r m i n teh e e l e c t r i cf i e l ds t r e n g t ht o g e t h e rw i t h i t s d i r e c t i o na t t h e f o l l o w i n gp o i n t s :

(i) M i d w a yb e t w e e nt h e t w o c h a r g e s
(ii) 5 c mt o t h e l e f t o f t h e - 4 0 n Cc h a r g e
(iii) 8 c mt o t h e r i g h to f t h e + 5 0 n Cc h a r g e

(Ans:2.25 - 1w a r d st h e l e f t ;1. 2 8 x1 0 s N C towards

x l - O s N Ct o -1 the right;6.13x l-04NC.1towards
the right)

( 9 . I) n t h e f o l l o w i n gd i a g r a mt,h e p o i n tA r e p r e s e n t sh e r e g i o nw h e r et h e r e s u l t a nfti e l d
s t r e n g t hi s z e r o .D e t e r m i n teh e p o s i t i o no f p o i n tA r e l a t i v et o t h e - 2 0 p t C
c h a r g e(.5 . 5 c m )

-10uC + 60;rC

52
 ELECTROSTATTCS
TUTORTAL (2)
SHEET

( 1 ) T w o i d e n t i c am
l e t a l b a l l sh a v ec h a r g e Q
s l a n dq 2 T h er e p u l s i v e f o r ct h
e a t o n e e x e r t so n
t h e o t h e r w h e nt h e y a r e 2 0c m a p a r ti s 1 . 3 5x L 0 - 4N . l f t h e c h a r g eo n < i n eb a l ti s 3 . 2x
L 0 6 c ,d e t e r m i n et h e c h a r g eo n t h e o t h e ro n e . ( A N 1
S, . g 7 s x1 0 - 1 0 c )

( 2 ) W h a t i st h e m a g n i t u d o
e f t h e c h a r g eo n e a c ho f t w o m e t a ls p h e r e si f t h e y h a v et h e
s a m em a g n i t u d e
o f c h a r g ea n d e x e r ta f o r c eo f a t t r a c t i o no f 1 . 9 8x L 0 - 4 N
o n e a c ho t h e r
w h e n t h e y a r es e p a r a t e b
dy a d i s t a n c e
o f 2 . 5c m . ( A N S
3nc)

( 3 ) T w o c h a r g e dm e t a lp l a t e si n a v a c u u ma r e 1 5 c m a p a r t .T h ep o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s 2 0 0 V A . n e l e c t r o n( m a s s= 9 . i -x 1 0 - 3 1 kagn dc h a r g e1 . 6x L 0 - 1 e)C
is
r e l e a s e fdr o m r e s ta t t h e s u r f a c eo f t h e n e g a t i v e plate.
F i n d( a )T h e E l e c t r ifci e l dt h e e l e c t r o ni s s u b j e c t e tdo .
( b )T h ea c c e l e r a t i bonf t h e e l e c t r o n
( c )T h et i m e t a k e nt o r e a c ht h e o t h e rp l a t e
( d ) T h es p e e do f t h e e l e c t r o nj u s t b e f o r ei t h i t st h e p o s i t i v ep l a t e .
( A n s ( a1) . 3 3x L 0 3 V mt ( u )2 . 3 4x 1 0 1 a m s('. ) 3 . 5x 1 - 0 - 8(sd;)g . 3 g xl - o 6 m 1s )

( a ) W h a t i s t h e f o r c ee x p e r i e n c ebdy a p r o t o n( c h a r g e 1
= . 6x 1 0 - 1 e C
w1h e n i t i s i n t h e s p a c e
b e t w e e nt w o p a r a l l epl l a t e ss e p a r a t e b
dy a d i s t a n c e
o f 2 5 m ma n d h a v i n ga p . d .o f 5 0 O V
b e t w e e nt h e m (. A N S3 . 2x 1 0 1 s N ;

( 5 ) T w o i d e n t i c at li n y m e t a lb a l l sc a r r yc h a r g e o
s f + 3 n C a n d- 1 , 2 n CT.h e ya r e 3 c ma p a r t .
C a l c u l a tteh e f o r c eo f a t t r a c t i o n(.A N S3 . 6x L 0 - 4 N )

( b )T h eb a l l sa r e n o w t o u c h e dt o g e t h e ra n dt h e n s e p a r a t etdo 3 c m .D e t e r m i n teh e f o r c e
o n e a c hb a l ln o w . (H i n t ;W h e nt h e b a l l sa r e n o w t o u c h e dt o g e t h e rt,h e y a c q u i r et h e
s a m ec h a r g ei . e . t o t acl h a r g ei s c o n s e r v e d )
( A n s ( a ) 3 . 6 x1 0 o w( U )2 . 0 2 5 x1 0 4 Nr e p u l s i o n ) .

( 6 ) T w o i d e n t i c asl p h e r e sh a v ec h a r g e q
s 1a n d q z . W. h e nt h e y a r e2 0 c m a p a r t ,t h e r e p u l s i v e
f o r c eb e t w e e nt h e m i s 1 . 3 5 x1 0 4 N .
A f t e rt h e ya r et o u c h e dt o g e t h e ra, n ds e p a r a t e d
o n c ea g a i nt o 2 0 c m ,t h e r e p u l s i vfeo r c eb e t w e e nt h e m i s 1 . 4 0 6x 1 0 - o N F .
i n dQ l a n d
q z( A n s 2: 0 n C , 3 0 n CS. )E ES O L U T I OONN p G5 4 .

53
Solutionfor question3:
V 200v -7
(t)V:200V;d:L\cm- 0 . 15 m ; E - : l-.33x 1.03Vm
d 0.1-5m

(tf.)Accelerati"on-
Force EQ (L\9: 200 x L . 6 x 10-1e
- 2 . 3 4x l g t a ^ r - z
MASS MASS \d/ m 0.15x9.1 x10-31

1."8t : -
(ttt) Use the equatton .s_ ut l|or';1r e-
: 0 hencs
tot";t JT x 1014
- 3 . 5x 1 0 - 8 s

(iv)U se ettlter v : 'tt * at or v2 : lr2 : Zas w h e r eu = 0 .

54
 for question6:
Solution

Initialty,g - aflz l-9 -\ 1'0e- 1.35x 10-4A/

'' 4ft€sr2 (o.z)z

H e n c e Q t Q z- 6 x 1g-togz -(1)

W h e n t h e s p h e r e sa r e t o u c h e dt o g e t h e rt h e c h a r g e sa r e r e - d i s t r i b u t e db u t t h e t o t a l c h a r g ei s
c o n s t a n ta n d e q u a lt o q r + Q z

A f t e r t h e s p h e r e sa r e s e p a r a t e d e, a c h o n e w i l l a c q u i r ea c h a r g eo f

Qr*Qz
2'
(Since
t h e s p h e r e sa r e i d e n t i c a tl h
, e r ei s n o t e n d e n c yf o r o n et o g a i na g r e a t e rc h a r g et h a nt h e
other.)

T h ef o r c ea c t i n go n e a c hc h a r g en o w i s g i v e nb y

(ry)'rexloe
- 1 . 4 0 6x 1 0 - a
(0.2)'
( q r + Q ) 2 - 2 . 5 x 1 0 - 1 s ; l t e n c e( q r + e z ) = 5 x 1 0 - B C -Q)

F r o me q u a t i o n( 2 ) Q r =5 x l - 0 - 8g-z . S u b s t i t u t i n g t hi n
i se q u a t i o n( 1 )g i v e s

(5xL0-8 -a)Qz:6x10-16

Q z z- ( 5 x 1 0 - B )e z * ( 6 x t o - t o ) - 0
S o l v i n tgh i sq u a d r a t i g
cives;

5x1o-B+( )
Qz: -3xl-0-BC:30nC;

l f t h i sv a l u eo f q z i s s u b s t i t u t e idn e i t h e re q u a t i o n( 1 )o r ( 2 ) ,q 1w o u l db e f o u n dt o b e 2 0 n C .

55
 Tutorialsheet(3)
Electrostatics

( T h ec h a r g eo f a n e l e c t r o ni s - 1 . 6 x1 0 - 1 e C )

( 1 ) F o rt w o c h a r g e dm e t a lp l a t e sA a n d B ,s e p a r a t e bd y a d i s t a n c e o f 5 m m ,t h e p . d .
b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s 4 0 V .P l a t eA i s c o n n e c t e tdo a p o s i t i v p
e o t e n t i aal n d p l a t eB t o a
. a l c u l a tteh e w o r k d o n ei n m o v i n ga + 3 Cc h a r g ef r o m ( a )B t o A , ( b )
n e g a t i v ep o t e n t i a l C
A to B. | 120J; -120J1

( 2 ) H o w m u c hw o r k i s d o n e t o c a r r ya n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n o a fl a t 2 V b a t t e r y
t o t h e n e g a t i v tee r m i n a l .T h ec h a r g eo f t h e e l e c t r o ni s - 1 . 6 x1 0 - 1 s (
C A
. n s 1 . 9 x1 0 - 1 8 J 1

( 3 ) A n e l e c t r o ns t a r t sf r o m r e s ta n df a l l st h r o u g ha p o t e n t i arl i s eo f 8 0 V .C a l c u l a tiet sf i n a l
1 ) { H i n tt :h e c h a n g ei n
s p e e dT. h e m a s so f t h e e l e c t r o ni s 9 . 1 - 1 x g - 3 1(kAsn s 5. . 3 x1 0 6 m s
P . E=. c h a n g ei n K . E . )

( 4 ) T w o p a r a l l em l e t a lp l a t e sa r es e p a r a t e bdy a d i s t a n c eo f 4 . 5 f f i f f i ,a n d a p . d o f 1 2 0 0 V i s
-1.6x 10-1sc)
a p p l i e da c r o s tsh e r i r .( m a s so f e l e c t r o n= 9 . 1 - x1 . 0 - 3 1 kcgh, a r g e=

(i) W h a t i s t h e v a l u eo f t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l db e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s ?
(ii) l f a n e l e c t r o nt h a t i s h e l da t r e s ta t t h e n e g a t i v ep l a t ei s s u d d e n l rye l e a s e dw, h a t
w o u l db e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e l e c t r o n 'as c c e l e r a t i o n ?
(iii) W h a tw o u l db e t h e c h a n g ei n t h e e l e c t r o n ' ps o t e n t i ael n e r g y ?
(iv) W h a tw i l l b e t h e e l e c t r o n 'ssp e e da s i t h i t st h e p o s i t i v ep l a t e ?
(v) H o w l o n gw o u l dt h e e l e c t r o nh a v et a k e nt o c r o s sf o r m o n e p l a t et o t h e o t h e r ?
1; ; 8 x1 0 - 1 0 s .
( A n s :z . O l x l g s v m 4 . 6 8 x1 0 1 6 m s; I-.29 2 x 1 0 - 1 62J.;O Sx L O T m s -41. 3

( 5 ) T w o p r o t o n sa r e h e l da t r e s ta t a s e p a r a t i oonf 3 x 1 0 - 1 2 m a p a r t .W h e nt h e y a r e r e l e a s e d ,
t h e y r e p e le a c ho t h e ra n d m o v ea p a r t .H o wf a s tw i l l t h e y b e m o v i n gw h e nt h e y a r e
( i )8 m m a p a r t
( i i )a p m a p a r t ,
(iii)5pa mp a r t .
= 1.6x101eC; 27kg'
Protoncharge mass= !.67x10
s e p a r a t i oann dt h e n a t t h e 8 m m
H i n t y: o un e e dt o f i n dt h ep o t e n t i af ilr s t l ya t t h e3 x L 0 - 1 2 m
e f t h e s et w o p o t e n t i a liss t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
s e p a r a t i o nT.h ed i f f e r e n c o ee t w e e n
t h e s et w o p o i n t .T h e nf i n d t h e c h a n g ei n P . E . ( W = Q a Vn) d e q u a t et h i st o K . E >t o f i n d
speed.
r;
( A n s 2 . I 4 x 1 0 s m s 1 ' . 0 x7 l O s m s - 1 ; 1 . 3 5l -60xs m s - 1 )

56
( 6 ) T w o p o i n t sA a n d B a r e a t L 0 0 c ma p a r t .A c h a r g eq r = 2 0 0 p ci s p l a c e da t A w h i l e a
c h a r g eQ z =- 1 0 0 p Ci s p l a c e da t B . P o i n tC i s o n t h e l i n eA B a n d i s 2 0 c m a w a yf r o m B a n d
p o i n t D i s a l s oo. n A B a n d i s 2 0 c m a w a yf r o m A . ( a )F i n dt h e p o t e n t i a l as t C a n d a t D . ( b )
How muchwork must be doneto transfera -5001.rC chargefrom C to D
( A n s .-:2 . 2 5 V; 7 . 8 7 5 V ;- 5 . 1 xl - 0 - 3 J )

Q z =- 1 0 O P C
Qr=2ooPC
2Ocm 20cm
nrr-D
^\J- _____+B
c<#*r

100cm

(7) Fourpointchargesare placedat the four cornersof a squarethat is 30 cm on eachside.

Findthe potentialat the centreof the squareif eachchargeis 2pC.
(Ans.:3.4x10sV)

(8) Chargesof +21tC,+3pC and -SpCare placedat the verticesof an equilateraltriangle

of
side10cm. Calculate
the magnitudeof the forceactingon the -8pC chargedue to the
othertwo charges.)
Hint Drawa vectordiagramand resolvethe forcesverticallyand
horizontally,
then find the total verticaland the total horizontalforces.
Afterthis,use
Pythagoras'Theorem.) (Ans31N)

( 9 ) F o u re q u a lp o i n tc h a r g e +
s3prC
a r e p l a c e da t t h e f o u r c o r n e r so f a s q u a r et h a t i s 4 0 t m o n

a s i d e .F i n dt h e f o r c eo n a n yo n e o f t h e c h a r g e ds u et o t h e o t h e rt h r e e .( A n s 0
: .97N

o u t w a r da l o n ga d i a g o n a H e s i n t h e p r e v i o uqs u e s t i o n
l ) i n tu s et h e s a m et e c h n i q u a

57
 l f t h e + 3 Cc h a r g eh a st o b e m o v e df r o m B t o A , i t m u s tb e
f o r q u e s t i o n1 :
Solution
f r o m t h e p o s i t i v ec h a r g e
p u s h e da g a i n stth e f o r c eo f r e p u l s i o n
+++++++++++++++ o n p l a t eA . T h i sm e a n st h e nt h a t w o r k m u s tb e d o n eO Nt h e
c h a r g ea s i t i s m o v e df r o m B t o A .

5mm R e c a ltlh a t w o r k d o n e= Q V

W = 3 Cx 4 0 V = 1 2 0 J .

l f t h e c h a r g el s m o v e df r o m A t o B ,t h e n n o e n e r g yn e e d st o b e
a d d e dt o t h e c h a r g eI.n t h i ss i t u a t i o nt,h e c h a r g el o s e si t s o w n
E l e c t r i c aplo t e n t i ael n e r g ya s i t i s a t t r a c t e dt o p l a t eB .T h i sl o s s
o f P Ei s g i v e na n e g a t i v es i g ns o t h e w o r k d o n ef r o m A t o B i s -
t20J.

Solutionfor question2: UseW =QV

Solutionfor question4:

(i) E - \ :d #
4 .-5:x 1 0 -
2 . 6 7x 1 0 sV m - 1
,
F o rc e- Eq - vq - L2aoxL.6x1o-1e
(ii) ac c el e ra tto n - : 4 . 6 8x ! 0 1 6 m s - 2
d xmass 4 . Sx 1 0 - 3 x 9 . 1 x 1 0 - 1 e
lex 16J
(iii) A P E =Q V =1 . 6x 1 0 1 2 0 0 =I . 9 2 x L 0
(iv) -!^u';v
T h el o s si n P E =i n c r e a sien K E ;H e n c e1 , . 9 2 x 1 0 - 1 6 : 2 . 0 5 x 1 0 7 m s1

(v) UsetheequationofmotionV=u*dt,t-,+-ffi=4'38x].0-1os

58
S o l u t i o nf o r q u e s t i o n5 :

I n t h i sq u e s t i o nu s et h e f a c tt h a t t h e l o s so f P E= G a i no f K E .W h e nt h e p r o t o n sa r e 3 x 1 0 - 1 2 m
a p a r t ,t h e
P o t e n t i ael n e r g yo f t h e S Y S T E M i s g i v e n0 V , f f i . I n t h i s c d s eQ 1= Q 2 =1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 s C .

= (t u'11 'llx(r'axro-'n)
-: -i ' 6 8 x 1 ' 0 - 1 7 J
HencePEof system +n'o*z'to-

n f 8 m m ,t h e n e w PEof the systemis givenby

W h e nt h e c h a r g e sm o v eo u t w a r d st o a s e p a r a t i o o

( 1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 e )x ( 1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 e )
PE2 - = Z . B Bx 1 , 0 - 2 6 J
4nesxBx10-3

l i l l i o nt i m e sl e s st h a nt h e o r i g i n aPl Ea n d h e n c et h e c h a n g ei n P Ew h i c hc a n
N o t et h a t t h i sn e w P Ei s s e v e r am
17J
be lvrittenas Af E=PE1-PE2= 7.68x LO

F r o mt h e c o n s e r v a t i oonf e n e r g yt h e l o s so f P E= G a i no f K E , b u t t h i st o t a l K Ei s s h a r e de q u a l l ya m o n gt h e
t w o p r o t o n ss i n c et h e y h a v ei d e n t i c am
l a s sa n d c h a r g e .

S ow e c a nw r i t e , ) m v ' + ) m u 2 = 7 . 6 8 x t 0 - 1 7J o r m v 2 : 7 . 6 8 x 1 0 - 1 7

a
7.68 x 1,0-17 7.68 x L0-17
,r2 - : 4 . 5 8x 1 0 1 o
L . 6 7 x ! 0 - 2 7k g

4 . 5 8x 1 0 1 0: 2 . ! 4 x 1 0 s m s - 1

T h es a m em e t h o di s e m p l o y e df o r p a r t s( i i )a n d ( i i i )

S o l u t i o nf o r q u e s t i o n6 :

Q z =- 1 0 0 P C
Qr=200PC 2ocm
20cm
nA{#n
ALJj-- n C n
B

100cm

F i n d i n tgh e p o t e n t i aal t D :
'Firstly
f i n d t h e p o t e n t i aal t D u et o t h e c h a r g ea t A O N L Y :
200x1.0-12x9x1-0e
t/-h-
' :9V
4tegr1 0.2
l t D d u e t o t h e c h a r g ea t B o n l y :
The Potentiaa
-100x1,0-12x9x10e
Qz : -1,.725V
vz:
4rcesr2 0.8
T h ep o t e n t i aal t D i s : h e nf o u n db y a d d i n gV 1a n dV 2; V1 *V2= 9 V + ( - 1 . 1 2 5 V )7=. 8 7 5 V

59
T h ep o t e n t i aal t C i s f o u n di n a s i m i l aw
r a y ,i . e .

( P o t e n t i aal t C d u e t o t h e 2 0 0 p Cc h a r g eo n l y) + ( P o t e n t i a l aCt d u et o - 1 0 0 p Cc h a r g eo n l y ) .

2 0 0 x L 0 - 1 2x 9 x 1 0 e -100 x!0-12 x9 x 10e

I

2.25V
0.8 02
( i i i )l n t r a n s f e r r i nag - 5 0 0; r Cc h a r g ef r o m C t o D , i t i s n e c e s s a rt yo f i r s tf i n dt h e P O T E N T I A L
differencb e e t w e e nC a n d D ,

V D- V c : 7 . 8 7 5 V- ( - 2 , 2 5 V ) : 1 0 . 1 2 5 V

V i s g i v e nb y W = Q V ;
T h ew o r k d o n e ' w h e na c h a r g eQ m o v e st h r o u g ha p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e

H e n c eW - - 5 0 0 x 1 0 b x ( 1 0 . 1 2 5 V ) =5-. 0 6x 1 0 3 JT .
h e n e g a t i v es i g ni n d i c a t etsh a t t h e - 5 0 0 p Cc h a r g el o s e s
P Ea s i t g o e sf r o m a n e g a t i v ep o t e n t i atlo a p o s i t i v ep o t e n t i a

Solutionfor Question7: A t t h e c e n t r eo f t h e s q u a r ei,t i s n e c e s s a rtyo f i n d t h e d i s t a n c e

b e t w e e na n yo n e o f t h e c h a r g ea n dt h e c e n t r ep o i n t .

30cm
1 h i,s d i s t a n c ei s f r 5 2 + 1 5 2 -
U s i n gP y t h a g o r a s ' T h e o r etm
^,l4so- 2r.zcm.

J T h e p o t e n t i adl u e t o E A C Hc h a r g ei s t h e n f o u n df r o m

v 'j - rQ' - 2x10--6-x9xloe =8.5 xro4v

4rc€sr1 0.212
30cm
T h e p o t e n t i aol f a l l f o u r c h a r g e sw o u l dt h e n b e 4 x 8 . 5 x 1 0 4 V-
| 3 . 4 vx l o s Z

60
 CAPACITORS

A c a p a c i t oirs a d e v i c et h a t i s u s e dt o s t o r ee l e c t r i c h a r g eT. h i ss t o r e dc h a r g e
c a nt h e n b e u s e d
w h e na r e l a t i v e llya r g eb u r s to f c h a r g ei s r e q u i r e de . g . t o s t a r ta m o t o r . t, o a c t i v a t e
a camera
flasho , r t o s w i t c ho n a f l u o r e s c e nt u t be.

T h es t o r e dc h a r g ec a na l s ob e a l l o w e dt o b e r e l e a s e sdl o w l y t h r o u g ah r e s i s t o r
in a smoothing
c i r c u i ta, n dt h i s h a sp r a c t i c aal p p l i c a t i o ni n
s c o n v e r t i n ag r e c t i f i e da l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n ti n t oa n
a l m o s tc o n s t a ndt i r e c tc u r r e n t .

C a p a c i t o rcso n s i sot f t w o m e t a ls h e e t ss e p a r a t e bd y a n i n s u l a t o rT. h ei n s u l a t o r

i s c a l l e dt h e
DIELECTRIC.

T h ew h o l ea r r a n g e m e notf t h e m e t a ls h e e t sw i t h t h e d i e l e c t r iicn b e t w e e n ,i s
t h e n r o l l e di n t o a
s m a l tl i g h tc y l i n d ear n ds e a l e di n a c a s ew i t h t w o t e r m i n a les x t e n d i nogu t .

T h eC A P A C I T A N C
o fEa c a p a c i t oirs g i v e nb y t h e e q u a t i o nc _
3
W h e r eQ i s t h e c h a r g es t o r 6 da n dV i s t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s .

Capacitance
is definedas the chargerequiredto causeunit changein potentialdifference
betweenthe plates.

T h eu n i t o f c a p a c i t a n ci set h e F a r a d( F ).

T h e F a r a di s d e f i n e da st h e c a p a c i t a n coef a c a p a c i t oirf a c h a r g eo f 1 Cc a u s e s
a c h a n g eo f 1 V
b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s .

T h ef a r a di s a n e x t r e m e l yl a r g ec a p a c i t a n caen, dt y p i c a cl a p a c i t o risn h o u s e h o l d
a p p l i a n c easr e
r a t e di n m i l l i - f a r a d(sm F )o r m i c r o - f a r a c i s ( p F ) .

6I
 CAPACITANCE:
AFFECTING
FACTORS

d the
F o rt w o p a r a l l epl l a t e sh a v i n ga n a r e ao f o v e r l a pA a n d s e p a r a t e bd y a d i s t a n c e
c a p a c i t a n coef t h e p a r a l l epl l a t ec a p a c i t oirs g i v e nb y : C : 4 d

Wheree is the permitivityof the medium,ORdielectricconstantof the medium.

lf the spacebetweenthe platesis a vacuumthen we write : C : I A

T h ec a p a c i t a n ci n l yh e nt h e s p a c eb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s f i l l e dw i t h
e c r e a s essi g n i f i c a n tw
g a t e r i asl u c ha s p o l y s t y r e noer g l a s so r p o l y t h e n e .
i n s u l a t i nm

is determinedby 3 factorsi.e
Hencethe maghitudeof the Capacitance

( i ) T h ed i e l e c t r icco n s t a not f t h e m a t e r i abl e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s ,

( i i ) T h eA r e ao f o v e r l a po f t h e p l a t e sa n d

(iii)The o f s e p a r a t i oonf t h e p l a t e s .
distance

62
 DIELECTRICS

RelativePermitivity:

T h i si s t h e r a t i oo f t h e c a p a c i t a n cwei t h a n dw i t h o u t t h ed i e l e c t r ibc e t w e e n
the plates.
T h e r e l a t i v ep e r m i t t i v i t iys d e n o t e db y t h e s y m b o le , . a n di s g i v e nb y t h e
equation:

Cap aci"tance w tth die lectr ic

t -' :
Capaci"tancewith vacuum

or ca
tr:;

D i e l e c t r i ccsa na l s ob e c l a s s i f i eadc c o r d i ntgo t h e i r D I E L E C T Rs ITcR E N G T H S .

The DIELECTRIC STRENGTH of any materialis the electricfieldstrengthor potentialgradientat

w h i c hi t s i n s u l a t i o bn r e a k sd o w n a n d i t b e g i n st o c o n d u c b
t y a l l o w i n gs p a r k st o t r a v e lt h r o u g h
it.

T h ef o l l o w i n gt a b l eg i v e s6 o m et y p i c a dl i e l e c t r i ct so g e t h e rw i t h t h e i r
c o r r e s p o n d i nr g
elative
p e r m i t i v i t i easn d d i e l e c t r isct r e n g t h sw
, h i c hy o u M U S TL E A R N .

MATERIAL R E L A T I VPEE R M I T I V I T DIELECTRIC

Y STRENGTH
( n ou n i t s ) ( K i l o v o l tpse r m m )
Air 1.005
ParaffinWax 2 15-50
Gl a s s 5-10 30-150
M ica 6 80- 200
Water 81
lce 94

63
 lmportanceof the Dielectric

T h eD I E L E C T RhIaCst h r e ev e r yi m p o r t a nftu n c t i o n sT. h e ya r e :

(1) lt servesto keepthe platesat a smallconstantfixed distanceapart.

(2) lt allowsthe capacitorto acquirea much highervoltagewhilst reducingthe possibility

o f s p a r k i n gl.f t h e r ew a s n o d i e l e c t r ipc r e s e n tt,h e a i r b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e sw o u l db e c o m e
i o n i z e dw h e n a s u f f i c i e n t lhyi g hv o l t a g ei s a p p l i e da, n d s p a r k sw o u l db e p r o d u c e da s
o m t h e a i r m o l e c u l etso t h e p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dp l a t e sa n d p o s i t i v e
e l e c t r o n s . m i g r af rt e
i o n sm i g r a t et o t h e n e g a t i v e lcyh a r g e dp l a t e .A t t h i s p o i n t ,t h e a i r i s s a i dt o b e
a n dt h e v o l t a g ea t w h i c ht h i so c c u r si,s c a l l e dt h e b r e a k d o w n
e x p e r i e n c i nbgr e a k d o w n
voltage.

D i e l e c t r i ccsa nw i t h s t a n dm u c hh i g h e re l e c t r i cf i e l d st h a n a i r b e f o r ea n yc o n d u c t i o cna n
t a k ep l a c eb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si.. e .t h e d i e l e c t r i chsa v ea m u c hh i g h e rb r e a k d o w n
v o l t a g et h a nt h a t o f a i r .

( 3 ) T h e d i e l e c t r i icn c r e a s etsh e c a p a c i t a n coef t h e c a p a c i t o rA. n y a i r f i l l e d . c a p a c i two irl l

h a v ea c a p a c i t a n ct h e a t i s m a n yt i m e sl o w e rt h a na n o t h e ro n e o f s i m i l a d r i m e n s i o nasn d
m a t e r i a ltsh a t h a sa d i e l e c t r ibc e t w e e nt h e p l a t e sT. h em o l e c u l eisn t h e d i e l e c t r i c
m a t e r i aal c q u i r ei n d u c e dc h a r g eds u et o t h e c h a r g eosn t h e p l a t e s .

c o l e c u l e as c q u i r ea p o s i t i v ec h a r g eo n
S i n c et h e d i e l e c t r i m
o n e e n d a n d a n e g a t i v ec h a r g eo n t h e o t h e re n d ,i t i s s a i dt o
bepolarized.

T h ec h a r g e so n t h e s u r f a c e . ot h f e d i e l e c t r i ca,d j a c e ntto t h e
p l a t e sa r e o f o p p o s i t es i g nt o t h o s eo n t h e p l a t e sa, n d a s a
h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt h e
r e s u l t h e y R E D U CtE
plates.

F r o mt h e f o r m u l a :

c- ?,"decreaseinV would causean tncreasetn C

( S i n c et h e t o t a l c h a r g eQ i s c o n s e r v e d )

64
 Capacitors
in Series:

Vr V2 V3

-olo -lo

C2

V1

A c h a r g eo f - Q l e a v e st h e n e g a t i v tee r m i n a ol f t h e b a t t e r ya n d a c h a r g eo f + q l e a v e st h e
p o s i t i v et e r m i n a l H
. e n c em a t h e m a t i c a ltlhye n e t c h a r g el e a v i n g
t h e b a t t e r yi s z e r o ,a n d s i n c e
t h e c h a r g eo s n t h e p l a t e so f t h e c a p a c i t oar r e+ Q a n d- e , t h e n e t c h a r g eo n e a c hc a p a c i t oirs
zero.

T h i si n d i c a t etsh a t c h a r g e ' icso n s e r v esdi n c eT O T A LC H A R GlE t h e b a t t e r y= T O T A L

eaving
C H A R GaEc q u i r e b
d yt h ec a p a c i t o r s .

T h ea c t i o no f t h e c a p a c i t oirs t h e n r e a l l yt o s e p a r a t teh e n e g a t i v e
c h a r g e fsr o m t h e p o s i t i v e
ones.

F o r c o n v e n i e n ci ne c a l c u l a t i o nt sh ,e c h a r g eo n o n e p l a t ei s c o n s i d e r e id. .e .l f a c h a r g eo f + e
a c c u m u l a t eosn t h e p o s i t i v ep l a t ea n da c h a r g eo f - Q a c c u m u l a t eos n t h e n e g a t i v ep l a t e t, h e n
i n t h e c a l c u l a t i oanc h a r g eo f Q i s u s e d T
. h es i g no f t h e c h a r g ei s n o t i m p o r t a n t .

H e n c ef o r t h e s e r i e sc i r c u i ta b o v et,h e c h a r g eo n e a c hc a p a c i t oirs Q a n d t h e t o t a lc h a r g e
leaving
t h e b a t t e r yi s a l s oQ .

l f V 1 , V z , d n d V 3 r e p r e s e n t h e v o l t a g e sa c r o s sC t , C z a n dC 3r e s p e c t i v e l yt ,h e n b y t h e
c o N S E R V A T I OO
N F E NE R G y , Vr - v1 + Vz + V:

tl -
0
But v-

C
Ilence Vr ::
n
Y a,Q,
tl
a
L7 C7 C2 C.
_ J

11,,1_,L
i f w e d i v i d et h e i a t : e re q u a t i o nb y q t h e n w e g e t :
C7 Cr'Cr'C=

65
 Capacitorst n P a r a l l e l :
V

Bythe conservation of charge,the total chargeQ 1 leavingthe battery,is equalto the sum of
s c c u m u l a t i nogn t h e c a p a c i t o r s .
t h e c h a r g ea

Therefore,Qr = Qr +Q2+Q3l

By Kirchoff's loop rulewhichis a statementof the conservation of energy,the voltagesacross

e a c hc a p a c i t oirs t h e s a m ea n d i s e q u a lt o t h e b a t t e r yv o l t a g e .

S i n c eQ = ! V , t h e n Q r = C r V ; Q z= C z V ; a n dQ : = C i V

Q, =CrV=C1V+CzV+CgV

W h e n3 c a p a c i t o rasr ec o n n e c t e idn P a r a l l etlh, e t o t a l

capacitance is givenby Cr= Cr+ C,+ C,

66
 ENERGY
STORED
IN A CAPACITOR
Energycanbe storedin a capacitorvia a batteryin the f o l l o w i ncgi r c u i t :

I n t h e g r a p ho f V v e r s u sQ , t h e
a r e au n d e rt h e g r a p h
representsthe energystored
in the capacitor

a
W h e nt h e c a p a c i t ohr a si n i t i a l l yz e r oc h a r g eo n i t , t h e p o t e n t i adl i f t e r e n c b
e e t w e e np o i n t s A
a n d B i s V . i . e .t h e p . d .b e t w e e nt h e p o s i t i v ep o l eo f t h e b a t t e r ya n dt h e u n c h a r g elde f t p l a t ei s
V.

Hencethe chargesINITIALLY
passthrougha potentialdifferenceof V volts.

A s t h e c a p a c i t oar c q u i r e s . n . r r " ,t h e p o t e n t i aol n t h e l e f t p l a t er i s e sf r o m 0 + Vil Vz+ Vs

etc.

The potentialdifferencethat the chargepassesthrough will therrefore

DECREASE
from

V + (V -vr)---+ (V - Vz), + -------0 etc.untilthe pointwherethe batteryvoltageis

e q u a lt o t h e c a p a c i t ovro l t a g ew
, h i c hc a u s e tsh e p . d .b e t w e e nt h e b a t t e r ya n d c a p a c i t otro b e
zero.

Duringthe entirechargingprocess,
the potentialdifferencethat the chargepasses through,
would havechangedfrom V to zero.Hencethe AVERAGE potentialdifferencethat the total
c h a r g eQ p a s s etsh r o u g ,hr t -f,
T

T h ew o r k d o n ei n m o v i n ga c h a r g eQ t h r o u g ha n a v e r a g ep o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c o
e f Y is givenby
2
W:V 2

T h ew o r k d o n ei n m o v i n gt h e c h a r g ei s e q u a lt o t h e e n e r g ys t o r e di n t h e c a p a c i t o r

o
g =
S u b s t i t u t i nC givesthree usefulequationsfor energystoredin the capacitor;
|

- ----
w- QV Q2 CVz
22C2
Y o um u s tl e a r nt h e s ee q u a t i o n s ! ! ! ! !

67
 C a p a c i t oQr u e s t i o n s

( 1 ) F i n dt h e e q u i v a l e ncta p a c i t a n ci n
e e a c hc a s e :

(i) r-IHH A n s7 . 6 2 p r F

471tF 100prF 10;tF

100uF

(ii)
108.25;rF

:f
10uF 47p,F

80prF 20prF

]H A n s1 1 6 U F

100prF

80prF

Ans.200;rF

( 2 )T h et e r m i n a l sa t A a n d B a r e n o w c o n n e c t e tdo a 2 0 Vs o u r c ei n e a c hc a s e R
. e d r a we a c h
c a p a c i t o(rb )T h e
c i r c u i t o i n c l rJ e t h e p o w e rs u p p l ya, n df i n d ( a ) T h ep . d .a c r o s sE A C H
c h a r g es t o r e di n E A C Hc a p a c i t o ra n d ( c )T h eenergystoredin EACHcapacitor.

68
(1) 20v
V + z: 3 . 2 4 V ; V r c o
: 1 , . 5 2 V ; V r-c I S . Z 4 V

Q + z: Q r c : 0 r o o - I . S 2 x 1 , 0 - 4 C

E+z=2.45x1.0-4J

E r . o o_ 1 , 1 5x 1 0 - 4 J
471tF 1009F 10pF
El,o:1'15x10-3J

100sF

(2) V r c o: 2 0 V ; V t o= 1 , 6 . 5 V ; V +: z 3 . S V

Q r c o_ 2 x 1 , 0 - 3 c

Q+z=Qrc:1.65x1'0-4C

Erco_ 0.02J

E + z: 2 . 9 x L 0 - 4 J

20v E t : 1 . 3 6x 1 0 - 2 J

80uF 201tF

Veo: 4V; V2s- 16V; Vlss : 20V

Q e o: Q z o: 3 . 2 x i . 0 - 4 C

Q r o o_ 2 x . 1 , 0 - 3 C
100pF
E e o= 6 . 4 x 1 0 - 4 J

Ezo:2.56x1,0-3J

20v Erco_Z.0xI0-2J

69
 A CAPACITOR.
AND DISCHARGING
CHARGING
it acrossa resistoras shown:
d connecting
A c a p a c i t oirs n o r m a l l yd i s c h a r g eby
C

R
d
A st h e c a p a c i t o r i s c h a r g a
e sc r o s R
s ,its s t o r e dc h a r g d
e e c r e a s ewsi t h t i m e ,a n d h e n c et h e
magnitude o f t h e c u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u i w e i t ht i m e .
t i l l a l s od e c r e a sw

and
of currentdependson the magnitudeof the productof resistance
The rateof decrease
, o n t h e v a l u eo f R C .
c a p a c i t a n c ie. e

T h eq u a n t i t yR Ci s c a l l e dt h e T I M EC O N S T A N Ta n d h a su n i t so f s e c o n d s .

Hence 10 x 1F= lsecond .

=
D u r i n gt h e d i s c h a r g et h, e c u r r e n th a st h e m a x i m u mv a l u el oa t t i m e 0 .
-ft
"/nc
T h em a g n i t u d e o f t h e c u r r e n ta t a n yt i m e t , i s g i v e nb y / = l o €
S i m i l a r lfyo r c h a r g eQ a t a n Yt i m e t ;
Q - Qse-tl*c
Thevoltagea t a n y t i m e t d u r i n gd i s c h a r g ei s g i v e n b y :
V : Vor-tlnc
following
Thegraphsof eithervoltagev . st i l T € i ,c u r r e n vt . s .t i m e o r c h a r g ev . s .t i m e h a v et h e
shapefor DISCHARGE
"/nc -ft

I : Ioe
(V,l, or Q)
-ft -/nc
Q - Qoe
-/nc -ft

V - Voe

time

70
 CHARGtNG
OFA CAPACTTOE

W h e na c a p a c i t oirs b e i n gC H A R G E D
t h e V O L T A Ga
En d C H A R G E
i n c r e a sw
e i t h t i m e u n t i lt h e y
r e a c ha m a x i m u mv a l u e T
. h ec u r r e n th o w e v e rd, e c r e a s ewsi t h t i m e a n d h a st h e s a m es h a p ef o r
discharging.

Voltage
charge

time
c ur r e n t

-fr

I : Ioe "/RC

Q - Q o( 1 - e - t / n c )

V - Vo(I - ,-t /nc)

N o t et h e d i f f e r e n c eisn e q u a t i o n fso r
charging
a n dd i s c h a r g i n T
g .h eV o , Q o
a n d l ev a l u e sr e p r e s e nt th e m a x i m u m
time v a l u e si n t h i sc a s e .

7t
 C O M P A R I S OONFC H A R G I NAGN D D I S C H A R G I N G

c a . s e:s
C o n s i d et rw o s e p a r a t e

t o a v o l t a g eo f 2 0 V a n dt h e n m a d et o
( 1 ) A c a p a c i t ohr a v i n ga c a p a c i t a n coef 2 5 p r iFs c h a r g e d
d i s c h a r gteh r o u g ha 5 0 k Or e s i s t o rD. e t e r m i n teh e t i m e t a k e nf o r t h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e c a p a c i t o r t o
f al l t o 5 V .

a n dt h e p . d .a c r o s ist i s 5 V .l t i s
( 2 )A c a p a c i t ohra v i n ga c a p a c i t a n coef 2 5 ; r Fi s p a r t i a l lcyh a r g e d
t h e n c h a r g e dt h r o u g ha 5 0 k Or e s i s t otro a p . d .o f 2 0 V .D e t e r m i n teh e t i m e t a k e nf o r t h i s
process.
charging

l n t h e f i r s tc a s e
tlnc,
V - Voe

v -t v / 51
t"% -# ; t - -RC r"uo- (-s0000x 25x 10-t)(r"^) :1..73s

l n t h e s e c o n dc a s e ,
tlnc)
V - Vo(I - e

V' -r, / 7\ -tr / I/l -t

Vo \ vo/ \ Vo/ RC

/ 5t -t
tn(r-fi) -
soooffi;
r : 5 0 0 00 x 2 5 x 1 0 - 6x l n ( 0. 7 5 ) : 0 . 3 6 s

Th" resultsindicatethatthe time required from20Vto 5Vis

for discharging
throughthe samepotentialdifference.
totallydifferentfromthat for charging

72
 Significance
of the TimeConstant

R e c a lt lh a t f o r D I S C H A R G I N
t hGe,V o l t a g ea t a n yi n s t a n it s g i v e nb y :

V : V o r - t l * r , w h e r eR Ci s t h e T i m eC o n s t a n t

l f w e c o n s i d ear t i m e t w h e r et = R Ct,h e nt h e e q u a t i o nb e c o m e s :

V - V o e "- 1
' o, r v - - V o
ev

Thisequationtellsus that the TimeConstantis the time for whichthe potential

differenceacrossthe capacitorfallsto 1of its initialvalueduringa discharge.
e

11,
T h e u a l u eo f e - 2 . 7 1 8 , h e n c e - 0.368
; LTIB-

Hencewhen t : CR, V : 0.36BVo

A f t e ra p p r o x i m a t e 3
l yt i m e c o n s t a n t st h, e c a p a c i troi s o l m o sct o m p l e t e ldy i s c h a r g e d .

T h i sc a nb e d e m o n s t r a t eadsf o l l o w sw h e nt = 3 C R

V - V o e - = ; V : 0 . 0 5 7 0w h i c h i . sc l o s et o z e r o .

S i m i l a r lfyo r t h e c h a r g i npgr o c e s s
tlnc);wheftt:3RC,
V -Vo(I -e V -VoI-e-3); V - 0.9SI/0

H e n c ea f t e r3 t i m e c o n s t a n ttsh e c a p a c i t oirs a l m o s tf u l l yc h a r g e d .

73
 DISCHARGE
CAPACITOR SHEET
TUTORIAL

t o 6 V a n dt h e n m a d et o d i s c h a r gaec r o s sa L 2 0 k Qr e s i s t o r .
( 1 ) A 5 0 p Fc a p a c i t oirs c h a r g e d
C a l c u l a t:e

( i )T h et i m e c o n s t a not f t h e d i s c h a r gcei r c u i t
( i i ) T h et i m e st h a t w o u l dh a v ee l a p s e fdo r t h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e c a p a c i t o r t foa l lt o 3 V a n d 1 V
( i i i )T h ec h a r g et h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dt h r o u g ht h e r e s i s t oar f t e r5 s e c o n d s
( i v )T h ee n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t oar f t e r2 s e c o n d s . ( H i n t ; f itnhde i n i t i ael n e r g ya n d
, e n f i n dt h e d i f f e r e n c e )
t h e n t h e e n e r g ya f t e r2 s e c o n d st h
4t.)
(Ans:6s;4.1,6s;1'0.75s; t.7 x 10-4C ; 4.4 x tO

( 2 ) A 1 0 O 0 p cFa p a c i t oirs c h a r g e dt o 1 2 Va n dt h e n m a d et o d i s c h a r gaec r o s sa L . 5 M O

resistor.
C a l c u l a t:e
( i )T h et i m e c o n s t a not f t h e d i s c h a r gcei r c u i t
( i i )T h et i m e st h a t w o u l dh a v ee l a p s e d f o r t h e p . d .a c r o s st h e c a p a c i t otro f a l lt o 9 V ,6 V
'
and l-V
( i i i )T h ec h a r g et h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dt h r o u g ht h e r e s i s t oar f t e r8 7 5 s e c o n d s
( i v )T h ee n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t oar f t e r2 0 0s e c o n d a s n dt h e c u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u i t
at thatinstant
(v) T h ep . d .a c r o s st h e c a p a c i t oar f t e r3 0 0 s
(Ans:1500s;432s;1040s; 3727s;5.3x1-0-3s; 1,.7xIOZJ;7 x10-6A;9.82V)

( 3 ) A 2 5 0 0 p rcFa p a c i t oirs c h a r g e d t o 8 V a n dt h e n m a d et o d i s c h a r gaec r o s sa 3 0 0 k O

resistor.
C a l c u l a t:e
( i )T h et i m e c o n s t a not f t h e d i s c h a r gcei r c u i t
( i i )T h et i m e st h a t w o u l dh a v ee l a p s e df o r t h e p . d .a c r o s st h e c a p a c i t otro f a l lt o O Va n d
4V
( i i i )T h ec h a r g et h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dt h r o u g ht h e r e s i s t oar f t e r5 0 0 s e c o n d s
( i v )T h ee n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t oar f t e r5 0 0s e c o n d s
(750s;2t6s;520s;0.01C;0.06J
)

74
 (4) A 1500;rFcapacitoris chargedto 6V andthen madeto discharge acrossa 800kO
resistor.
C a l c u l a t:e
( i )T h et i m e c o n s t a not f t h e d i s c h a r gcei r c u i t
( i i )T h et i m e t h a t w o u l dh a v ee l a p s e d
f o r t h e e n e r g yo f t h e c a p a c i t otro f a l lt o S O %
of its
i n i t i avl a l u e
(iii)Thetime that would haveelapsedfor the energyof the capacitorto fallto 2O%ofits
i n i t i a vl a l u ea n dt h e c u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u i a
t t thatinstant.
(iv)Theenergystoredin the capacitorafter its initialchargefallsto 30%ofits initial
value
( v )T h e p . d .a c r o s st h e c a p a c i t owr h e n i t s e n e r g ys t o r e di s 4 5 %o f t h e i n i t i a vl a l u e .
(Ans:1200s; 4I7s; 967s;3.35x10'
A; 2.43xt03t;+.OZV)

( 5 ) A 2 0 p Fc a p a c i t oirs c h a r g e d t o a p . d .o f 6 V b y a b a t t e r y l.t i s t h e n d i s c o n n e c t ef rdo m t h e

b a t t e r ya n d c o n n e c t e a d c r o s sa n i n i t i a l l yu n c h a r g e4d0 p r F
capacitor.
(i) D e t e r m i n e J hpe. d .a c r o s st h e c o m b i n a t i oann dt h e e n e r g ys t o r e d .
(ii) T h ec o m b i n a t i oonf t h e t w o c a p a c i t o r(sc o n n e c t eidn p a r a l l e li)s t h e n c o n n e c t e d
a c r o s sa 4 5 0 k Or e s i s t oirn o r d e r t o d i s c h a r giet . D e t e r m i n teh e t i m e t h a t m u s t
e l a p s ef o r t h e e n e r g ys t o r e di n t h e c o m b i n a t i otno f a l lt o o n e q u a r t e ro f i t s i n i t i a l
v a l u ea n dt h e c u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e r e s i s t oar t t h a t i n s t a n t .

(Ans: 2V; 1..2x1,0-a

J; 1,8.7s; Z.22x1,0-6
A)

75
 Solutionsfor CapacitorDischarge

( 1 ) ( i ) T i m eC o n s t a nrt = C R= 5 0 x L 0 - 6
x 1 , 2 0 x1 0 3 =6 s e c o n d s .
(ii) Use7 - Vor-il^, where Vo : 6V, and"V : 3V
-rt 3
H e n c e3 - 6 e - t l n cb u t R C : 6 , s o 3 : 6 e - t l u ; ,-tlu
Z-
3-t-t
ln= : . ; -0.693 :: ;t : 0.693x 6 x- 4.I6s
666

- 'r//o ; l n 1 , - t
WhenV : IV ;I _ 6e ; t :10.75s
6: 6
( i i i )U s e Q: Q or . - t l n cb u t f i r s t f i . n d "Q s ; Q o : C V s - 5 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 6 : 3 x 1 0 - 4 C
H e n c eQ - 3 x 1 0 - a e - s l o- 1 . 3 x I 0 - 4 C
T h a tv a l u eo f Q r e p r e s e n ttsh e c h a r g er e m a i n i n ign t h e c a p a c i t oar f t e r5 s e c o n d sT.h ec h a r g e
t h a t w o u l dh a v eb e e nl o s tf r o m t h e c a p a c i t oi rs e q u a l t ot h e D I F F E R E NbCeEt w e e nt h e i n i t i a l
c h a r g ea n dt h e f i n a lc h a r g e .
i . e .3 x 1 0 - + 6 - 1 . 3x 1 0 - 4 C: 1 , . 7x I 0 - 4 C

( i v )F i n d . I n i t t a l E n e r g y s t o r e d .t . e . E s - ) t u & - -
1* 50 x 10-6 x 62 9 x r0-4J
A f t e r 2 s e c o n d sf ,i - n dt h e n e w v o ' I t a g et . r . V - V o r - t l n c ; V - 6 e - z l o- 4 . 3 V
1,^1
. ThenuseagatnE- 50x 10-6x4.32:4.6 xI0-4J.
ZCVt:rx
T h ed i f f e r e n c ien t h e t w o v a l u e so f t h e c a l c u l a t eedn e r g i e rse p r e s e n ttsh e e n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy
t h e c a p a c i t oi .re . 9 x 1 0 - + 1- 4 . 6 x 1 0 - a - 4 . 4 x t 0 - 4 J

76
( 2 ) ( i ) T i m ec o n s t a n rt = c R= 1 0 0 0x l - 0 ' 6x 1 . 5x 1 0 6 =1 5 0 0s e c o n d s
( i i ) U s e7 - V o r - t l n cw h e r e V o: 1 2 V , a n d V : 9 V

H e n c e9 : 7 2 r - t l a cb u t R C : 1 5 0 0 , s o 9 : L 2 e - t l r c o o; ,-t/rroo
*:
9-t-t
l n - : - : : i ; - 0 '.228888 : ' r -
; t : 0 , 2 8 8 x 1 5 0 0: 4 3 2 s
1,2 15oo 15oo

W h e n V: 6 V ; 6 : 1 2 r - t l r c o o ; l n ; t:1040s
*:#
W h e n V: i , V; 1 : r 2 r - t l r c ;ol o
n+ : # : ; t : 3727s

( i i i ) U s e Q : Q o r - t l n cb u t f i " r s t f i . n d . Q s ; Q o : C V s - 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 1 2 : 1 , 2 x 10-3C
H e n c eQ - t 2 x 1 0 - 3 r - u " / r r 0 0 - 6 . 7 x 1 0 - 3 C

T h a tv a l u eo f Q r e p r e s e n ttsh e c h a r g er e m a i n i n ign t h e c a p a c i t oar f t e r8 7 5s e c o n d sT.h ec h a r g e

t h a t w o u l dh a v eb e e nl o s tf r o m t h e c a p a c i t oirs e q u a lt o t h e D I F F E R E N C
b eEt w e e nt h e i n i t i a l
c h a r g ea n dt h e f i n a lc h a r g e .
i . e .1 2 x I 0 - 3 C - 6 . 7 x I 0 - 3 C : 5 . 3 x 1 0 - 3 C

( i v )F f . n d I. n t t i a l E n e r g y s t o r e di . . e . E s: ) t U & -! x 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 1 . 2 2: 7 2 x I0-3J
-
Af ter 200 second.s, f ind"the new voltage t. e.V - Vor-tlnc;V : 1.2r-'oolrs00 I0.SV
1^1
T h e n u s ea g a i n E - : 2 x 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 1 0 , 5 2: 5 5 x t 0 - 3 J .
tCVt
T h ed i f f e r e n c ien t h e t w o v a l u e so f t h e c a l c u l a t eedn e r g i e rse p r e s e n ttsh e e n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy
t h e c a p a c i t oi .r e . 7 2x 1 0 - : 7 - 5 5 x 1 0 - 3 : 1 . 7 x t 0 - 3 J

r j ' s v- -
T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u iat t t h a t i n s t a nits f o u n df r o m I - Y - 7 x 1,0-6A
R 1 . 5x 1 0 b

( i v )U s eV : V o r - t l * , w h e r e V o: 1 , 2 V , a n dt ": 3 0 0 s , R C : 1 5 0 0 s
V : 1,ze-=oo r sl o o- g . B z V

77
 MAGNETIC
FIELDS

co
W h e n e v ear c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g n d u c t oor f l e n g t h/ i s p l a c e di n a m a g n e t i c f i e l da,f o r c ei s
e x e r t e do n t h e c o n d u c t opr r o v i d i n tgh a t t h e c u r r e n ti s n o t p a r a l l et lo t h e f i e l d .
T h ef o r c ea c t i n go n t h e c o n d u c t oirs g i v e nb y t h e e q u a t i o n :
F : Bllstn 0
W h e r e0 i s t h e a n g l eb e t w e e nt h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e c u r r e n ta n dt h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e m a g n e t i c
field.
T h e q u a n t i t y/ r e p r e s e n ttsh e l e n g t ho f c o n d u c t otrh a t i s i n t h e m a g n e t i fci e l da n d " 8 " i s c a l l e d
t h e m a g n e t i fcl u x d e n s i t y .
T h ea b o v ee q u a t i o ni n d i c a t etsh a t t h e f o r c ei s m a x i m u mw h e ns i n O= 1 , a n dt h i so c c u r sw h e n0
= 9 0 " , i . et h
. e f o r c ei s m a x i m u mw h e nt h e c u r r e n ta n dt h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e ladr ea t
9 0 "t o e a c ho t h e r .

H e n c eF : B I L w h e nt h e c u r r e n ta n dt h e f i e l da r ea t r i g h ta n g l e st o e a c ho t h e r .
F r o mt h i s l a t t e re q u a t i o nw, e c a nd e d u c et h a t B - I , 1 * h " n 0 = 9 0 " )
IL

Definitionof FluxDensity: T h em a g n e t i fcl u xd e n s i t yB ,c a nb e

d e f i n e da st h e f o r c ea c t i n gp e r u n i t
c u r r e n ti n a w i r e o f u n i t l e n g t ha t r i g h t
anglesto the field.It is a vector

T h eu n i t o f m a g n e t i fcl u x d e n s i t yi s t h e T e s l a( T ) .
T h eT e s l ai s d e f i n e da sf o l l o w s :

A Teslais the magneticflux densityof a uniform field that

causesa force of 1N to act on a conductor.1m long and
carryinga currentof 1A,when the conductoris placed
perpendicularto the magneticfield

78
 c o n d u c t oirs p l a c e di n a m a g n e t i fci e l d ,t h e d i r e c t i o nof the forceon
W h e na c u r r e n t c- a r r y i n g
the conductoris givenby FLEMING'S LEFTHANDRULE
R e c a ltlh a t fhumb Forefinger seCond
iI
I
I
THRUST
I
V
FIELD
Itunnrrur
In Fleming'sLeft hand Rule,the current,field and force are alwaysat right anglesto each
other.

Forceon a Charge

W h i l et h e e x p r e s s i oFn= B l Ls i n 0i s u s e dt o d e t e r m i n et h e f o r c ea c t i n go n t h e c o n d u c t o rt ,h e
e q u a t i o nc a nb e m o d i f i e dt o d e t e r m i n et h e f o r c eo n e a c hc h a r g et h a t c o n s t i t u t teh e c u r r e n t .

F o ra c o n d u c t ocr a r r y i n ga c u r r e n t| , l e t t h e T o t a ln u m b e ro f c h a r g etsh a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e d
a f t e rs o m et i m e b e " n ". '

o f o n e c h a r g eb e " q " .
L e tt h e m a g n i t u d e

nq
Hence the current t-

t
B u tt h e f o r c eo n t h e c o n d u c t o irs e q u a lt o F r= B I Ls i n 0

Bnql x stn?
Substituttng f or I gi"uesFt:

T h i sF 1r ep r e s e n t tsh e forceon "n" charges i n t h e c o n d u c t o rh, e n c et h e f o r c eo n o n e c h a r g ei s

givenby :
BqIx stn? I d"i"stance
rtr2 - b u t t h e q u a n t i " t y- - :5f teedv.
t t ttrn

HenceF, - Bqv sin?

The force on a chargemovingwith a

speedv througha magneticfield of
flux densityB is givenby

F - Bqv sin9

79
l f t h e c h a r g em o v e sa t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e f i e l d ,t h e nt h e f o r c ew i l l b e a t r i g h ta n g l e st o b o t ht h e
f i e l da n dt h e v e l o c i t yo f t h e c h a r g e

C o n s i d ear p o s i t i v ec h a r g ee n t e r i n ga u n i f o r mm a g n e t i fci e l da t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e . f i e l d :

T h ef i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t ot h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r . a n db y F l e m i n g l' se f th a n dR u l e ,t h e f o r c ei s
. o w e v e irf F l e m i n g 'lse f t h a n dr u l ei s a p p l i e da t a l m o s te v e r yp o i n ti n
i n i t i a l l yd i r e c t e du p w a r d sH
t h e p a t ho f t h e c h a r g ei,t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t t h e m o t i o no f t h e c h a r g ei s c i r c u l aar s l o n ga st h e
c h a r g er e m a i n si n t h e f i e l d .
T h ec h a r g eu n d e r g o ecsi r c u l a r
m o t i o na n dt h e M a g n e t i cF o r c e=
C e n t r i p e t aFlo r c e .

mvz
BQv -
Hence wherem is
r
t h e m a s so f t h e c h a r g ea n d r i s t h e
mvz
BQY :
LEARN r a d i u so f t h e c i r c l e .
r

80
 M A G N E T IF
CI E L DTSU T O R I ASLH E E T

( 1 ) A w i r ec a r r y i n g a c u r r e n to f 8 A a n d 1 . 5m e t r e si n l e n g t hi s p l a c e di n a f i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y
0 . 4 5 T. W h a ti s t h e f o r c eo n t h e w i r e i f i t i s p l a c e d
( a ) A t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e f i e l d
( b ) A t 6 0 ' t ot h e f i e l d
( c ) A t 4 5 = t ot h e f i e l d
( d ) A l o n gt h e f i e l d ( A n s 5: . 4 N ; 4 . 6 8 N3 .; 8 2 N ; 0()U s eF = B r Ls i n 0 )

( 2 ) A t h i n c o n d u c t o6r m l o n ga n d c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n to f 0 . 4 5 Ai s p l a c e di n a u n i f o r mm a g n e t i c
f i e l da t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e f i e l d . O n l yp a r to f t h e c o n d u c t oirs e n v e l o p e d
i n t h e f i e l dw i t h
3 . 6 me x t e n d i nogu t o f t h e r e g i o nc o n t a i n i ntgh e f i e l d .l f t h e f o r c eo n t h e w i r e i s 7 . 2 Nf,i n d
t h e m a g n e t ifcl u xd e n s i t y . ( H i n t O : n l y2 . 4 mo f t h e w i r e i s s u b j e c t etdo t h e f i e l d .
( A n s 6: . 6 7 T \

( 3 ) A p i e c eo f w i r e 6 5 c m l o n g c a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 1 . 2 A i s p l a c e da t a n a n g l e0 t o a u n i f o r m
m a g n e t i cf i e l d o f F l u x d e n s i t y4 . 5 T . l ft h e f o r c eo n t h e w i r e i s 2 . 8 8 N ,c a l c u l a t et h e v a l u eo f 0 .
( A n s :5 5 " )

( a ) W h a t l e n g t ho f c o n d u c t ocr a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 3 . 3 4p l a c e da t a n a n g l eo f 7 0 "t o a m a g n e t i c
f i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y1 . 8 T , w i lcl a u s ea f o r c eo f 1 . 9 5 Nt o b e e x e r t e do n t h e c o n d u c t o r ?
( A n s .3:5 c m ) - .

( 5 ) l f 1 . 5 5 mo f w i r e c a r r y i n g
a c u r r e n to f 3 . 4 Ap l a c e di n a u n i f o r mf i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y2 . 2 T ,
w h a t m u s tb e t h e a n g l eb e t w e e nt h e c o n d u c t oar n dt h e f i e l di f t h e f o r c eo n t h e c o n d u c t o r
i s5 N ? ( A n s : 2 5 . 5 " ) .

( 6 ) A n e l e c t r o ne n t e r sa u n i f o r mm a g n e t i c f i e lodf f l u x d e n s i t2y . 5 f w i t h a v e l o c i t y o f
3 . 5x L 0 6 m 1 s a t a n a n g l eo f 4 0 " t ot h e f i e l d .C a l c u l a t e
h e f o r c eo n t h e e l e c t r o n .
( A n s 9: x 1 0 ' 1 3 N tF) = B q v s i n 0 l
'(7)Aproton(mass=!.67x1027Kgandcharge=1.6x1-0-1eC)
isfiredataspeedof6.5xl06ms-1
a t r i g h ta n g l e st o a m a g n e t i fci e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y3 x l - 02 T .D e t e r m i n teh e r a d i u so f t h e p a t ho f
t h e p r o t o nw h i l ei t i s i n t h e f i e l d .( H i n t U
: s eF - r y a n d .F - B q v ) ( A n2s . 2 6 m )
( 8 ) A n e l e c t r o ni s a c c e l e r a t ef dr o m r e s tt h r o u g ha p . d .o f 3 7 5 0 V l.t e n t e r sa r e g i o nw h e r e
B= 4 x L0-3T perpendicula t or i t sv e l o c i t yC. a l c u l a tteh e r a d i u so f t h e p a t hi t w i l l f o l l o w .
31
{ A n s5 . 2 c m ) R e c a i r, ' I r d sosf e l e c t r o ni s 9 . 1 x 1 0 k g a n d c h a r g e= 1 . 6 x l - 0 - 1 e c
1, 1_ mu2
F t r s t f i r t d s p e e do f e L e c t r o nf r o m W - Q V : t h e nuseBQ
,^r' r

81
 MagneticFluxPatterns

T h em a g n e t i cF i e l dP a t t e r nd u et o :

(1) A longstraightconductor-- Thefield linesare Circular

C u r r e n itn t o p l a n eo f P a P e r C u r r e n to u t o f p l a n eo f P a P e r

T h ed i r e c t i o no f t h e f i e l dl i n e si s g i v e nb y t h e R i g h H t a n dG r i pR u l e .
Thisrulestatesthat i f t h e r i g h th a n di s u s e dt o g r i pt h e c o n d u c t o rw, i t h t h e t h u m bp o i n t i n gi n
t h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e c u r r e n tt,h e n t h e d i r e c t i o no f c u r lo f t h e f i n g e r sw i l l givethe directionof the
m a g n e t ifci e l dl i n e s .

(2)Aflat circularcoil:
 A L O N GS O L E N O I D

Thernagnsti*
fi*ld is
O n l o o k i n ga t t h e c o i l
ffi= FI"nl *snceRtr*ted
f r o m o n e e n d ,i f t h e int*a n*arly
c ur r e n ti s nifsrmfield
aN t i c l o c k w i s, e
then n ths *sntsr
t h a t e n d i s a N - p o l ei;f a l*ng
i t i s c l o c k w i s ei t, i s a S - s*lsnsid.Ths
pole fieldoutside
is wsakand
dir,erge*t.
T h e r i g h th a n dg r i pr u l ec a nb e
a p p l i e dh e r ea g a i nt o g e t t h e
d i r e c t i o no f t h e f i e l d .H o l dt h e c o i l
w i t h t h e r i g h th a n ds o t h a t t h e c u r lo f
t h e f i n g e r sg i v et h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e
C U R R E NtTh;e t h u m bp o i n t i n g
o u t w a r d sg, i v e st h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e
FIELD.

83
 FLUXDENSITY:
OF MAGNETIC
CALCULATION

trg_r
( 1 ) A t a d i s t a n c e" r " f r o m a l o n gs t r a i g hw a c u r r e n tl ; B = . * t ,
t i r ec a r r y i n g
w h e r e$ oi s c a l l e dt h e p e r m e a b i l i t y offr e e s p a c ea n d h a sa v a l u eo f 4 n x 1 0 - ' H m

l i s t h e u n i tc a l l e dt h e H e n r yw h i c hi s a m e a s u r eo f I n d u c t a n c e
T h es y m b o H
n o t r e q u i r e db y s y l l a b u s .

( 2 ) A I t h e c e n t r eo f a f l a t c i r c u l acr o i lo f N t u r n s' 2,gr= * N I , w h e r e " r " i s t h er a d i u s

ofthecoil.
( 3 ) N e a rt h e c e n t r eo f a l o n gs o l e n o i,d B : V o n I , w h e r e" n " i s t h e n u m b e ro f
turns per unit length

B - P t f o r a l o n gs t r a i g hwt i r e ,w h e r er i st h e
zfir
d i s t a n c fer o m t h e a x i so f t h e w i r e

B - E r u f f o r t h e c e n t r eo f a f l a t c i r c u l acr o i l ,
2r
w h e r er i s t h e r a d i u so f t h e c o i l

B : VonI n e a rt h e c e n t r eo f a l o n gs o l e n o i d

N i s t h e n u m b e ro f t u r n sa n dn i s t h e n u m b e ro f t u r n s
per unit length

84
 MAGNETIC
FIELDS
TUTORIAL
SHEET

( 1 ) C a l c u l a t teh e m a g n e t i cf l u x d e n s i t ya t a p o i n t ( a ) 1 2 c m a n d ( b ) 1 . 5 mf r o m a l o n gs t r a i g h t
w i r e c a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 5 . 8 A . ( A n s : 9 . 6 11x 0 6 T ;7 . 7 3x t O 7 t )

( 2 1A w i r e c a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 8 A p r o d u c e as f i e l do f f l u x d e n s i t y7 . 4 x 1 0 6 Ta t a d i s t a n c ex c m
a w a yf r o m t h e w i r e .D e t e r m i nteh e v a l u eo f x , ( A n s2 1 . 6 c m )

( 3 )W h a t m u s tb e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c u r r e n ti n a w i r e i f t h e c u r r e n tp r o d u c e a
s
f i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y5 . 8x 1 0 6 Ta t a d i s t a n c e
o f 2 2 c mf r o m t h e w i r e . (A n s6 . 3 8 A )

( 4 ) A f l a t c i r c u l a rc o i l h a s 5 0 t u r n s o f w i r e , a n d t h e d i a m e t e ro f t h e c o i l i s 4 4 c m .W h a t i s t h e
magnitude o f t h e f l u xa t t h e c e n t r ei f 1 . 8 Af l o w st h r o u g ht h e c o i l ? ( A N2S. 5 7x t 0 4 t )

( 5 ) H o w m a n yt u r n so f w i r e a r e t h e r e i n a f l a t c i r c u l acr o i lo f w i r e o f d i a m e t e r6 8 c mi f a c u r r e n t
s m a g n e t i fcl u xd e n s i t yo f 6 x 1 0 4 T ?( A n sI 2 O )
o f 2 . 7A p r o d u c e a

( 6 )W h a t i s t h e m a g n i t u d eo f t h e c u r r e n ti n a f l a t c i r c u l acr o i lo f w i r e i f i t h a s2 5 0 t u r n so f w i r e ,
i t s d i a m e t e ri s 7 5 c ma n ' dt h e f i e l da t i t s c e n t r ei s 9 x 1 0 4 T ? ( A n2s. 1 5 4 )

( 7 ) A n e l e c t r o no r b i t sa n u c l e u sw i t h a s p e e do f 1 . 8 x L 0 6 m s - ' . T hr e a d i u so f t h e c i r c u l a o
r rbitis
7 . 8 x i - 01 0 m . F i nt hd e m a g n i t u d oe f t h e f l u xd e n s i t ya t t h e n u c l e u ds u et o t h e e l e c t r o n 'm s otion..
T h ee l e c t r o n icch a r g ei s 1 . 6x 1 0 1 s C .
( H i n t : F i n dt h e c u r r e n td u e t o t h e e l e c t r o n ' m
s o t i o n ;C u r r e n =t c h a r g ep e r s e c o n dy; o u r i r u s t
m a n i p u l a t teh e c i r c u m f e r e n cteh,e s p e e da n dt h e c h a r g et o g e t c h a r g ep e r s e c o n d ) .
( A n s0 . .047T)

( 8 )A n a i r - c o r es o l e n o i dh a s1 5 0 0l o o p sa n d i s 8 0 c ml o n gw i t h a d i a m e t e o r f 3 c m .l f a c u r r e n to f
6 4 i s s e n tt h r o u g hi t . W h a t w i l l b e t h e m a g n i t u d eo f t h e f l u xd e n s i t yi n s i d eo f i t ? ( 0 . 0 1 4 T )

( 9 )A l o n gw i r e c a r r i e sa c u r r e n to f 2 0 A a l o n gt h e a x i so f a s o l e n o i dw, h i c hh a sa i a d i u s0 f 1 O c m .
T h es o l e n o i d h a sa n i n d e p e n d e nc tu r r e n ta, n dt h e f i e l dd u et o t h e s o l e n o i d i s 4 x 1 0 - 3 TF.i n dt h e
r e s u l t a nfti e l da t a p o i n t3 m m f r o m t h e s o l e n o i da x i s .( H i n t ;T h e l o n gw i r e p r o d u c e si t s o w n f i e l d
t h a t i s p e r p e n d i c u l at or t h e f i e l d o f t h e s o l e n o i dc; o n s i d e trh e t w o f i e l d sa s v e c t o r st h a t a r e
perpendicula t or e a c ho t h e r ,a n df i n dt h e r e s u l t a nvt e c t o r . ( A n4s. 2 2x t O 3 l )

f o r q u e s t i o n7 : F i n dt h e c urrrreenntti n L r e v o l u ttiiooninn w h i c hc a s eN ( n o o f t u r n s = 1 )
Soiution

x s?eed
I - charge
rge p
per
er u
unit ime -9
n i t ttime -Q
-
t ctrcumf erence
4 n x L 0 - 7 x 1 . . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 1 . 8 x 1 0 6
: 0.0477
2 x 7 . 8 x 1 0 - 1 0x 2 x r x 7 . B x 10-10

B5
 FORCES
MAGNETIC

of Force:
Direction

LEFT
W h e na c h a r g em o v e si n a n e l e c t r i cf i e l d ,t h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e f o r c ei s g i v e nb y F L E M I N G ' S
H A ND R UL E .

Recall: ,Thumb Forefinger seCond

,
tl
lt
rl
++
Thrust Field
C ur r e n t ( c o n v e n t i o|n
)a

T h ed i r e c t i o no f t h e c u r r e n ti s t h e d i r e c t i o no f m o t i o nof P!SI[!VE charge.

r e f o l l o w i n gD i a g r a m s :
C o n s i d et h

xxxxxx'x

E-' X XX

XX

l n t h e a b o v ed i a g r a mt,h e e l e c t r o n
h a sa n i n i t i a vl e l o c i t yt o w a r d st h e
r i g h t ,h e n c et h e C O N V E N T I O N A L
C U R R E Ni sTt o w a r d st h e l e f t 'T h ef i e l d
i s d i r e c t e di n t o t h e P a P e ra, n d b Y
F l e m i n g ' Ls e f th a n dR u l e t, h e f o r c ei s
initialld
y ownwards.
T h ep o s i t i v e c h a r g eh a sa n i n i t i a l
v e l o c i t yt o w a r d st h e r i g h t ,h e n c et h e
c o n v e n t i o n aclu r r e n ti s t o w a r d st h e
r i g h t .T h ef i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t o t h e
p a p e ra n d b y F l e m i n g 'Ls e f th a n dr u l e ,
t h e f o r c eo n t h e P o s i t i v ec h a r g ei s
y i r e c t e du P w a r d s .
initialld

force
A s l o n ga st h e m o v i n ge l e c t r i c h a r g ei s p e r p e n d i c u l taor t h e a p p l i e dm a g n e t i fci e l d ,t h e
o n t h e c h a r g ec a u s e si t t o u n d e r g oC I R C U L AMRO T I O Na, n dt h e f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o ni s a p p l i e d

mvz
BQv -
r

86
 Considerthe casewhen the moving chargeis perpendicular
to an ELECTRIC FIELD.

W h e nt h e e l e c t r i c h a r g ep a s s e s t h r o u ga hn E L E C T RFI ICE L D t h a t i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t hmeo t i o n

o f t h e c h a r g et,h e p a t ho f t h e c h a r g ei n t h e f i e l di s p A R A B o L l c .
H e n c ew h i l et h e m a g n e t i fci e l dp r o d u c e Cs I R C U L AMRO T I O Nt ,h e e l e c t r i cf i e l dp r o d u c e s
P A R A B O LM I CO T I O N .

The force experiencedby the chargedue to the ELECTRIC

FIELDis given by
F - Eq where E is the Electri.c Field Strength.

87
C o n s i d et h r e c a s en o w w h e r et h e c h a r g ep a s s etsh r o u g ha c o m b i n a t i oonf a n E l e c t r iac n d
MagnetiF c i e l dt h a t a r ep e r p e n d i c u ltaor e a c ho t h e ra n da l s op e r p e n d i c u ltaort h e i n i t i a l
v e l o c i t yo f t h e c h a r g e .

, n dt h e E l e c t r iFc o r c ew i l l b e
T h eM a g n e t i fco r c ew i l l b e d o w n w a r d(sF l e m i n gl' es f th a n dr u l e ) a
u p w a r d s ( A t t r a c t ioofno p p o s i t ec h a r g e s.)

( 1 ) P a t hA i n d i c a t etsh a t t h e u p w a r df o r c ei s g r e a t e tr h a nt h e d o w n w a r df o r c ei . e .
Eq

( 2 ) P a t hB i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e E l e c t r i cf o r c e i s e q u a l t o t h e M a g n e t i cf o r c e E Q : BqV

( 3 ) P a t h C i n d i c a t e st h a t t h e M a g n e t i cF o r c ei s g r e a t e rt h a n t h e E l e c t r i cF o r c ei . e ,
Bqv > Eq

88
 The Earth's
Magnetic Field

The Earth has a substantialmagneticfield, a fact of somehistoricalimportancebecauseof

the role of the magneticcornpassin explorationof the planet.

Structureof the Field

The Jield lines defining the structure of the magneticfield are similar to thoseof a simple
bar magnet,as illustratedin the following figure.

lnnerYan Outer
A l l e nB e l t Allen
i

!
I

't
I

II
I
I

M a g n e t i cF i e l dL i n e s

The Harth's rnasnetis field an* Van Allen nadiation belts

It is ll'ell knorvn that the axis of the magneticfield is tipped with respectto the rotation axis
of the Earth. Thus, true north (definedby the directionto the north rotational pole) does
not coincidervith magneticnorth (definedby the directionto the north magneticpole) and
compassdirectioirsmust be correctedb,vfixed amountsat given points on the surfaceof the
8,.:rc"thto vield true directions.

89
 Van Allen Radiation Belts

A fundamental propcrtr of magneficfields is

t h a t t h e r c r e r t l ' o r c e so n m o v i n g e l e c t r i ea l
c h a r g e s .T h u s . a n t a g n e t i ei i e l d t ; u l t r a p
c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s: u c l t x - -r i * c t r r ; n s * n d
p r o t o n s a s t h c " \ a r c f o r c e d t o c r e ' eu I e i t
s g * * ; ' . : l ! i ;i .: ;: , : : : , : :b: i t C ka n t l l r - t f t ha i O n gt h e ?,
'Mirror
{ield lines.
!

Earth Fcints
*-
_1--.-J

A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e a d j a c c * t f * i l l u r r .t h t '
.

:l
I

charged particles are rellectedat "rnirror t

p o i n t s " u h e r c t h r l l c l i l l i n c s c { ) m cc l o s e l ,* {agn* ti cFi + l d

-
Lin*
t o g e t h e ra n d t h e s p i r a l s t i g l i t r ' ; : .i l n e * f t h e
f i r s t f r u i t s o f e a r l v s p a c ee r p l o r a t i o n n a s t h e
d i s c o v e n i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 st h a t t h e E a r t h i s s u r r o u n d e d b v t r v o r e g i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r l v h i g h
concentration of charged p*rticles called the l/an Allen rucliation belts.

T h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r V a n A l l e n h c l f s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e t o p t i g r r r e .T h e p r i m a r v s o u r c e o f
thesechar.gedparticlesisthe.=,.ii-:':-::::::ig-:::s"lE*:E*=emanatingfromtheSunthatwecallthe'
i d , , r i ; s i ' E " g ' ; - ,r,r"e: , s: ih- .a. l{lss c e i n ; r s u h s e q u e n ts e c t i o n ,t h e c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s t r a p p e d i n t h e
E a r t h ' s m a g n c t i c f i e l d a r r r e s p c r r s i b l ef n r t h e ; : . ; : ; i . ''' . {' :l 't:i a r t h e r n a n d S o u t h e r n L i g h t s ) .

Origin of the t{agnetic Field

l{agnetic fieldsare producerlhr the motion of electricalcharges.For example,the
magneticlield of a bar magnetresultsfrom the motion of negatively'chargedelectronsin
the magnet.The origin of the Earfh's magneticfield is not completel_-vunderstood,but is
rrith tlcctrical currentsproducedby'the couplingof convective
thought to bc irssttciirtcd
effectsand rotation in the spinningliquid metallicouter core of iron and nickel.This
mechanismis termt'd the il-t'ttutn*e.ff'et't.

Rocksthat are lbrmed from the molten statecontain indicatorsof the magneticfield at the
'f
time of their solidification. hc studv of such "magneticfossils"indicatesthat the Earth's
magneticlield re\er-cs ifself everv million vearsor so (the north and south magneticpoles
suir.i'). This is br-rtonc detailof thc magnetictield that is not rvellunderstood.

90
The Earth's
Magnetosphere
The solar wind mentionedaboveis
::
a stream of ionizedgasesthat ,',
blows outward from the Sun at
about 400 km/secondand that
variesin intensitvwith the amount ..-
of surfaceactil'itv on the Sun. The ,',
Earth's magneticfield shieldsit
from much of the solar wind. When the solar lvind encountersEarth's
magneticfield it is
deflectedlike water around the bow of a ship' as illustratedin the adjacent
image(F{*eer**).

The imaginarv surfaceat which the solar wind is first deflectedis

calledthe bow shock.The
correspondingregionof ipace sitting behindthe borvshockand surroundingthe
Earth is
termed the s;trs*rl<'F*;sgJe{'i'i';
it representsa region of spaceclominatedbv the Earth,s
magneticfield in the sensethat it largely preventsthe solar u,ind from
entering.However,
somehigh energvchargedparticlesfrom the solar wind leak into the
magnetosphere and
are the sourceof the chargedparticlestrapped in the yan Allen belts.

91
 Applicationof Mutuallyperpendicular
Electricand MagneticFields
The MassSpectrometer:

T h i si n s t r u m e nits u s e dt o d e t e r m i n et h e m a s s e os f a t o m sa n d i o n st o a v e r yh i g hd e g r e eo f
accuracy.
I t u s e si o n s i e dg a s ,a sa s o u r c eo f p o s i t i v ei o n s ,a d e f l e c t i o n
s y s t e mc a l l e da V E L O C I TSYE L E C T O R
a n d a d e t e c t ow r h i c hi s u s u a l l ay s h e e to f p h o t o g r a p hfiicl m .
T h ev e l o c i t ys e l e c t ocr o n s i s tos f t w o s e p a r a t e pd a r a l l em
l e t a lp l a t e sw i t h m u t u a l l y
p e r p e n d i c u lealre c t r i ac n d m a g n e t ifci e l d sb e t w e e nt h e m .

W h e ni o n so f a c h a r g eq a n d s p e e dv p a s st h r o u g ht h e f i e l d st,h e M a g n e t i cF o r c eo n e a c h
-
chargeis givenb.y F ! B tQV;
T h e E l e c t r ifco r c ea c t i n go n e a c hc h a r g ei s g i v e nb VF Z - E q .

l f t h e f i e l d sa r ea d j u s t e ds o t h a t t h e r ei s n o d e f l e c t ino, t h e nE Q : B tQV

- E
T h i si m p l i e st h a t V :-
B1'
T h i su n - d e f l e c t ebde a mi s t h e n p a s s e d t h r o u g ha r e g i o no f a n o t h e rm a g n e t i fci e l da l o n ew h e r e
t h e f l u x d e n s i t yi s 8 2 .T h i sf i e l dc a u s e tsh e b e a mo f i o n st o u n d e r g oc i r c u l amr o t i o n ,w i t h t h e
r a d i u so f t h e p a t hb e i n gr .

mvZ
_+ mv
Hehce Bzgv: Bze
r r
t mE
l f w e s u b s t i t u,:t V : thenBzg :
Ur, rB r'

q E
m rB 11Bz

T h eq' u a n t i 'tnyat i s c a l l e dt h e c h a r g et o m a s sr a t i o ,a n d o n l yi o n so f a p a r t i c u l acrh a r g et o m a s s

r a t i o ,w i l l b e d e f l e c t etdh r o u g ha p a r t i c u l ar ra d i u sr t o r e a c ht h e d e t e c t o r .

B2

q1
X

DETECTOR
 ELECTROMAG
NETISM

W h e na s o f t i r o nc o r ei s p l a c e di n s i d ea s o l e n o i d
carrying
a c u r r e n tt,h e M a g n e t i cF l u xD e n s i t y
B o f t h e c o i li s s i g n i f i c a n tilny c r e a s e d

T h et e r m " S o f tl r o n "d o e sn o t r e f e rt o t h e t e x t u r eo r t o u g h n e sosf t h e i r o n ,b u t i n s t e a di t i s a

m e a n so f d e s c r i b i ntgh e a b i l i t yo f t h e i r o nt o b e c o m em a g n e t i z ewd h e na c u r r e n ti s i n t r o d u c e d
AROUND i t a n dt h e a b i l i t y t ol o s ei t s m a g n e t i s m
w h e nt h e c u r r e n it s r e m o v e d .

A s o f t m a t e r i ails o n e t h a t c a nb e c o m em a g n e t i z eadn d b e d e m a g n e t i z eeda s i l y .

T h i se f f e c to f p l a c i n ga s o f ti r o nc o r ei n a c u r r e n tc a r r y i n gs o l e n o i di s s i m i l a tro t h a t o f t h e
p l a c e m e notf i h e d i e l e c t r iicn a c a p a c i t o r .

T h e ' M A G N E T ' p r o d u ci en dt h e s o f ti r o nb y m e a n so f a n e l e c t r i c u r r e n its r e f e r r e d

t o a sa n
ELECTROMAG NET.

T h ep r i n c i p loef t h e e l e c t r o m a g niesta p p l i e di n
( i ) E l e c t r i dc o o r l o c k s- W h e nn o c u r r e n ft l o w si n t h e c o i l ,t h e l a t c ho f t h e l o c ki s t h e i n t h e
'locked'position
a n d r e m a i n tsh e r eb y t h e e f f e c o t f a s m a l sl p r i n gp u s h i n o
g n i t . W h e nt h e
s w i t c hi s p r e s s e da,n d a c u r r e n t f l o w si n t h e c o i l ,t h e s o f ti r o nc o r eb e c o m e sm a g n e t i z eadn d
e x e r t sa f o r c eo f a t t r a c t i o no n t h e l a t c h ,p u l l i n gi t d o w n a n d c a u s i n g t h el o c k t o b e c o m eo p e n .
W h e nt h e c u r r e n ti s s h u to f f , t h e s p r i n gt h e n p u s h e st h e l a t c hb a c ki n t ot h e ' l o c k e dp' o s i t i o n .

latch

93
 RELAY:
: n e x a m p l eo f a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i sc w i t c h i s t h e E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C
( i i )S w i t c h e sA
{
Connections contacts

t o l o a de . g .
T h er e l a yi s a n .
h i g hv o l t a g e
e l e c t r o m a g n e tsi cw i t c ht h a t
equipment
operatesfrom a low voltage
s u p p l ya n d i s u s e dt o c o n t r o l
a h i g hv o l t a g es u P P | u
Ys u a l l Y
t o i n d u s t r i aml a c h i n e r Y
L o w ' ; o l t a q el n P u t
i i I' i :!a v

m a g n e t i z e da n d a t t r a c t s t h e
W h e n t h e s w i t c h i s c l o s e d ,t h e s o f t i r o n c o r e i n t h e c o i l b e c o m e s
t h e c o n t a c t st h a t c o m p l e t e
m e t a l a r r n a t A . L a L i s i ntgh e e n i i a i B t o b e p u s h e du p a n d c l o s i n g
t h e c i r c u i tf o r t h e h i g hv o i t a g ee q u i p m e n t '

94
 FORCES
BETWEEN
C U R R E N T . C A R R Y IC
NOGN D U C T O R I

T h e f o r c e st o b e c o n s i d e r e da r e t h o s e b e t w e e n: ( a )p a r a i i e {i c n , j u e t o r sa n d i n )p e r n e n d i c u l a r
conductors

I n p a r a l l e lc o n d u c t o r st,h e i " ' :ai i " et w o s i t u a t i o n st o L r ec c n s i d e r e c

( 1 ) P a r a l l ecl o n d u c t c r sc a r r y i n gc u r r e n t si n t h e : ; a r : r ed i r e c t i o n .

1e F i e l dd u e t o B o n i y
\-{ Y a
al Fi..rd
c i u et o A o n l y
,,i l1
rql XXX

'iI
i

V
I
XXX i
I

XXX

€-F

C o n s i d e tr h e f o r c e a c t i n go n P . T h e c o n d u c t c ri :
i s p l a c e di n t h e F I E L Do f Q . l f w e u s e t h e R i g h t
H a n dG r i p R u l ef o r Q , i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t t h e
f i e l d o n t h e l e f t s i d eo f Q w h i c h i s e x p e r i e n c e d
b y P , g o e si n t o t h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r .U s i n g
F l e m i n g ' sL e f t H a n d R u l ef o r t h e f c r c e o n P , i t
w i l l b e s e e nt h a t t h e f o r c e i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r C s
a.
C t r : s i c l E n: "c w , t h e i i ; r t . a c i i n g o n Q . .T h e c o n d u c _ t o r
Q : s p l a c e cijn t h e F l L r - Do f P . l f w e u s e t h e R i g h t
H a n d G r i p R u l ef o r P , i t w i i l b e s e e nt h a t t h e f i e l c jo n
t h e r i g h t s i d e o f P w h i c h i s e x p e r i e n c e db y Q , g o e s
o u t o f t h e p i a n e o f t h r p a p e r .L l s i n gF l e m i n g ' sL e f t
! - l a n dR u i ei o r t i : e i . ; r r e o n Q , i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t
t h e f o r c e i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r d s P .

l f t h e p e r p e n d i c u l adri s t a n c e
b e t w e e nt h e c o n d u c t o riss t h e n t h e f i e l de x p e r i e n c e a
dt
l -L onl
Q d u e t o P , i s g i v e n0 v b p
7nr

a n dt h e f o r c ee x p e r i e n c ebdy O .i s g i v e nb y F q =B t q l s i nB * t f u k l {sin g0)

Jo-l'Iq
S i m i l a r l y t h e f c- e e x p e r i e n c e d b y P i s g i v e n b y F p = B I p L s_i n O I. lsine=11
2nr
f J H E N C U R R E N TA
S R E I N T H E S A M E D I R E C T I O NT, H E R EI S A F O R C EO F A T T R A C T I O N
A C T I N GO N
E A C HC O T { D U C T O RI F. T H E C U R R E N T A
S R E I N O P P O S | T TD I R E C T I O N S
T ,H E R EI S A F O R C EO F
REPULSION
A C T I N GO N E A C HC O N D U C T O R
C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n ga r r a n g e m e notf c u r r e n t - c a r r y icnogn d u c t o r s -

A
X X

X XX
Y

l f w e e x a m i n et h e f i e l dd u e t o A a t t h e T h ef i e l dd u e t o C o n i t s l e f t ,i s i n t ot h e p l a n e
e f A , i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t b y
u n d e r s i do o f t h e p a p e rw , h i l eo n i t s r i g h t ,i t i s o u t o f
a p p l y i n tgh e R i g h H t a n dG r i pR u l et,h e t h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r . ( R i ghhat n dg r i p
f i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t ot h e p a p e r . Rule)

F l e m i n g 'Lse f th a n dR u l e ,t h e
B ya p p l y i n g
forceF1experienced by C at its lower
e n d i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r d st h e R I G H T .
H o w e v e ra, t t h e u p p e rs i d eo f A , t h e f i e l d
i s o u t o f t h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e ra, n dt h e
forceexperienced by C at its upperend,
w i l l b e F za n d i t i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r d st h e
L E F T . ( F l e m i nLge' fstH a n dR u l e )
W h e nF l e m i n g l' se f th a n dr u l ei s a p p l i e d,
t h a t p o r t i o no f t h e w i r eA w h i c hi s t o t h e l e f t
o f w i r e C ,w i l l e x p e r i e n caef o r c et h a t i s
u p w a r d sw , h i l et h a t p o r t i o no f w i r e A t h a t i s
t o t h e r i g h to f C w i l l e x p e r i e n caef o r c et h a t
is downwards.
T h ew i r e A w i l l t h e r e f o r ee x p e r i e n cae
C L O C W I SMEO ME N T .

T h ew i r eC w i l l e x p e r i e n caen
A N T I C L O C K WM I SOEME N T .

96
 THEHALLEFFECT

i f e l e c t r o n isn a b e a ma r e d e f l e c t e db y a m a g n e t i fci e l d ,t h e n e l e c t r o n isn a s o l i dC O N D U C T O R

s h o u l da l s ob e d e f l e c t e bd y a n e x t e r n aml a g n e t i c f i e lTdh . i sw a sd e m o n s t r a t ebdy E d w i nJ .H a l l
i n 1 . 8 7 9w, h o w a st h e n a 2 4 y e a ro l d g r a d u a t ea t J o h nH o p k i n sU n i v e r s i t yT. h ed e f l e c t i o nof
c h a r g ec a r r i e r si n a c o n d u c t obr y a m a g n e t i fci e l di s k n o w na st h e H A L LE F F E C T .

T h i sH a l lE f f e c te n a b l e os n et o d e t e r m i n e
w h e t h e rt h e c h a r g ec a r r i e r isn a c o n d u c t oar r e
p o s i t i v eo r n e g a t i v e .

C o n s i d ear M E T A L L cI Co n d u c t oirn f o r m o f a t h i n s t r i po f w i d t h ' w ' a n dc a r r y i n ag c u r r e n t ' l ' a s

s h o w nA i i s a p p l i e dp e r p e n d i c u ltaort h e c u r r e n at n di n t ot h e p l a n eo f t h e
. m a g n e t ifci e l cB
p ap e r

XXXXXXXX

1A B

.x
X X X X X X X
t W
I
I
pV

Letus makethe ASSUMPTION charged.- .

that the chargecarriersin the metalare positively
lf Flemirig'sLefthandrule is applied,the forceactingon the chargecarrierswill be upwards,
and all of the positivechargeswill accumulate on the sideAB, leavingCDwith a negative
charge.

Therewouldthereforebe a potentialdifferencecalledthe HALIVOLTAGE set up acrossthe

width 'w'and if our assumption wascorrect,then AB shouldhavea higherpotentialthan CD,
sinceAB shouldbe positively chargedand CDnegatively charged.
However,when a voltmeter is connectedacrossthe width, it is found that the side AB is at
the lower potential and is therefore negativelycharged.This impliesthat our ASSUMPTION
.WAS WRONG,and that the chargecarriersin a metallicconductorare negativelycharged
(electrons|.

97
 OFTHEHALLEFFECT
APPLICATION

The HallEffectis usedto measuremagneticflux density.A HALLPROBE whichis madefrom a

t h i n d i s co f s e m i c o n d u c t i nmga t e r i a la n df a s t e n e dt o a l o n gi n s u l a t i nhga n d l ei,s p o w e r e db y a
s m a l ld . c .s o u r c et o d r i v ea s m a l lc u r r e n t h r o u g hi t . A m i l l i v o l t m e t eorr a m i c r o v o l t m e t ei sr
c o n n e c t ea d c r o s st h e l e a d sa, n d w h e nt h e p r o b ei s i n s e r t e di n a m a g n e t i fci e l dt h e H a l lv o l t a g e
ismeasured bythe millivoltmeter.

T h ep r o b ei s f i r s tc a l i b r a t e bd y p l a c i n gi t i n a f i e l do f K N O W NF L U XD E N S I TsYo, t h a t t h e
s e rT e s l ac a nb e o b t a i n e d .W h e ni t i s t h e n p l a c e di n a n u n k n o w nf i e l d ,a n dt h e H a l l
m i l l i v o l tp
v o l t a g eo b t a i n e dt,h e m a g n i t u d e o f B c a nt h e n b e c a l c u l a t e d .

FLUX
MAGNETIC
'A' to a magneticfieldof flux densityB.
Considera loopor a coilof area placedperpendicular

T h ef l u x t h r o u g ht h e c o i li s t h e n u m b e ro f m a g n e t i fci e l dl i n e sp a s s i n tgh r o u g ht h e c o i la n d i s
g i v e nb y t h e f o r m u l a :
0=BA'
The unit of magneticflux is the Weber (Wb)

FLUXLINKAGE:

y ,t h e f l u x
l f a c o i lh a s ' N ' t u r n sa n di t s a r e a ' A ' i sh e l dp e r p e n d i c u l a rat of i e l do f f l u x d e n s i t B
l i n k a g et h r o u g ht h e c o i li s t h e p r o d u c to f t h e f l u xa n dt h e n u m b e ro f t u r n si n t h e c o i l .

H e n c ei n t h i sc a s e , o-NBA
l . W e b e r= l T e s l ax L m 2 O R l T e s l a= 1 W b . m - 2

The Weber is the magneticflux or numberof magneticfield linesthat passesthrough a loop

of area 1m2if the loop is at right anglesto a magneticfield of flux density1 Tesla.

98
 ELECTROMAG
NETICINDUCTION

W h i l ee a r l ye x p e r i m e n tdse m o n s t r a t etdh a t a c u r r e n tp r o d u c e as m a g n e t i c f i e l dF,a r a d a y w a s

a b l et o d e m o n s t r a tteh e R E V E R S eE f f e c ti . e .A m a g n e t i fci e l dc a np r o d u c ea n e l e c t r i c u r r e n t .

d a galvanometer,
l f a b a r m a g n e ti s m o v e di n a n d o u t o f a l o o po f w i r ew h i c hi s c o n n e c t e to a
c u r r e n it s I N D U C EiDn t h e c o i lw h e n e v e r t h e
m a g n e its i n m o t i o n .

T h ef o l l o w i n go b s e r v a t i o nwse r e m a d e :

( 1 ) A c u r r e n te x i s t si n t h e c i r c u i o
t n l yf o r t h e i n s t a n t w
s h e nt h e r ei s r e l a t i v em o t i o n
b e t w e e nt h e m a g n e ta n dt h e l o o p .T h ec u r r e n g t o e st o z e r ow h e nt h e m o t i o ns t o p s .
( 2 ) T h eg r e a t e tr h e s p e e do f r e l a t i v em o v e m e n tt,h e g r e a t e ri s t h e m a g n i t u d e of the
c ur r e n t .
( 3 ) W h e nt h e m o t i o no f t h e m a g n e ti s r e v e r s e dt h , e d i r e c t i o no f t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n ti s a l s o
reversed.

F r o mt h e s eo b s e r v a t i o nFs a
, r a d a y 'Lsa wo f E l e c t r o m a g n e It n
i cd u c t i o n
w a sf o r m u l a t e d .

Faraday'sLaw statesthat the MAGNITUDE of the inducede,m.f.in a coil, is directly

proportionalto the rate of changeof flux linkagein the coil.

99
R e c a l l t h aftl u x a n df l u x l i n k a g er e f e rt o t h e n u m b e ro f m a g n e t i fci e l dl i n e sp a s s i ntgh r o u g ht h e
coil.
Faradaye ' sx p e r i m e n tssh o w e dt h a t t h e n u m b e ro f f i e l dl i n e sp a s s i ntgh r o u g ht h e c o i li s
unimportanT t . h ei n d u c e de . m . f .a n d i n d u c e dc u r r e n ta r ed e t e r m i n e dp r i m a r i l yb y t h e R A T Ea t
w h i c ht h a t n u m b e ro f f i e l dl i n ec h a n g e s .

C o n s i d enr o w a d i f f e r e n ct a s ew h e r ea c o n d u c t om r o v e si n a m a g n e t i c f i e l dI n. t h i sc a s et h e
f i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t ot h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r a
, n dt h e c o n d u c t om
r o v e sd o w n w a r d w s itha
v e l o c i t yv . T h e l e n g t ho f t h e c o n d u c t oirs l .

XXXX XXXX

-AXX

l"
I
XXXI
I XX XX
YV

XX

XX

T h eM A G N I T U DoEf t h e e . m . f .i n d u c e da c r o s st h e e n d so f t h e c o n d u c t oirs g i v e nb y
E -dQ - Bdo.
dt dt

. d"A
T h eq u a n t i t y r e p r e s e n ttsh e r a t eo f c h a n g eo f a r e at h a t t h e c o n d u c t ocr u t st h r o u g ha n d h a s
fr
u n i t so f m ' s - t .
F r o mt h e s eu n i t sa l o n ei t c a nb e d e d u c e dt h a t - I e n g t h x u e l o c i . t y
#
HenceE - BIv. LEARN

100
l n t h e c a s ew h e r ea m a g n e ti s p l u n g e di n a n do u t o f a l o o po f w i r e ,t h e i n d u c e de . m . f .i s s t i l l
g i v e nb y E - s i n c e@= B A ,t h e a r e ao f t h e l o o pi s c o n s t a nitn t h i sc a s e b , u t t h e v a l u eo f
# "nd
B c h a n g e ds e o e n d i n o
g n i t s p o s i t i o na w a yf r o m t h e l o o p .H e n c ef o r t h i s p a r t i c u l acra s e ,
E_A9
dt

l f h o w e v e tr h e c o i lh a s' N ' t u r n st h e nt h e M A G N I T U DoEf t h e e . m . f .i n d u c e di s p r o p o r t i o n at ol

t h e r a t eo f c h a n g eo f F L U XL I N K A GaEn dE - N # .

T h ea b o v ee q u a t i o nh o w e v e ri s i n c o m p l e t a
e st h e D I R E C T I OoN
f t h e i n d u c e de . m . fm u s ta t s ob e
considered.

T h ed i r e c t i o ni s g i v e nb y L e n z ' sL a wa n dt h e r e s u l t i n e
g q u a t i o ni s :

-dQ
E-
dt

LEARN!!

101
 LAW
LENZ,S

T h i sl a w d e t e r m i n etsh e d i r e c t i o no f t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n t '
to
Lenz,sLaw statesthat when an emf is inducedin a conductor,the inducedemf tends
circuit.
opposethe changecausingit, and it doesopposeit when a currentflows in the
p r o d u c ea
T h i sl a w c a nb e r e s t a t e da s : T h e p o l a r i t yo f t h e i n d u c e de . m . f. i s s u c ht h a t i t t e n d st o
f l u xw h i c hc a u s e s
c u r r e n t h a t w i l l c r e a t ea m a g n e t i fcl u xt o o p p o s et h e c h a n g ei n t h e m a g n e t i c
t h e i n d u c e de . m . f .
The combinationof Lenz'slaw and Faraday'sLawgivesthe all important
equationfor both the magnitudeand directionof the inducede.m.f.

_da
F_
Ll
dt

The negativesignindicatesthat the inducede.m.f.is in the opposite

directionto the changeof flux
T h i sc a nb e i n t e r P r e t etdo m e a n n t f l o w si n t h e c i r c u i tt,h e m a g n e t i c
f i e l dd u et o i n d u c e dc u r r e n tw i l l o p p o s et h e m o t i o nt h a t c a u s e tsh e e l e c t r o m a g n e ti incd u c t i o n '

m u s tb e
T h ed i r e c t i o no f t h e i n d u c e de . m . f .i s t h e s a m ea st h a t f o r t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n t b, u t i t
r e m e m b e r etdh a t t h e o p p o s i t i o o n n l yo c c u r sw h e na c u r r e n tf l o w i n t h e c i r c u i ti n w h i c ht h e c o i l
o r l o o pi s c o n n e c t e dT.h i sc a nb e d e m o n s t r a t eidn t h e a r r a n g e m e nbte l o w .

of thecoil'
T h e m a g n g ti s s e t i n t o o s c i l l a t i osno t h a t i t w i l l b e c o n t i n u o u s lbye m o v i n gi n a n d o u t
ane.m.f. duced i n
W h e nt h e s w i t c hi s o p e n ,n o c u r r e n ft l o w si n t h e c i r c u i tb, u t t h e r ew i l l b e
m a g n e ti s
a c r o s st h e l e n g t ho f t h e c o i l .S i n c et h e r ei s n o i n d u c e dc u r r e n tt,h e o s c i l l a t i oonf t h e
n o t h a m p e r e di n a n Yw a y .

sets
W h e nt h e s w i t c hi s c l o s e da, n i n d u c e dc u r r e n t f l o w si n t h e c i r c u i ta, n dt h i s i n d u c e dc u r r e n t
u p a m a g n e t i fci e l dt h a t o p p o s e tsh e m o t i o no f t h e o s c i l l a t i nm gagnet.
to
T h i so p p o s i t i o tno m o t i o nc a u s e tsh e o s c i l l a t i o nt os d i e d o w n a n dc a u s e tsh e m a g n e
eventuallycometo rest.

1,02
Lenz'sLaw is an exampleof the Principleof Conservation
of Energy.

F r o mt h e p r e v i o u d s i a g r a mw, h e nt h e s w i t c hi s c l o s e da, n dt h e m a g n e ta p p r o a c h et sh e c o i l ,t h e
i n d u c e dc u r r e n tf l o w si n a d i r e c t i o nt o p r o d u c ea N o r t hp o l ea t t h e t o p e n d o f t h e c o i lt o r e p e l
t h e i n c o m i n gN o r t hp o l eo f t h e m a g n e tT. h ew o r k d o n ei n o v e r c o m i ntgh i sf o r c eo f r e p u l s i o ni,s
c o n v e r t e di n t o e l e c t r i c aeln e r g ya n d a s i g n i f i c a n tsl ym a l l e a
r m o u n to f h e a t .

W h e nt h e N o r t hp o l eo f t h e m a g n e ti s m o v i n gu p w a r d sa w a y f r o mt h e c o i l ,t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n t
flowsin sucha way to producea Southpoleon the top of the coilto attractthe departingNorth
poleof the magnet,and the work done in overcoming thisforceof attraction,is convertedto
e l e c t r i c ael n e r g ya n da s m a l l e ar m o u n to f h e a te n e r g y .

103
 INDUCTION
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
APPLICATIONS

( 1 ) T h e A . C .G e n e r a t o r :

W h e n a c o i li s m a d et o r o t a t ei n a m a g n e t i cf i e l d ,a n e . m . f .i s i n d u c e da c r o . stsh e e n d so f
the coil.

T h ed i a g r a ms h o w sa n a l t e r n a t i n g
curreng t e n e r a t oar l s oc a l l e da n
A L T E R N A T OTRh.i sc a nb e c o n v e r t e d
t o a d . c .g e n e r a t obr y r e p l a c i ntgh e
s l i pr i n g sw i t h S P L I R
T INGS
S l i pr i n g s

T h e c o i l r o t a t e sr n a c i o c k w i s em o t i o n , a n d t h e m a g n e t i cf i e l d i s d i r e c t e df r o m l e f t t o r i g h t .
A t t h e i n s t a n tw h e n t h e c o i l i s i n a h o r i z o n t apl o s i t i o nd u r i n gi t s r o t a t i o n t, h e R A T Eo f c h a n g eo f
f l u x i s m a X i m u m a, n d t h e m a x i m u me . m . f .i s i n d u c e d .

t h e r ei st h e n i a x i n - r unmu m b e ro f f i e l dl i n e sp a s s i n g
W h e nt h e c o i li s i n t h e v e r t i c apl o s i t i o n
O FF L U XC H A N GiESA M l N l M U N 4a, n dt h e i n d u c e de . m . f i. s z e r o .
t h r o u g hi t , b u t t h e R A T E

l n d u c e de . m . f

T i me

1"04
(2) TheTransformer: i

T h et r a n s f o r m eirs a d e v i c et h a t i s u s e dt o c h a n g et h e m a g n i t u d e
of analternating
voltage

I t c o n s i s tos f t w o a d j a c e nst e p a r a t e
c o i l so f w i r e ,w o u n do n a n i r o nc o r e .
T h ec o i lo f w i r e t h a t i s c o n n e c t e tdo t h e i n p u tc u r r e n ti,s c a l l e dt h e P R I M A RC
YO I La, n d
t h e o u t p u ti s o b t a i n e df r o m t h e S E C O N D A R CY OIL.

Power vP/
Station \

W h e na n a l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n ti s a p p l i e da c r o s st h e p r i m a r yc o i l ,t h e c u r r e n t h a t f l o w s
t h r o u g hi t , w i l l p r o d u c ea n a l t e r n a t i nm g a g n e t i fci e l d .T h i sa l t e r n a t i nm
g a g n e t i fci e l d
a r o u n dt h e p r i m a r yw , i l l b e s t r i k i n gt h e c o i l so f t h e s e c o n d a rcyo i l .H e n c et h e s e c o n d a r y
c o i li s e x p o s e tdo a n a l t e r n a t i nogr c h a n g i nm g a g n e t ifci e l d
'By
F a r a d a y 'Lsa w ,a n a l t e r n a t i neg. m . f .w i l l b e i n d u c e di n t h e s e c o n d a rcyo i l .

For an IDEALtransformer,there are no power losses.

= O U T P UP
H e n c el NP U TP O W E R TOWER

L e tt h e p r i m a r yv o l t a g e= V pa n d p r i m a r yc u r r e n t= l p
L e tt h e s e c o n d a rvyo l t a g e= V , a n ds e c o n d a rcyu r r e n t= l ,

S i n c ep o w e r - V l , t h e n f o r n o p o w e r l o s s e sV o l o= V r l ,
T h e p r i m a r yv o l t a g ei s p r o p o r t i o n a tl o t h e n u m b e r o f t u r n s o n t h e p r i m a r yc o i l
i.e.
Vp x N, and si"mi"Iarly V, x IV,

v,- n, _',
w 1/, Ip

105
 ER
IM PORTANTREATURESOF THE TRANSFORM

(1) lron Core:

T h em a g n e t i fci e l dc o u p l i n gt h e c i r c u i t s ( p r i m aar ny d s e c o n d a rcyo i l s c) a nb e i n a i r ,b u t i s
u s u a l l yi n a f e r r o m a g n e t im
c aterial(IRON t h) e, c o r e ,i n w h i c ht h e f i e l dc a nb e t h o u s a n d o sf
timesgreaterthan it would be in air, makingthe transformerefficientand small.

of the core:
(2) Laminations

W h e na n a l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n tp a s s etsh r o u g ht h e c o i l s ( w h i cahr ew o u n do n t h e i r o nc o r e ), a n

g a g n e t i c f i e lids s e t u p a r o u n dt h e c o r ew h i c hc a u s e cs u r r e n t sc a l l e dE D D Yc u r r e n t s
a l t e r n a t i nm
to flow in the core.

o f h e a te n e r g yw h i c hw o u l dl e a dt o a d e c r e a s ien t h e
T h e s ee d d yc u r r e n t sc a u s et h e p r o d u c t i o n
overallefficiency of the transformersincenow someof the electrical energyinput is converted
to heatenergywhichwould.bewastedenergy.

o f E D D yc u r r e n t sc a nb e r e d u c e ds i g n i f i c a n t(l b
T h i sp r o d u c t i o n y u t n o t t o t a l l ye l i m i n a t e d ) b y
l a m i n a t i ntgh e c o r e ,i . € .b y m a k i n gi t f r o m t h i n s h e e t so f m e t a lw h i c ha r et h e n a d h e r e d
t o g e t h e rw i t h a t h i n f i l m o f i n s u l a t i nggl u e .T h e s et h i n f i l m so f g l u ep r e v e n t h e c o n d u c t i o on f
e d d yc u r r e n t sf r o m o n e l a m i n a t i o tno t h e o t h e r .T h i sd e s i g ni s m u c hm o r ee f f i c i e ntth a n h a v i n g
t h e c o r em a d ef r o m o n e s o l i db l o c ko f c o n t i n u o um s etal.

(3) Efficientcore design:

T h ec o r ei s m a d eo f E s h a p e dl a m i n a t i o ntsh a t a r e i n t e r l e a v esdo t h a t t h e m a g n e t i fcl u x d o e s

i s e l i m i n a t e dT.h i sc o r ed e s i g ni s
n o t p a s st h r o u g ht h e a i r a t a l l h e n c em a g n e t i fcl u x l e a k a g e
e x p l a i n ead sf o l l o w s :

Shell-CoreTransformers
(4).
T h e m o s tp o p u l a ra n d e f f i c i e nttr a n s f o r m ecro r ei s t h e S = i r i a * = i = a s i l l u s t r a t eidn f i g u r e
As shown,eachlayerof the coreconsists of I- =:=*i:=i=*L:r:* sectionsof metal.Thesesections
s .h el a m i n a t i o nasr e i n s u l a t e fdr o m e a c ho t h e ra n d
a r e b u t t e dt o g e t h e rt o f o r m t h e l a m i n a t i o n T
then pressedtogetherto form the core.

106
 LAMINATEDCORE

.Fii

E AND LAMINATIONS

TRANSFORMW
E RI N D I N G S

A s s t a t e da b o v e t, h e t r a n s f o r m ecr o n s i s tos f t w o c o i l sc a l l e dW I N D I N Gw
Sh i c ha r ew r a p p e d
a r o u n da c o r e .T h et r a n s f o r m eor p e r a t e sw h e na s o u r c eo f a c v o l t a g ei s c o n n e c t e tdo o n e o f
t h e w i n d i n g sa n d a l o a dd e v i c ei s c o n n e c t e tdo t h e o t h e r .T h ew i n d i n g t h a it s c o n n e c t e tdo i h e
s o u r c ei s c a l l e dt h e P R I M A RW Y I N D I N GT.h ew i n d i n gt h a t i s c o n n e c t etdo t h e l o a di s c a l l e dt h e
S E C O N D AW RY I N D I N G( N
. o t e I: n t h i sp a r tt h e t e r m s" p r i m a r yw i n d i n g a" n d " p r i m a r ya" r eu s e d
; t e r m : " s e c o n d a rwy i n d i n g "a n d " s e c o n d a r ya"r ea l s ou s e d
i n t e r c h a n g e a btl hy e
i n t e r c hnag e ab l y . )

F i g u r e( 5 )s h o w sa n e x p l o d e dv i e wo f a s h e l l - t y pter a n s f o r m e T
r .h ep r i m a r yi s w o u n di n l a y e r s
d i r e c t l yo n a r e c t a n g u l acra r d b o a r fdo r m

E. t-*rtdt{ATtoH

IHSULATING
PAPER

I LAMINATION

1.07
 l n t h e t r a n s f o r m esr h o w ni n t h e c u t a w a yv i e wi n f i g u r e( 6 ) ,t h e p r i m a r yc o n s i s tos f m a n y
t u r n so f r e l a t i v e lsym a l w l i r e .T h ew i r ei s c o a t e dw i t h v a r n i s hs o t h a te a c ht u r n o f t h e w i n d i n gi s
i n s u l a t e fdr o m e v e r yo t h e rt u r n . ! n a t r a n s f o r m edr e s i g n e fdo r h i g h - v o l t a gaep p l i c a t i o nssh, e e t s
o f i n s u l a t i nmg a t e r i a sl ,u c ha s p a p e ra, r ep l a c e db e t w e e nt h e l a y e r so f w i n d i n g s t op r o v i d e
a d d i t i o n ai nl s ul a t i o n .

PAPER INSULATIOH
LAMINATED
CORE

LEADS
/
I

PRIMARY
WINDING
SECONDARY WINDING

W h e nt h e p r i m a r yw i n d i n gi s c o m p l e t e lwy o u n d ,i t i s w r a p p e di n i n s u l a t i npga p e ro r c l o t h T
. he
s e c o n d a rwyi n d i n gi s t h e nw o u n do n t o p o f t h e p r i m a r yw i n d i n gA. f t e rt h e s e c o n d a rwyi n d i n gi s
c o m p l e t e , ,t iot o i s c o v e r e dw i t h i n s u l a t i npga p e r N
. e x t t, h e s e c t i o nosf t h e i r o nc o r ea r e .
i n t oa n da r o u n ct ih e w i n d i n g as ss h o w n .
inserted

T h el e a d sf r o m t h e w i n d i n g as r en o r m a l l b y r o u g h ot u t t h r o u g ha h o l ei n t h e e n c l o s u roef t h e
t r a n s f o r m e rS. o m e t i m e st e, r m i n a l sr n a yb e p r o v i d e do n t h e e n c l o s u rfeo r c o n n e c t i o nt so t h e
w i n d i n g sT. h ef i g u r es h o w sf o u r l e a d st,w o f r o m t h e p r i m a r ya n dt w o f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y .
T h e s el e a d sa r et o b e c o n n e c t e tdo t h e s o u r c ea n d l o a d ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .

108
 INDUCEE
D M FT U T O R I ASLH E E T ,

( 1 ) A r o d A B S O c m . l o nr go t a t e si n a u n i f o r mm a g n e t i fci e l dw i t h p o i n t
A a c t i n ga st h e p i v o t .
T h er o t a t i o ni s p e r p e n d i c u l a rtthoe f i e l dl i n e sa n dt h e f r e q u e n coyf r o t a t i o ni s
5 r e v o l u t i o npse rs e c o n dl .f t h e m a g n e t ifcl u xd e n s i t yi d O . 3 Td e t e r m i n teh e e m f i n d u c e d
b e t w e e nt h e e n d so f t h e r o d . ( A n:s3 V )

( 2 ) A 5 o c o i lo f 1 0 0 t u r n sa n dd i a m e t e 6r c m i s p l a c e db e t w e e nt h e p o l e so f a m a g n e ts o t h a t
t h e f l u xi s m a x i m u mt h r o u g hi t sa r e a W
. h e nt h e c o i li s s u d d e n l rye m o v e df r o m t h e f i e l d ,
a c h a r g eo f 1 x l - 0 4 C f l o w st h r o u g ha 5 9 5 Og a l v a n o m e t ecro n n e c t e tdo t h e c o i l .
C o m p u t eB b e t w e e nt h e p o l e so f t h e m a g n e t .
( 0 . 2 1 T ) l HU
i nst e;V = r n = T ,a n d1 -
f t
( 3 ) A f l a t c o i lo f r a d i u s8 c mh a s 1 5 0l o o p so f w i r e .l t i s p l a c e di n a s i n u s o i d a l
m a g n e t ifci e l d
t h a t v a r i e sa t a r a t eo f 1 . 6 T s -i 1
n s u c ha w a y t h a t t h e m a x i m u mf l u xg o e st h r o u g hi t . F i n d
t h e a v e r a g e m f i n d u c e db e t w e e nt h e t e r m i n a los f t h e c o i l .
(ANS;4.82v)

( 4 ) A c o p p e rd i s co f l d c m r a d i u si s r o t a t i n ga t 2 0 r e v i s a b o ui t sa x i sa n d
w i t h i t sp l a n e
perpendicula t or a u n i f o r mf i e l dw i t h B =0 . 6 T W . h a t i s t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
eetween
t h e c e n t r ea n dt h e r i m o f t h e d i s c .
= a r e ao f' O"I S C = T t l)" , d ' A:
( A n s: 0 . 3 8 V )f H i n t ;I r e v o l u t i o n ttO. Ol
r r- e
--v
1 ATee Of diSC]
d,

( 5 ) H o wm u c hc h a r g ew i l lf l o wt h r o u g ha 2 0 0 0g a l v a n o m e t ce or n n e c t e d
t o a 4 0 0 0c i r c u t a r
c o i lo f 1 0 0 0t u r n sw o u n do n a w o o d e ns t i c k2 c mi n d i a m e t e r , i f a m a g n e t i fci e l dB =
0 . 0 1 1 - 3pTa r a l l et lo t h e a x i so f t h e s t i c ki s d e c r e a s esdu d d e n l y t ozero.
( A n s 5: . 9 p C )

(6)A solenoi6 d 0 c ml o n gh a s5 O 0 C t u r n sa n d i s w o u n do n a n I R O Nr o d o f 0 . 7 5 c mr a d i u s .
F i n dt h e f l u xd e n s i t ya n df l u x t h r o u g ht h e s o l e n o i w d h e nt h e c u r r e n itn i t i s 3 4 . T h e
r e l a t i v ep e r m e a b i l i toyf i r o n i s 3 0 0 .
( b )T h ef l u xi s r e d u c e d t o a v a l u eo f l m W b i n a t i m e o f 0 . 0 5 0 s. F i n dt h e i n d u c e de m f i n
t h es o l e n o i d .
( A n s: 9 . 4 2 ;T1 . 7 m W b ; 67V)

109
 for previoustutorial
Solutionguidelines

o n e .H e n c ef o r e a c hr e v o l u t i o n
L . T h es h a p et h a t t h e r o d c u t so u t a s i t r o t a t e si s a c i r c u l a r
t h e r a d i u sr i s t h e l e n g t ho f t h e
t h e a r e ao f f i e t dl i n e st h a t a r ec u t i s e q u a lt o n r 2 w h e r e
rod.
ln determiningthm e agnitudeo f t h e i n d u c e de m f ,i t i s n e c e s s a r y tdoe t e r m i n et h e r a t e
of Area)'
at whichthe flux is cut whichin this caseis B x (rateof change

w h i c hw o u l db e e q u a lt o t h e
T h e r a t eo f c h a n g eo f a r e ai s t h e a r e ac u t o u t p e r s e c o n d ,
o f r e v o l u t i o npse r
p r o d u c to f t h e a r e ao f t h e c i r c l e ( i . e1.r e v o l u t i o na)n dt h e n u m b e r
second.'

is equalto 600 o, the radiusis 0.03m,N= 100Q= l- x 10-4c'

2. Thetotal resistance

e x p e r i e n c easc h a g ei n
T h e m o v e m e not f t h e c o i lo u t o f t h e f i e l dm e a n st h a t t h e c o i l
causea s n e m ft o b e
t h e n u m b e ro f m a g n e t i c f i e lldi n e sc u t t i n gi t , a n dt h i sc h a n g e
L 'asw )
i n d u c e di n t h e c o i l ( F a r a d a Y

a n d h e n c ea c u r r e n tw i l l
T h ei n d u c e de m f i s a p p l i e da c r o s sa t o t a l r e s i s t a n coef 6 0 0 0
f l o w t h r o u g ht h i s r e s i s t a n c e '
m o v e d ,h e n c ei t i s
w e d o n o t k n o wt h e v a l u eo f t h e t i m e f o r w h i c ht h e c o i lw a s
n e c e s s a r y tsoe t u p a n e q u a t i o nw h e r et h e t i m e c a nb e e l i m i n a t e d '

NBAIt
V I n d u c e d " e m:f ,4\
F r o m O h m ' sL a w , ,: n: T l -
tr/

A r s o c u r r e n t r - T o t attme - g'e
'.|'charg Q)
t
(1) and (2)
Thecurrent ts the sametnboth equattonsso we c&nequate

NBAI. n
v NBA
lt : henceBcanbefound
R t, ;-Q

110
 3 . T h ei n d u c e e
dm. f i . sg t v e n b yE _ - -rO# wttere#: r.6Ts-l
#:

4 . T h eh i n t i s a l r e a d yg i v e ni n t h e q u e s t i o n

5. Applythe samemethodas in question2. Thewood doesNOTaffectthe Flux

6. ln usingthe formulafor Fluxdensityincludethe relativeperrrreability

of iron, so the
s -
f o r m u l an o w b e c o m e B V oV r n I

lJT
 2
lVl.of,ufe
I I M P O R T A NETQ U A T I O N S
(1)A sinusoidal voltage or current i.srepresented by i x - xssinat

'ff
(2)Ther . m.s.ualueof an a.c.ts Ir.^.r.:

(3)Gainof an inverttngamplifter ts gtvenby:Gatn-

+ L

Rr
( 4 ) G a t n o f I N O N - I N V E R T I N Ga m p l i f t e r t s g t v e n b y G a i n - t *
&

-
$ ) f h e G a t n o f a c o m b t n a t i o no f C a s c a d e dA m p l i f t e r s i s A A r A z A 3. . .

"Everythingis determined... by forces over which we have no

control.lt is determinedfor the insecfsas well as for the star.

Human beings, vegetables,or cosmic dusf - we all dance t.oa

mysteriousfune, intonedin the distanceby an invisiblepiper."

- Albert Einstein

112
 A L T E R N A T I NC
GU R R E N T

A n a l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n it s o n e i n w h i c ht h e d i r e c t i o cn h a n g eps e r i o d i c a l l y .

s qu ar e w a v e a . c . s i nu s o i d Ia

rrnllroo

o r c ur r e n t

I n b o t hc a s e s t, h e r ei s a m a x i m u mv a l u eo r P E A K
VALUE
o f t h e c u r r e n ot r v o l t a g ew, h i c hi s
u s u a l l yw r i t t e na s I n . . uo ,I V r u ^ .

s e rs e c o n da n di s m e a s u r eidn H e r t z( H z ) .
T h ef r e q u e n coy f t h e a . c .i s t h e n u m b e ro f c y c l e p

T h eR O O TM E A NS Q U A R E v a l u eo f a n a . c .i st h a tf r a c t i o no f t h e p e a kv a l u et h a t w o u l dd i s s i p a t e
h e a ta t t h e s a m er a t ea sa s t e a d yd . c .t h r o u g ha g i v e nr e s i s t o r .

H e n c ef o r a n yr e s i s t o r ' R t' ,h e c u r r e n dt i s s i p a t ebdy a s t e a d yd . c .i s g i v e nb y P - l z d . r .aRn dt h e

e q u i v a l e npto w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy a n a l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n t ,i s P - I ? . ^ . r R .

T h ep o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t ow
r h e nt h e S I N U S O I D A
aL. c .p a s s etsh r o u g hi t , i s t h e
GP O W E R .
A V E R AE

MAXiMUM POWER t2p

AVERAGE POWER= + ( S I N U S O I D cAaLs e )

T h i sa v e r a g ep o v / e i , a l s oe q u a l t o I i ^ r R .

,.)
lmK -------\ <-
HencellrnrR :
z
t--

#-, Ir^, :lm

,tz
LEARN

113
S i m i l a rV
l yr * r : ' r , +- LEARN.

V^I^
, I r ^ , -jry'+
Another useful f ormula is i Vr^-I--n
t:
AveragePower
i O-

In the caseof the squarewave from the abovegraph,the magnitudeof the currentand
voltageis constant,and the power dissipatedis constant. Hencefor the squarewave shown
above,the r.ms.valuesof both voltageand currentwill be the sameas the steadymaximum
value.

Sincean alternating
voltageor currentcanbe represented
by a sinewave,the voltageor
currentat any instantcanbe expressed
as :

V:Vmsinat and I - I^sinat,

where a is the AN GULAR FREQUEN CY of the pd. or current.

The angularfrequencyu = 2nf, where'f is the frequencyof the currentor voltage.

F o re x a m p l et h e m a i n ss u p p l yi n T r i n i d a dh a sa f r e q u e n c o
y f 6 0 H z .H e n c et h e a n g u l a r
frequencyu,ris givenby ul = 2n x 60 = 1,20nrad.s-1.

( R e c a tl h
l a t f o r t h e s i n ew a v e ,1 c y c l er e p r e s e n t2sn r a d i a n s ) .

W h e na l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n t sa n dv o l t a g e a
s r e m e a s u r e dt h, e i n s t r u m e n tm
s easure
the r.m.s.
v a l u e sr a t h e rt h a nt h e p e a kv a l u e s .

1.1.4
 Advantagesof transmissionof currentsusingalternatingcurrentsand highvoltages:

(1) Alternatingcurrentsareeasierand cheaperto producethan directcurrents.The

alternatingcurrentis producedby rotatinga coilin a magneticfield and the mechanical
energyfor rotation comesfrom steamwhich is producedfrom the heatingof water with
naturalgasbeingthe fuel.
Directcurrentsare producedfrom chemicalreactionsin a batterywhich is relatively
expensiveto manufacture.
(2) The alternating
voltagescan be increased
or decreased
as requiredwith minimum
energywastageby meansof a transformer,whereasthe direct voltagehasto be altered
by meansof resistors
whichhavesignificantenergydissipation.

(3) Thereis significantlandpollutionwith the disposalof batterieswhereaswith a.c.

generationthere is the issueof fossilfuel emissions.

(4) When alternating€u rrentsare transmittedat high voltages,there is significantlyless

powerlossesin the cablesas comparedto low voltagetransmission.

Thisis explainedasfollows:The currentpassing throughthe cablesfor a particular

street or district, is determinedby the power requirementof that district.lf a district
hasan averagepowerrequirementofsay 2MW, and the resistance ofthe overhead''
cablesis 0.20.

Whenthe a.c.is transmittedat 240V,the currentthroughthe cableswill be:

P ower
Cut'rent - -
Voltag e

. 2,000,000
I ='# = 8333/, and the power lossesin the cableswould be l2R,whichwould give
a

a value of 1.39x 106W,which is in fact almostthe power requiredby the district.

Howeverif highvoltagesare usede.g.24000V,the currentin the cableswill be

2'000'000
f - = 83,4and the oowerlossin the cablesis 832xo.2= 1378W.
24000
'
The highvoltagescanbe steppeddown to 110Vor 220Vby meansof a transformeron reaching
the district

115
 QUESTIONS

( 1 ) I n t h e f o l l o w i n gw a v e f o r m sr e p r e s e n t i nagn a l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n tt,h e p e a kv a l u eo f t h e

a . c .i s 5 A .C a l c u l a t eh e r . m . sc. u r r e n it n e a c hc a s e .

c ur r en t

(a)

currenI
A N S: 3 . 5 4 A ,3 . 5 4 A 5
, A.
(c)

( 2 ) A v o l t m e t e r e a d s1 1 0 Vw h e n i t i s c o n n e c t e da c r o s st h e t e r m i n a l so f a s i n u s o i d aplo w e r
W
s u p p l yt h a t h a s a f r e q u e n c yo f 6 0 H 2 . r i t e d o w n t h e e q u a t i o nf o r t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s
v o l t a g ep r o v i d e db y t h e s o u r c e .

( 3 ) A s i n u s o i d aal l t e r n a t i n gc u r r e n ti n a 4 0 O r e s i s t o rp, r o d u c e sh e a t a t a r a t e o f 7 5 0 W .
D e t e r m i n teh e m a x i m u mv a l u e so f v o l t a g ea n d c u r r e n t.

1.16
 (4) Determine
t h e r . m s .v a l u eo f t h e c u r r e n ti n ( i )a n dt h e r . m . sv. o l t a g ei n ( i i )

A N S :4 4 , 1 1 0 V

( 5 ) W h e na n a . c .s u p p l y . o1f 2 0 V , . *i s, c o n n e c t e tdo a c i r c u i t
i n w h i c ht h e r e is a fuse in series
w i t h a l o a d ,t h e f u s eb r e a k st h e c i r c u i tw h e nt h e c u r r e n jtu s t e x c e e d gs A
r . m . s .l f t h e a . c .s u p p l y
i s r e p l a c e db y a 8 0 V d . c .s u p p l y w , h a t m u s t b e t h e m a x i m u mc u r r e n tp a s s i n through
g the fuse
j u s t b e f o r ei t b r e a k st h e c i r c u i t ?

( 6 ) T h es i n u s o i d a vol l t a g eV r a p p l i e da c r o s sa r e s i s t o r ' R ' p r o d u chees a ta t

a m e a nr r t u p . ' l f
t h e s i n u s o i d aal. c .i s n o w r e p l a c e dw i t h s q u a r ew a v ea . c .a s s h o w ni n ( i i )
with the same
p e a kv a l u ea s b e f o r e w , h a t i s t h e n e w r a t eo f h e a tp r o d u c t i o n ?

v-

IT7
 Solutions

( 1 ) I n t h e c a s eo f t h e s i n u s o i d aglr a p h t, h e r . m . s c. u r r e n ti s g i v e nb y :

r-*--'^y-:-3.s4A
rrms-
O-O-rrr

( b )T h eg r a p hi n ( b ) i s a l s oc y c l i cw i t h e a c hc y c l eh a v i n ga c o n t i n u o u5s A r e g i o nf o l l o w e db y a
zeroregion

l f t h i s c u r r e n tw a sa l l o w e dt o p a s st h r o u g ha r e s i s t o rt ,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t o r f o r
t h e c o n s t a nct u r r e n to f 5 A w o u l dh a v eb e e nP = l 2 R= 2 5 R .

r o u l dh a v eb e e n0 .
D u r i n gt h e i n t e r v aol f z e r oc u r r e n tt,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t ow

IzR + 0 25R
The average power dtsstpated - :
Z z

B yd e f i n i t i o nt ,h i sw o u l dh a v eb e e nt h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r . m . s c. u r r e n t

H e n cIe? ^ r R: ' +
t
i l , m s :+ - 3 . 5 4 A
12

( c )l n t h i s p a r t ,e a c hc y c l eo f t h e c u r r e n th a sa c o n s t a npt o s i t i v e5 A . f o l l o w ebdy a c o n s t a n t
negative5A.

r d u r i n gt h e p o s i t i v eh a l fc y c l ei s
T h ep o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy a r e s i s t oR

Pt: I z R - 5 2 R- 2 5 R

D u r i n gt h e n e g a t i v eh a l fc y c l et,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy a r e s i s t oR
r is

P z : 1 2 R- ( - 5 ) 2 R - 2 5 R

25R + 25R 50R

Average power dtssipated - Pt * Pz : : : 25R
T Z

T h i si s t h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r . m . s c. u r r e n tb y d e f i n i t i o n ,

Hence I?*rR : 25Ri Ir^s : 5A

118
(2)
V- V^orsinl)t : V*o* stnZrcft

We first needto find the valueof V.r".

T h e 1 L O Vr e c o r d e db y t h e v o l t m e t e ri s i n f a c t h e r . m . s v. o l t a g eA. l l a . c .m e a s u r i nign s t r u m e n t s
a r e d e s i g n e tdo g i v et h e r . m . s v. a l u e s .

v^o*
,t :
Recallvro, h, e n c e
V ^ o ,- \n x 110V : 1.55.6V
fi;
. T he g eneral equati"onbecomesV - 155.6 sinZrcx 60t

V : 155.6sin 12Ont

( 3 )T h eh e a td i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t oirs o b t a i n e df r o m t h e f o r m u l a

500
P - I?^rR; 500 : I?^, x 40 i lrms : :3.54A
40

I*o*:lr^rx12:3.54 x ..12= 54.

V*o*: I^o, x R - 5 x 4 0 : 200v

( a ) F o rt h e p o s i t i v eh a l fc y c l et,h e m a x i m u mc u r r e n ti s 8 A . I f t h e c u r r e n tw a sa c o m p l e t es i n e
wave,the powerdissipated by a resistorR would havebeen
12D
IhorR
P :'^7" ; Howaver f or a HALF si"ne P-
wave the power d.i"sstaptedwouldbe
z

B yd e f i n i t i o nt ,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r . m . s c. u r r e n tw o u l db e e q u a lt o t h i s l a t t e rv a l u e ,

IlnorR I?,o* - I*o* B

I?.*.r.R: ; hence Ir.^.r. : : 44
4 2 t:

119
 r for a
F o rt h e v o l t a g eg r a p h t, h e p o w e rt h a t w o u l dh a v eb e e nd i s s i p a t etdh r o u g ha r e s i s t oR
F U L Ls i n eg r a p hw o u l dh a v eb e e n :

v"1n'
Io --
:zR

is
H e n c ef o r a H A L Fs i n eg r a p ht h e p o w e r t h a t w i l l b e d i s s i p a t e d

, - v'?''n'
I

4R
Vl,n, V|o,
Bydefinltiort,f :P:
*

L { e n cver ^ r . - v r y ' - 2 : - 1,i,ov

22
( 5 )T h i si s a T R I C Kq u e s t i o nT.h ef u s ew i l l b r e a kw h e n e v etrh e c u r r e n et x c e e d8sA r . m . s H . ence
R E G A R D L EoSf S t h e s u p p l yv o l t a g ea, c u r r e n to f 8 A r . m . s i.s r e q u i r e dt o m e l tt h e f u s ew i r e .

s g i v e nb y
( 6 )I n t h e c a s eo f t h e s i n u s o i d a l v o l t a tghee, p o w e rd i s s i p a t ei d

Vior
'Dl
zR

F o rt h e s { u a r ew a v e ,t h e v o l t a g eh a sa C O N S T A NMTA G N I T U DoEf V . . " , a n d i n t h i sc a s et,h e

p o w e rd i s s i p a t eids g i v e nb Y
V
v t2
nQx
'D2 - _
R

Hence P2:2P1 (Ans.2P)

124
 SEMICONDUCTORS

T h ee l e c t r o n cs o n t a i n e d
i n s o l i d sa, r ec o n t a i n e d
i n v a r i o u sb a n d so f e n e r g yl e v e l s .

T h eh i g h e sbt a n di s c a l l e dt h e C O N D U C T I OBN
A N Da n d i n m e t a l st,h e r ea r ef r e ee l e c t r o ntsh a t
m o v ew i t h i nt h e c o n d u c t i obna n d .

I n i n s u l a t o r es l, e c t r o nasr eh e l di n a l o w e rb a n dc a l l e dt h e v a l e n c e
b a n d ,a n dt h e r ei s a
r e l a t i v e llya r g eg a pb e t w e e nt h e v a l e n c eb a n da n dt h e v a c a n ct o n d u c t i o b
na n d .
H e n c ef o r i n s u l a t o rtsh e e l e c t r o n m
s u s tb e s u p p l i e d
w i t h a r e l a t i v e llya r g ea m o u n to f e n e r g y t o
j u m p i n t ot h e c o n d u c t i obna n di n o r d e rt o p a r t i c i p a ti en e l e c t r i c ac lo n d u c t i o n .

I n s e m i c o n d u c t osr su c ha s s i l i c o nt,h e e n e r g yl e v e ld i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e nt h e v a l e n c eb a n da n d
t h e c o n d u c t i obna n di s m u c hs m a l l etrh a nt h a tf o r i n s u l a t o r as n
, dh e n c et h e ya r ea b l et o
c o n d u cw
t h e no n l ya s m a l lp o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c ies a p p l i e da c r o s st h e c r y s t a l .

Conductiob nand
Conductiob
nand
Conductiob nand A l m o s te m p t y { c o n t a i nos n e
P a r t l yf i l l e dw i t h c h a r g e E m p t yo f c h a r g ec a r r i e r s
o r t w o c h a r g ec a r r i e r s
c ar r ie r s

V a l e n c eb a n d ( f i l l e d )

V a l e n c eb a n d ( f i l l e d )

E n e r g yb a n d sf o r
E n e r g yb a n d sf o r M E T A L E n e r g yb a n d sf o r I N S U L A T O R
SEMICONDUCTOR

T h eg a pb e t w e e nt h e v a l e n c e
b a n da n dt h e c o n d u c t i obna n di s c a l l e dt h e F O R B I D D E
GNAp.

1.21
 Conductionin Semi-conductors:

l n t h e c r y s t aol f s e m i c o n d u c t i nmga t e r i a li,f a n e l e c t r o ne s c a p efsr o m i t s p o s i t i o ni n t h e l a t t i c e ,

a v a c a n c yi s l e f t b e h i n da, n d s i n c et h i s p o s i t i o nw a si n i t i a l l yn e u t r a lt,h e l o s so f t h e e l e c t r o nw i l l
l e a v ei t w i t h a p o s i t i v ec h a r g ea n d i s c a l l e da H O L E .

T h i sh o l ea c t sa s a v a c a n c fyo r a n yo t h e re l e c t r o na n dw h e n i t i s f i l l e d ,a n o t h e rh o l ew i l l b e
createdwherethe other electronwould haveleft.

s o v ei n o n e d i r e c t i o nh, o l e sm o v ei n
A l o n ga n ys t r a i g hlti n e ,i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t w h i l ee l e c t r o n m
t h e o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o n .

as a POSITIVE
The holecanthereforebe considered CARRIER.
CHARGE

l n t h i sc a s et h e n u m b e ro f h o l e sw i l l b e e q u a tl o t h e n u m b e ro f m o b i l ee l e c t r o nasn ds i n c ea l lo f
s o n o t c o m ef r o m a n ye x t e r n asl o u r c et,h e s e m i c o n d u c t oi srs a i dt o b e
t h e c h a r g ec a r r i e r d
INTRINSIC.

W h e nt h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f a s e m i c o n d u c t oi sr i n c r e a s e dm, o r ee l e c t r o nw s i l l e s c a p ef r o m t h e i r
n i l l i n c r e a s ae n d r e s i s t a n cwei l l
s i t e sa n d m o r eh o l e sw i l l b e c r e a t e dh, e n c e t h ec o n d u c t i o w
decrease.

e st h e i rc o n d u c t i o ins t o o l i m i t e dT
I n t r i n s i sc e m i c o n d u c t oar sr e o f l i t t l ei m p o r t a n c a . h ea m o u n t
o f c o n d u c t i o tna k i n gp l a c ec a nb e i n c r e a s egdr e a t l yb y i n c r e a s i ntgh e n u m b e ro f a v a i l a b l he o l e s '
or electrons.

T h i sc a nb e d o n eb y a d d i n ga s m a l la m o u n to f a n o t h e rm a t e r i atlh a t c a ns u p p l ya d d i t i o n a l
a n dt h e m a t e r i atlh a t i s a d d e di s c a l l e da n
h o l e so r e l e c t r o n sT.h i si s r e f e r r e dt o. a s D O P I N G
IMPURITY.

e m i c o n d u c t ba rn dt h e r e
t hr a t i s p r o d u c e db y d o p i n gi s c a l l e da n E X T R I N SsI C
T h es e m i c o n d u c t o
aretwo types,i.e.n-typeand p-type.

122
 The n-typesemiconductor:

The 'n' refersto NEGATIVE type.When a siliconcrystalis dopedwith a penta-valent element

s u c ha s p h o s p h o r o uosr a n t i m o n yt,h e i m p u r i t ya t o m r e p l a c eosn e o f t h e s i l i c o na t o m si n t h e
c r y s t a lS. i l i c o nh a sa v a l e n c eo f f o u r a n d s h a r e sf o u r e l e c t r o nw
s i t h n e i g h b o r i nagt o m s .W h e n
t h e p h o s p h o r o uast o m r e p l a c eas s i l i c o na t o m ,f o u r o f i t sv a l e n c ee l e c t r o nw s i l l b e u s e di n
c o v a l e nbt o n d i n gT. h ef i f t h e l e c t r o nw i l l b e a b l et o d r i f t i n t h e c o n d u c t i o b
n a n da n dt a k ep a r ti n
c o n d u c t i o na,n dt h e i m p u r i t ya d d e di s c a l l e da D O N O Ra s i t d o n a t e se l e c t r o nfso r c o n d u c t i o n .

The majority chargecarriersin the n-type materialare electrons.

T h ed o p e ds e m i c o n d u c t iosrh o w e v e sr t i l le l e c t r i c a lnl ye u t r aal s n e i t h e r t h es i l i c o n o r t h e

d o n o ra t o mh a da n yn e t c h a r g eos n t h e m .

The p-typesemiconductor:

The 'p' refersto POSITIVE

type and the majoritychargecarriersare holes.

T h i si s m a d eb y d o p i n gs i l i c o n
w i t h a t r i - v a l e ni tm p u r i t ys u c ha s B o r o no r A l u m i n i u m .

A s i l i c o na t o m i s r e p l a c e db y t h e t r i v a l e n at t o ma n dt h r e eo f t h e v a c a n c i el se f t b y t h e m i g r a t e d
s i l i c o nw i l l e db e f i l l e db y t h e t h r e ev a l e n c ee l e c t r o n isn t h e i m p u r i t yT. h ef o u r t hv a c a n c w
y i l J.
t h e na c L e p a
t n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e v a l e n c eb a n d ,t h u sc r e a t i n ga h o l ei n t h e v a l e n c eb a n d .T h e
v a l e n c eb a n dw i l l t h e n b e a b l et o c o n d u c w
t i t h t h e p r e s e n c oe f h o l e si n i t .

T h e i m p u r i t yi n t h i s c a s ei s c a l l e da n A C C E P T O R .

Material N u m b e rd e n s i t yo f Resistivity LEARNTHE NUMBERS

C h a r g eC a r r i e r s
(r-') (o.m)
Metal
9 x 1028 2 x 10' 8
Intrinsic
Semiconductor 3x103
Extri nsic
S e m i c o n d u c t o| r1 x 1 0 " t o 1 x 1 O 2 a 5 x 1 0 8

L23
 T H EP . NJ U N C T I O N

A p - nj u n c t i o ni s a s e m i c o n d u c t corry s t at lh a t i s d o p e di n s u c ha w a yt h a t o n e r e g i o ni s n - t y p e
a n dt h e a d j a c e nrte g i o ni s p - t y p e .

T h i sc a nb e v i s u a l i z eadsa b l o c ko f n - t y p em a t e r i abl e i n gp r e s s e d
a g a i n sat b l o c ko f p - t y p e
material.

C C p o
Fo on
C
o
n <tO
clo -+t+- O O

At the interface o f t h e p - nj u n c t i o nt h e r ei s a n i n i t i a d
l i f f u s i o no f e l e c t r o nfsr o m t h e n - t y p e
t o t h e p - t y p ea
, n d a d i f f u s i o no f h o l e sf r o m t h e p - t y p et o t h e n - t y p e .

T h em o t i o no f b o t ht h e H o l e sa n dt h e e l e c t r o npsr o d u c ea D I F F U S I OCNU R R E Nl 6T; 6 t h ai ts

c o n v e n t i o n a ldl yi r e c t e df r o m p t o n , i . e .c o n v e n t i o n ac lu r r e n ti s t h e f l o w o f p o s i t i v ec h a r g e .

W h e na n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e n - s i d ec r o s s etsh e j u n c t i o na n d e n t e r st h e p - s i . d ei ,t f i x e si t s e l f
i n t oa v a c a n st i t ea n dp r o d u c eas n e g a t i v ceh a r g eo n t h e p - s i d en e a r t h ej u n c t i o n .

S i m i l a r l yw,h e na h o l ec r o s s etsh e j u n c t i o na n de n t e r st h e n - s i d ei ,t w i l l p r o d u c ea p o s i t i v e
c h a r g eo n t h e n - s i d en e a rt h e j u n c t i o n .

T h ed i f f u s i o no f c h a r g ec a r r i e r cs a u s e tsh e b u i l d -u p o f a n e t p o s i t i v ec h a r g ei n a n a r r o w
s t r i po n t h e n - s i d ec l o s et o t h e j u n c t i o na, n d a n a r r o ws t r i po f n e g a t i v e c h a r g eo n t h e p - s i d e
c l o s et o t h e j u n c t i o n

T h e r e g i o no n e i t h e rs i d eo f t h e j u n c t i o nb e c o m e a
s l m o s tf r e bo f m a j o r i t yc h a r g ec a r r i e r s
a n d i s c a l l e dt h e D E P L E T I OLN
AYER
o r B A R R I ELRA Y E R .

T h ee x i s t e n coef t h i sd e p l e t i o nl a y e rp r e v e n t sa n yf u r t h e rd i f f u s i o no f c h a r g ec a r r i e r s .

r) a)
.)
n C

124
 T h e r ei s a s m a l lv o l t a g ea c r o s st h e d e p l e t i o nl a y e rc a l l e dt h e j u n c t i o np . d .o r b a r r i e rv o l t a g e .

The depletionlaye.ris approximately1Fm thick.

S i n c et h e d i f f u s i o nc u r r e n ti s t h e f l o w o f h o l e s i,t i sj u s t b a l a n c e b
d y t h e f l o w o f e l e c t r o n isn
theopposite direction a n dt h e c u r r e n dt u et o t h e m o t i o no f t h e e l e c t r o niss c a l l e dt h e D R I F T
C U R R E NlTa , i r ,

T h ed r i f t c u r r e n ti s a l w a y si n t h e o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o nt o t h e d i f f u s i o nc u r r e n t .

Recallthat diffusioncurrentis directedfrom p-typeto n-typewhile DRIFTcurrentis directed

from n-typeto p-type.

BIAS
W h e na b a t t e r yi s c o n n e c t e a
d c r o s st h e p - nj u n c t i o ns u c ht h a t t h e p o s i t i v ep o l eo f t h e b a t t e r y
c o n n e c t tso t h e p - s i d eo f t h e j u n c t i o na n dt h e n e g a t i v e
p o l eo f t h e b a t t e r yc o n n e c t tso t h e n -
s i d eo f t h e j u n c t i o nt,h e p - nj u n c t i o ni s s a i dt o b e F O R W A R B Dl A s E D .

l f h o w e v e tr h e p o s i t i v eO o ' "o f t h e b a t t e r yw a sc o n n e c t e tdo t h e n - s i d eo f t h e p - nj u n c t i o n ,

and
the negative p o l ec o n n e c t e tdo t h e p - s i d et,h e nt h e j u n c t i o nw o u l dh a v eb e e nR E V E R S E
BIASED.

F o r w a r dB i a s
R e v e r s eB i a s

I n t h e f o r w a r db i a sc o n n e c t i o nt h, e
d e p l e t i o nl a y e ri s o v e r c o m e
,becomes
n a r r o w e r a n d h o l e sf r o m t h e p - t y p e
w i l l f l o w t o t h e n - t y p e ,a n d e l e c t r o n s
f l o w i n gi n t h e o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o nT. h e
c u r r e n ti s i n t h e o r d e ro f m i l l a m p e r e s .
. p - n j u n c t i o nt h e r e f o r ea c t s a s a r e c t i f i e r ,
a s i t a l l o w sc u r r e n tt o f l o w i n o n e d i r e c t i o no n l y .
I n t h e r e v e r s eb i a sc o n n e c t i o nt ,h e n -
t y p e i s m a d em o r e p o s i t i v ea n d t h e p -
t y p e m o r e n e g a t i v eT. h i sc a u s e sa n
i n c r e a s ien t h e w i d t ho f t h e d e p l e t i o n
l a y e r ,c a u s i n ga v e r y h i g hr e s i s t a n c e
s o t h a t t h e c u r r e n ft l o w i n gt h r o u g h
t h e j u n c t i o ni s a p p r o x i m a t e zl ye r o .

1,25
 The current - voltage characteristic
for a p-n iunction.

Current/mA

Forward

lv

T h ej u n c t i o ns t a r t st o c o n d u c itn t h e f o r w a r dd i r e c t i o na t o r a r o u n d0 . 6 V ,a n dt h i sp . d .i s c a l l e d
t h e s a t u r a t i o vn o l t a g e .

nection illiam

DIODE:
OFTHEP.NJUNCTION
APPLICATIONS

- h e n a n a . c .i s a p p l i e dt o t h e d i o d e ,t h e j u n c t i o nc o n d u c t si n t h e
( 1 ) A s a h a l f w a v e r e c t i f i e rW
forwarddirection,but preventscurrentfrom flowingin the reversedirection.

(2) As a full-waverectifier.

l n t h i sc a s ef o u r d i o d e sa r ec o n n e c t e tdo f o r m a b r i d g e

W h e n X i s p o s i t i v ec, u r r e n tf l o w st o B
t o R t o C a n dt h e n t o Y .

W h e nY i s p o s i t i v et,h e c u r r e n tf l o w s
t o D t o R t o A a n dt h e n t o X .

I n b o t h h a l fc y c l e st,h e c u r r e n ti n R i s
i n t h e s a m ed i r e c t i o n .

126
(3) The manufactureof the light-emittingdiode(LED)
W h e na n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e c o n d u c t i o b n a n df a l l si n t o a h o l et h e v a l e n c eb a n d ,t h e r ei s a
l o s so f e n e r g yo f t h e e l e c t r o nw
s h i c hi s d i s s i p a t eads h e a t .T h e r em u s tb e a l a r g e
n u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n - h o lceo m b i n a t i o nt so c a u s et h e e m i s s i o o
n f l i g h t .T h i si s a c h i e v e d
by
a p p l y i n ga s t r o n gf o r w a r db i a so n a h e a v i l yd o p e dp - nj u n c t i o n

(a) The photo diode:

W h e na c u r r e n ti s p a s s e d
t h r o u g ha p - nj u n c t i o nl i g h ti s e m i t t e d .l t f o l l o w st h e n t h a t i f
l i g h ti s ' i n c i d e notn a p - nj u n c t i o na, c u r r e n tc a nb e p r o d u c e di n t h e c i r c u i ct o n t a i n i n g t h e
p - nj u n c t i o n .

T h i sa p p l i c a t i oins c o m m o ni n t h e o p e r a t i o no f a T V r e m o t ec o n t r o l .

W h e nt h e r e m o t ec o n t r o li s c l i c k e da, l i g h te m i t t i n gd i o d ee m i t si n f r a r e dl i g h ti n a
particularsequenc,e. The receiving deviceon the TV detectsthe infrared lightand
p r o d u c ee
s l e c t r i c asli g n a ltso c h a n g et h e T V s e t t i n g s .

1.27
 THETRANSISTOR

W h i l et h e p - nj u n c t i o ni s a t w o t e r m i n a dl e v i c ea n di s u s e dp r i m a r i l ya s a r e c t i f i e rt ,h e
TRANSISTO a t h r e et e r m i n a dl e v i c ea n d h a ss i g n i f i c a n tm
i sR s a na
l yo r ea p p l i c a t i o nt h
, itchina
s i n g l ep - nj u n c t i o na, s i s i t u s e df o r s i g n aal m p l i f i c a t i o sn w g n di s a n e s s e n t i a l
c o m p o n e ni tn a l l I N T E G R A TC
EIDR C U I T S ( l C ' s )

T h eJ U N C T I OTNR A N S I S T Oi sRm a d eu p o f t w o p - nj u n c t i o n sc o n n e c t e idn s e r i e s, b a c k

to back.

T h ea r r a n g e m e no tf t h e j u n c t i o n cs a ng i v ee i t h e ra P N Po r a n N P Nt r a n s i s t o r .

A n n p nt r a n s i s t o r

A p n pt r a n s i s t o r

emitter

CIRCUIS
TYMBOLS:

NPN T h ed i r e c t i o no f t h e a r r o w h e a do n
PNP
t h e E M I T T EiR s h e t h e rt h e
n d i c a t ew
C

(
I t r a n s i s t oi rs n p no r P n P T . h ea r r o w
of conventional
p o i n t si n t h e d i r e c t i o n
-\ c u r r e n ti . e .f r o m p t o n .

I
c

r28
 O P E R A T I O N AAL M P L IF IE R S

T h eo p e r a t i o n aalm p l i f i e r ( a b b r e v i a o t epd- a m p )i s a d e v i c et h a t c a np e r f o r mm p t h e m a t i c a l
o p e r a t i o nssu c ha sa d d i t i o nm , u l t i p l i c a t i oann di n t e g r a t i o n .

I t h a so n e O U T P U a Tn dt w o I N P U T Sa,n d h a sa s e p a r a t e s e to f c o n n e c t i o nt sh a t a r e u s e dt o
p o w e ri t . T h ep o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e ntchea t i s u s e dt o s u p p l yp o w e r t oi t i s c a l l e dt h e S U p p L y
VOLTAG E.

T h eS U P P LVYO L T A Gm E u s tn o t b e c o n f u s e d
w i t h t h e I N P U TV O L T A G E a s, t h e l a t t e ri s t h e o n e
t h a t i s s e n tf o r A M P L I F I C A T I tOhN r o u g ht h e o p - a m p w , h i l et h e s u p p l yv o l t a g ei s u s e dt o p r o v i d e
e l e c t r i c aeln e r g yf o r t h e o p - a m pt o b e c o m ef u n c t i o n a l .

-
T h eo p - a m ph a st w o i n p u tt e r m i n a l m s a r k e da s ( + ) a n d( - )
T h e( + )t e r m i n ails c a l l e dt h e N O NI N V E R T I NTG E R M I N AaLn d R E T A I Nt hSe s i g no f t h e v o l t a g e
. v er e m a i n sa s+ v ea f t e ra m p l i f i c a t i oann d s i m i l a r l -yv e r e m a i n sa s- v e a f t e r
a p p l i e dt o i t . i . e +
a m p l iifc a t i o n

T h e( - )t e r m i n a il s c a l l e dt h e I N V E R T I NTGE R M I N AaLn d i t c o n v e r t s+ v et o - v e a f t e r
a m p l i f i c a t i oann d- v e i s c o n v e r t e d
t o + v ea f t e ra m p l i f i c a t i o n .

T h et e r m i n a l s+ V ,a n d- V , a r et h e S U P P L Y v o l t atgeer m i n a l sa n dt h e s em u s tn o t b e c o n f u s e d
w i t h t h e l NP U Tt e r m i n a l s .

T h eS U P P L Y t e r m i n a rl set h e c o n n e c t i o nf so r w h i c ht h e o p - a m pr e c e i v eas p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e

t o t r i g g e ri t i n t oa c t i o nT
. h es u p p l yv o l t a g e a
s r et y p i c a l l 6
y V o r 9 V ,a n dt h e s ev o l t a g e a
sre
NEVEa
Rm p l i f i e ad r e n yt i m e .

1,29
T h i ss u p p l yv o l t a g ec a nb e c o n s i d e r etdo b e s i m i l a tro t h e v o l t a g ew h i c hm u s tb e a p p l i e da c r o s s
a m u s i ca m p l i f i e irn o r d e rt o g e t i t t o w o r k .E g .A m u s i c i a h
n a st o p l u gi n a n a m p l i f i etro t h e
L 2 0 Vm a i n si n o r d e rt o g e t h i se l e c t r i cg u i t a rt o o p e r a t eW
. h i l et h e s o u n df r o m t h e g u i t a ri s
convertedto an electrical
signaland amplified,the t20V from the mainsis not amplified

Bythe law of conservation of energy,the maximumoutputvoltageVocanneverexceedthe

s u p p l yv o l t a g eV , .T h i ss i m p l ym e a n st h a t i f t h e m a x i m u mi n p u te n e r g y ( p ecro u l o m b i)s V , t h e n
t h e m a x i m u mo u t p u ti s a l s oV , T h ec o n d i t i o nf o r w h i c ht h e O u t p u tV o l t a g e= V , i s c a l l e d
5-AIUBAIJSN.

The OP-AMPis ialled a differentialamplifierbecause the output is directlyproportional

to the
D I F F E R E NiC
nEv o l t a g eb e t w e e nt h e t w o i n p u t s .

F r o mt h e a b o v ed i a g r a r nV, r i s a p p l i e dt o t h e N O N- I N V E R T I NTGE R M I N AaLn dV 2t o t h e

I N V E R T I NTG ERMINAL.
C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gs i t u a t i o n:s

( 1 ) V 1 > V ;zT h i sm e a n st h a t t h e r ei s a g r e a t e vr o l t a g ea t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nt ge r m i n atl h a nt h a t

a t t h e i n v e r t i n gt e r m i n a la n d s i n c et h e a m p l i f i c a t i o ins t h e s a m ef o r e a c h i n p u t ,w e
w o u l d e x p e c ta N E TP O S I T I VoEu t p u tv o l t a g et;h a t i s V s i s p o s i t i v e0 1 s i m p l yw h e n t h e
t w o i n d i v i d u aol u t p u t sa r ea d d e dt h e n e t r e s u l tw i l l b e p o s i t i v e .

(2) Vz >Vr j Vowould be NEGATIVE as the output from V2 has greatermagnitudeand is

n e g a t i v ea s c o m p a r e dt o t h e s m a l l e rp o s i t i v eo u t p u tf r o m V l . W h e nt h e t w o i n d i v i d u a l
o u t p u t sa r e a d d e d t, h e n e t r e s u l tw i l l b e n e g a t i v e .

( 3 ) V r = Y z, T h e o u t p u tf r o m V 1w o u l d h a v et h e s a m em a g n i t u d e a s t h a t f o r V 2b u t t h e y w i l l
h a v eo p p o s i t es i g n sT. h i sw o u l dr e s u l ti n t h e n e t o u t p u tb e i n gz e r oi . e .V 6= I

130
 A M P L I F I EGRA I N :

T h ep u r p o s eo f a n a m p . l i f i ei sr t o i n c r e a steh e m a g n i t u d o e f t h e i n p u ts i g n aal n d a s a r e s u l t h e
o u t p u ts h o u l da l w a y sb e a n i n t e g r am l u l t i p l eo f t h e i n p u t .
T h er a t i oo f t h e o u t p u tv o l t a g et o t h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s c a l l e dt h e G A I No f t h e a n a p l i f i e r .

VOUt
G A I N:
Vtn
S i n c eG A I Ni s a r a t i oo f v o l t a g e si t, h a sn o u n i t s ,a n d i s u s u a l l yr e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o "l A "

H e n c ei f t h e v o l t a g e V
s l a n d V 2 d r €a p p l i e dt o t h e i n p u tt e r m i n a l st ,h e n e t i n p u tv o l t a g ew i l l b e (
-
V r V z) a n d i f V o i s t h e o u t p u tv o l t a g et,h e n

Vo: A(Vr-Vz)

PRoIEBTIES-QE"T"H"r_"QP-""AMP"",""
T h ep r o p e r t i eos f a t h e o r e t i c aild e a lo p - a m pa r ec o n s i d e r efdo r t h e p u r p o s eo f d e r i v i n g t h e
relevantequationsfor it. Howevera REALOP-AMPhasproperties that areverycloseto but not
i d e n t i c awl i t h t h o s eo f t h e i d e a lo p a m p .

PROPERTtESOF THE B,E*A!=,_OJ:AMP:

(1) A very high open loop gain of approximately 10sat low frequencies but it decreases as
f r e q u e n c yo f t h e i n p u ts i g n a il n c r e a s e s( R. e m e m b et r
h a t t h e i n p u ts i g n adl o e sn o t h a v e
t o b e a c o n s t a nvt o l t a g ei,t c a nb e s i n u s o i d aaln d h e n c ei t w i l l h a v ea f r e q u e n c y ) .
T h et e r m " o p e nl o o p "m e a n st h a t t h e r ei s n o e l e c t r i c aclo n n e c t i ofnr o m t h e o u t p u tb a c k
t o t h e i n p u t .C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gd i a g r a m s :
In Diagraffi A, there is no
D i a g rma A connection from the output back
t o t h e i n p u t ,o r t h e r ei s n o l o o p
f r o m o u t p u tt o i n p u t ,a n dt h i s
c i r c u i ti s c a l l e da n O P E NL O O P
C I R CIUT .

1.31
 I n d i a g r a mB t h e r ei s a l o o pf r o m
t h e o u t p u tt o t h e i n p u ta n dt h i s
D i a g r a mB
c i r c u i ti s c a l l e da C L O S ELDO O P
C I R C U IoTr a F E E D B A C K
IRCUIT

( 2 ) A v e r y h i g h i n p u t r e s i s t a n c e ( i m p e d a n cr ie=)1 0 1 2 Oa,n d t h e r e f o r ed r a w s a m i n u t e
c u r r e n tf r o m t h e s u p p l y . T h iisn p u t r e s i s t a n cies n o t o n e t h a t i s c o n n e c t e d e x t e r n a l l ay t
t h e i n p u t sb , u t i n s t e a di t i s a r e s i s t a n ct eh a t i s m a n u f a c t u r ei dn t ot h e o p - a m p .

(3) A very low output resistance(impedance) r o =1 0 0 0 ; w h i c hm e a n st h a t i t s o u t p u tc a nb e

t r a n s f e r r e dw i t h o n l y l i t t l e l o s so f p o w e rt o l o a d sg r e a t e rt h a n a f e w k i l o h m s (. R e c a l l
t h a t p o w e rl o s s= l 2 R )

Ri

i n p u ti m p e d a n c e

Ro output impedance

1.32
 P R O P E R T IoEf tSh e I D E A LO PA M P

( 1 ) T h ei n p u ti m p e d a n cies l N F l N l T E
he, n c et h e i n p u tc u r r e n it s Z E R O .

( 2 ) T h e i n p u t sa r e b o t h a t t h e s a m ep o t e n t i a lT. h i sc a n b e e x p l a i n e d
a s f o l l o w s :F o ra v e r y
h i g ho p e nl o o pg a i n ,t h e g a i n4 6 =o o

vo-vo
R e c a lA o - b - hence Vi _ - o
Vi "o Ag co

B u t V i= ( V z - V r ) = 0
H e n c eV z = V r

( 3 ) Z e r oo u t p u tl m p e d a n c e .

l d e aO
l PA m p R e aO
l PA m p

( 1 ) I n f i n i t ei n p u ti m p e d a n c e F i n i t ei n p u t i m p e d a n c e1 0 1 2 0

( 2 )Z e r oo u t p u ti m p e d a n c e L o wo u t p u t i m p e d a n c -e 1 0 0 0

( 3 ) l n f i n i t eo p e n l o o p g a i n F i n i t eo p e nl o o pg a i n- 1 0 '

133
 CS.
R CHARACTERISTI
TRANSFE

CHARACTERISTIC
TheTRANSFER vs.INPUTVOLTAGE.
is simplya graphof OUTPUTVOLTAGE

Saturation

Vrlt-tV

R e c a lt lh a t t h e m a x i m u mo u t
v o l t a g ei s e q u a lt o t h e s u P P l Y
v o l t a g eV , a n dw h e nt h i sh a P p e n s ,
t h e o p a m p i s s a i dt o b e
Saturation SATURATED

in
i n V o l t s t, h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s m e a s u r e d
Notethat whilethe cutPutvoltagei s m e a s u r e d
.mlgrgyg.!!r,

134
l f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s S I N U S O I D At hLe n t h e g r a p h so f I n p u tv s .t i m e a n d o u t p u tv s .t i m e d r a w n
s e p a r a t e lwy i l l b e a sf o l l o w s :

CLIPPING
INPUT/microvolts Output/volts

time

T h eo u t p u ts i g t r ai ls n o t a n e x a c tr e p l i c ao f t h e i n p u tb e c a u s teh e o p a m p b e c o m e s a t u r a t e d . s o
t h a t t h e m a x i m u mv a l u eo f V si s e q u a lt o V , w h i c hi s a c t u a l l yl e s st h a nA o V i a n tdh e p e a k so f t h e
output graphare saidto be C[PP"E_,D_*

In mostcases,
the amplifier
reaches
saturation
almostinstantaneously
sothata sinewaveinputwould
givea SQUAREWAVEOUTPUT

l n p u t / mi c r o v o l t s Output/Volts

135
 SPECIAL
CASEWITHTWO INPUTS

r h e c a s ew h e r e t h e r e i s a n i n p u t t o b o t h t h e i n v e r t i n a
C o n s i d eT g n dn o n - i n v e r t i nt egr m i n a l s :

t
Vort

T h e i n p u t st o t h e i n v e r t i n ga n d n o n -
i n v e r t i ntge r m i n a l sa r ea ss h o w n :

Output/V

T h ei n i t i a pl o s i t i v ep a r to f t h e s q u a r ew a v eo u t p u ta r i s e sf r o m t h e f i r s tp a r to f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g e O
sA
w h e r et h e i n p u tt o t h e + v et e r m i n a il s g r e a t e trh a nt h a t o f t h e - v e t e r m i n a l , r e s u l t iinnga + v eo u t p u t .
A f t e rt h a t ,t h e i n p u to n t h e - v e t e r m i n a bl e c o m e g
s r e a t e trh a nt h a t o n t h e + v et e r m i n a l ( A B sCo) t h e
o u t p u ti s- v e i . e .i n v e r t e dF. r o mC t o D t h e o u t p u tw i l l a l w a y sb e p o s i t i v eb e c a u s fei r s t l yt h e
rragnitude o f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g eo n t h e + v et e r m i n ails g r e a t e trh a nt h a t o n t h e - v e t e r m i n a l .
S e c o n d l yw,h e nt h e m a g n i t u d o e f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g eo n t h e - v e t e r m i n a il s g r e a t e trh a nt h a t o n t h e
e o w t h e i n p u to n t h e i n v e r t i n tge r m i n ails - v e s o t h e
+ v et e r m i n a lt,h e o u t p ; r ti st s t i l lp o s i t i v eb e c a u s n
o , ! i . :,,i w i l l b e i n v e r t e dt o a + v ev a l u e .

136
 F E E D B A CAKN DT H EI N V E R T I NAGM P L I F I E R

F e e d b a ci kn a n o p a m p i s a c h i e v e bd y m a k i n ga n e l e c t r i c ac lo n n e c t i ofnr o mt h e o u t p u t t oo n e
o f t h e i n p u t s, u s u a l lvyi aa r e s i s t ocra l l e dt h e F E E D B A C
RKE S I S T ORRr

F o ra n I N V E R T I NaG
m p l i f i e rt h
, e o u t p u ti s c o n n e c t etdo ' t h ei n v e r t i n ign p u to f t h e a m p l i f i e r v i a
R i3 ss h o w n :

T h ef e e d b a ccku r r e n it s l i a n dt h e i n p u tc u r r e n its l ; n .T h eo p a m p h a sa h i g hi m p e d a n caen d

t h u sd r a w sa m i n u t eo r n e g l i g i b lceu r r e n t .

= 0 , o r l i n= - l r .T h i sa l s oi n d i c a t e s
l f K i r c h o f f 'csu r r e n tl a w i s a p p l i e da t t h e j u n c t i o nP , t h e nl ; p+ 1 1
t h a t l 1 dp n d l i a r ei n A N T I P H A SwEh i c hi st r u ef o r t h e I N V E R T I NoG
pamp.

T h ef o l l o w i n g
t w o I M P O R T A NATS S U M P T I OaNrS
em a d e :

( 1 ) T h ef e e d b a ccku r r e n lt 1i s e q u a tl o t h e i n p u tc u r r e n lt i n d, u et o t h e i m p e d a n coef t h e o p
a m p b e i n gs o h i g ht h a t i t d r a w sn e g l i g i b lceu r r e n t .
( 2 ) T h ep o t e n t i aal t t h e p o i n tP i s s o s m a l l t h a itt i s a p p r o x i m a t et od z e r o ,a n dt h e p o i n tp i s
t h e r e f o r ec a l l e dt h e V I R T U AELA R T H .
A point is saidto be at VIRTUAL EARTH when the potentialat that point is so small
that it can Deapproximatedto earth potentiali.e.zeropotential.

1.37
 e f t h e v e r yl a r g eG A I No f t h e o p a m p .
l a r t hc o n d i t i o na r i s e sb e c a u s o
T h ev i r t u a e
e . g .l f g a i n A = 1 0 s , t f r e n f: 1 0 s a n di f V o = V , = g V t h e nV p : # = O

T h ef o l l o w i n gd e r i v a t i o fno r G a i ni s v e r yi m p o r t a n t :
S i n c eV p =0 , V i n= l i n R iann dV o= l r R r
B u t l i n- - l 1( a ss h o w np r e v i o u s l y )

Gain_*:(*,*l :(_ f^y^)

G a i n o f I N V E R T I NoGp q m p - - X

138
 T H EN O N . I N V E R T I N
AGMPLIFIER

vi 1
I
I
t__-
T h e i n p u tv o l t a g eViii s; a p p l i e dt o t h e n o n -i n v e r t i n g
t e r m i n a (l + ) .T h i sp r o d u c e as n
o u t p u tV ot h a t i s i n p
1 hr a s ew i t h t h e i n p u t .

Negativefeedbackis obtair
n1 (ed( b y f e e d i n gb a c ka f r a c t i o no f t h e o u t p u tt o t h e
I N V E R T I Ni nGp u t ( - ) .

equalto VnjO=Vn.The potentialat the non-inverting

ThevoltageacrossRi_is input is Vn.Fora
largeopen loopgain.Vn=Vi.soin the derivations,
we useVninsteadof Vi .because Vo_g_an
be
expressedin termsof a resistance. ie. Vo_lB;whereasV; hasno e.xpression in termsof a
resistanceO.u r a i m i s t o g e t a n e x p r e s s i ofno r t h e G A I Ni n t e r m so f t h e r e s i s t a n c et hsa t a r e
a v a i l a b lien t h e c i r c u i t .
Thevoltageacross(R6 Ri)= Vo

S i n c eR r a n dR id r e i n s e r i e st h e s a m ec u r r e n ft l o w st h r o u g ht h e m t o t h e e a r t h ;

V p = l R i a n d V o = l ( R t+ R i )

vo Rf+Ri Rr
: 1 * J - G A I N f o r N O N I N V E R T I N GO P A M P
vp R, rti

G a i n o f I N V E R T I N Go p q m p - - "t
_^

139
 SN D B A N D W I D T H
G A I N . F R E Q U E NGCRYA P HA

y r e l a t i o n s hb
I n o r d e r t od i s p l a a g r a p hi s p l o t t e d .
i pe t w e e nG a i na n df r e q u e n c ya,l o g a r i t h m

T h i sl o gg r a p hi s u s e df o r t w o r e a s o n s :

( 1 ) l t a l l o w ss m a l l enr u m e r i c avla l u e st o b e u s e d
b e t w e e nt h e p a r a m e t e rosn t h e x a n dy a x e s .
( 2 ) l t g i v e sa l i n e a vr a r i a t i o n
'Gain T h i s P o r t i o ni s t h e r e g i o no f n o
f e e d b a c ka n d t h e g a i n h e r e i s c a l l e c
t h e O P E NL O O PG A I N .

10s

l-04

103 an d w i d t h

102
bandwidth
.10 C
1,

i.0 1,oz l-03 !04 10s 106 1,06 1,01 108 Frequency/Hz

T h eh o r i z o n t al iln e sC Da n d E Fr e p r e s e n t t hgea i nw h e nf e e d b a ciks p r e s e n ti ,. e .c l o s e dl o o p

s e g a i nw h e nn o f e e d b a ciks p r e s e n ti ,. e .o p e nl o o pg a i n .
. h es l a n t e dl i n eA B r e p r e s e n t h
g a i nT
A t C D ,t h e r ei s m o r ef e e d b a ctkh a na t E F .

T h ed i a g r a ms h o w st h a t t h e c l o s e dl o o pg a i ni s a l w a y sl e s st h a nt h e o p e nl o o pg a i nb u t i t i s
m o r ed e s i r a b lbee c a u s e :

( 1 ) T h eg a i ni s p r e d i c t a b l e .

( 2 ) S t a b i l i t yi s g r e a t e rw h i c h m e a n st h a t t h e g a i n i s c o n s t a n to v e r a w i d e r r a n g eo f
frequencies.

n f g a i nw i t h f r e q u e n c y
i ' , r U n l i k et h e o p e nl c o pg a i nt h e r ei s n o v a r i a t i o o

I4A
 E.ANDIUDI.II;
Thedifferencebetweenthe upperand rowerfrequencies for whichthe gainislonstant,is
calledthe BANDWIDTHof the amplifierfor a particulargain.

Forexample,on rookingat the previousgraph,for a gainof r.o,

the Bandwidthis (108-1)Hz,
and for a gainof 10OO
the bandwidthis (101t)Uz.

ln orderto havegreaterbandwidth,the negativefeedbackmust greater,

be but this causesthe
gainto drop.To compensate for this rowergaintwo or moreop ampscanbe coupredor
typicallyreferredto as CASCADED

C A S C A D EADM P L I F I E R S

A1

A2

W h e nt h e t w o o p a m p sa r ec a s c a d eads s h o w na b o v e t, h e r e s u l t a ngt a i n =
A 41xA2

S i m i l a r lfyo r 3 o p a m p st h a t a r ec a s c a d e dt h, e r e s u l t a ngt a i nA = A r
x 4 2x 4 3

1,4L
 OFTHEOPAMP
APPLICATIONS

(1) As a comparator-lt comparesthe two inputsand its outputdependson the differenceof

thetwo inputs.

t r a s a c o n v e r t eor f s i n e
T h ec o m p a r a t ocr a nt h e n b e u s e da s a s w i t c hi n a n a l a r mc i r c u i o
w a v es i g n a l tso s q u a r ew a v es i g n a l s .

( 2 ) A s a S U M M I N GA M P L I F I EwRh e n i t i s u s e da sa n i n v e r t i n g a m p l i f i e rT. h i si s u s e di n
m i x i n gb o a r d si n m u s i ca n da l s oa sa d i g i t atl o a n a l o g u ce o n v e r t e r .

(3) As a VOLTAGE FOLLOWER- the voltagefolloweris usedas a bufferor matchingamplifier

a n dw i l l b e e x p l a i n e sdh o r t l Y .

THECOMPARATOR
T h et h e r m i s t o a r form a
r n d t h e f i x e dr e s i s t o R
p o t e n t i adl i v i d e rw h i c hf i x e st h e v o l t a g ea t t h e
( a ) A s a s w i t c hi n a n a l a r mc i r c u i t : n o n - i n v e r t i ni n
gp u t .
A s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ' r i s et sh,e v o l t a g ea t t h e n o n -
i n v e r t i n gi n p u ti n c r e a s e sa,st h e r e s i s t a n coef t h d
t h e r m i s t o rr i s e s ( a s s u m ian gp o s i t i v ec o e f f i c i e n t
t y p et h e r m i s t o r ) .

T h ev o l t a g ea t t h e i n v e r t i n gi n p u ti s s e t b y t h e
potentiometer.

T h e p o t e n t i o m e t eirs s e tt h a t t h e v o i t a g ea t t h e
inverting i n p u ti s t h e s a m ea st h a t a t t h e n o n -
i n v e r t i n gi n p u t .T h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt h e t w o
v o l t a g e sw i l l t h e n b e z e r o ,a n dt h e l a m po r
r ill beoff.
buzzew

A s s o o na st h e t e m p e r a t u r ei n c r e a s e st h, e
a t t h e i n p u tw i l l b e g r e a t e r
v o l t a g ed i f f e r e n c e
t h a n z e r oa , n dt h e l a m po r b u z z ew r illbe
a c t i v a t e dC. o m p a r a t o rasr e v e r ys e n s i t i v e
s w i t c h e sa n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r en e e d st o c h a n g e
b y o n l ya s m a l la m o u n tt o t r i g g e ro n t h e a l a r m .

r42
 T H ES U M M I N GA M P L I F I EORRA D D E R

W h e nt h e o p a m p i s u s e da s a m u l t i - i n p uitn v e r t i n ga m p l i f i e ri,t c a nb e u s e dt o a d d a n u m b e ro f
v o l t a g e sb, o t h a . c .a n d d . c .

C i r c u i t s u c ha st h e s ea r e u s e di n t h e m u s i ci n d u s t r y t oc o m b i n eo u t p u t sf r o m m i c r o p h o n e s ,
electricguitars,keyboards, voiceetc.

A f o u r i n p u ts . u m m i nagm p l i f i e irs s h o w nb e l o w :

RF

v1

ll t
vo

1I v4

+ j
W h e nK i r c h o f f ' sc u r r e n tl a w i s a p p l i e dt o t h e j u n c t i o na t P ,t h e t o t a lc u r r e n te n t e r i n gP i s e q u a l
t o t h e t o t a lc u r r e n tl e a v i n g .

Hence:

It*lz*ls*l+=l

I43
T h ec u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e f e e d b a c kr e s i s t oirs g i v e nb y I -
- + ( t h e riesa m i n u ss i g ns i n c et h e

a m p l i f i eirs i n v e r tni g )

V. V, V, V4
1r:;: ;lz -i; Is: Io:
Rn
t(1 &,
-vo - + V"" + \
_ V',^ + V?
Rf R1 R2 R3 Ra

T h eG E N E R AELQ U A T I O fNo r t h e s u m m i n ga m p l i f i eirs t h e r e f o r e :

vo: (3,, Rr
* JV"
RzL
.frvs*P-r-)
a

O n ei m p o r t a nat P P l i c a t i oonf t h e S U M M I N G A M P L I F I Ei sRt h e c o n v e r s i oonf d i g i t asl i g n a ltso

a n a l o g usei g n a l sT.h i st Y P eo f c o n v e r t eirs u s u a l l ya b b r e v i a t eadsa D / A c o n v e r t e r .

t o e l e c t r i c apl u l s e st h a t h a v eo n l y t w o s t a t e si . e .1 ( h i g h )a n d
l n d i g i t a ,t ' r n . l s , d a t ai s c o n v e r t e d
O( l o w ) .

l yv e ra r a n g eo f v a l u e s
t o a v o l t a g et h a t v a r i e sc o n t i n u o u s o
I n a n a l o g u se i g n a l sd,a t ai s c h a n g e d
i . e .a w a v e f o r mo f t h e v o l t a g er e p r e s e n ttsh e d a t a '

ANALOGUE

144
Analoguesignalsare subjectedto noiseand distortion,whiledigitalsignalsare extremelyclean
and undistorted.
However,there are manyapplications
whichcanonly operateon an analogue
basise.g.thosewhichinvolvethe humansensessuchas hearingand seeing.

The humanear candetectcontinuousvariationsin the intensityand pitchof sound;if it were to

operateon a digitalbasisthen would eitherdetector not detectsoundbut it wouldnot be able
changesin intensityand pitch.
to distinguish

The sametype of reasoning

is usedfor the humaneyetd detectchangesin lightintensityand
changesin colour.

H e n c ef o r r a d i oa n dt e l e v i s i obnr o a d c a sitt,w o u l db e l o g i c a l t oc o n v e rat n a n a l o g usei g n aflr o m

t h e r a d i oa n n o u n c et ro a d i g i t asl i g n a l t h at th e n l e a v e tsh e t r a n s m i t t e ar ,n dt h e n b a c kt o
a n a l o g uaet t h e r a d i or e c e i v e T
r .h er e a s o nf o r u s i n gt h e d i g i t asl i g n a l f otrr a n s m i s s i oi snt h a t i t
i s f r e ef r o m n o i s ea n d d i s t o r t i o na n dw o u l dt h e r e f o r eg i v ea b e t t e rq u a l i t yo f s o u n da t t h e
receiver.

l n p r a c t i c eD, / A c o n v e r t e ri sn c o r p o r a taeS U M M I N G
A M P L I F I E. R

T h ei n p L lst i g n a las r et y p i c a l l5y V f o r a b i n a r yi n p u to f l a n d0 V f o r a b i n a r yi n p u to f 0 .

1.45
T h ef o l l o w i n ge x a m p l es h o w st h e c o n v e r s i oonf d i g i t atl o a n a l o g u e :

A m a x i m u mp . d .o f 5 V i s a p p l i e dt o e a c hi n p u t .

2kC) 1ko

1
VD

VC 16kO
vo
VB
t
VA

J I
F r o m t h e g e n e r a lf o r m u l a f o r t h e o u t p u t o f t h e s u m m i n ga m p l i f i e r ,

Rr Rr Rr Rr
Vo: - -iV3-
f"Vr- nU, rur*
T h eo u t p u tv o l t a g ed u e t o t h e 2 k Or e s i s t oar l o n e- V p
-lkfi
Vo: x5:-2.5V
Zkn
- 1ko
Vc:4kA x5:-1.25V

-Iko
Vs: x5: -0.625V
B/.O
-1k0"
Ve:16k'x5:-0'31'3V

r46
 T h e m i n i m u mv o l t a g eo u t p u tt h a t i s n o n z e r o i s c a l l e dt h e L E A SsTl G N l F l c A NBTl r ( L S Ba) n d
in
t h e a b o v ee x a m p l et,h e L S Bi s e q u a lt o 0 . 3 1 3 V .

T h ec a l c u l a t i o nssh o wt h a t w h i l et h e i n p u ti s o n l y0 o r 5 V ,t h e o u t p u tr a n g e sf r o m 0 t h r o u g h
a
s p t o a m a x i m u mo f - ( 2 . 5 +j . . 2 5 + 0 . 6 2 5 + 0 . 3=1 -34). 6 g g v .
s e r i e so f v o l t a g e u

A s e r i e so f i n t e r m e d i a toeu t p u t sc a nb e o b t a i n e df r o m t h e f o l l o w i n gb i n a r yd i g i t s :

0001i.e only outputfrom Va

0011- Va+Ve- -(0.625+0.3j.3)= -0.938V

0 1 0 1 = V c * V R = - ( j , . 2 5+ 0 . 3 1 3 )= _ 1 . 5 6 3 V

1 0 1 1- V p+ V s + V=a- ( 0 . 3 L 3+ 0 . 6 2 5 + 2 . 5=)- 3 . 4 3 g V

= -0,.25+ 0.625+ 0.313)= _2.1ggv

0111=Vc*Ve*VR

=Vo*Vc+Vs+V4
1J1,1. =- (0.313+ 0.625+ 1.25+ 2.5)=-4.6ggV

0 1 0 0 = V c =- 1 , . 2 5 V

Theabovecalculations
showthat therecan be a seriesof differentbinarydigitsto givea wide
rangeof outputvoltagesand in this way,the inputdigitalstatesof "on and off" can be
converted
t o a n A N A L O G USEI G N A L .

r47
 FOLLOWER
THEVOLTAGE

T h i si s a s i m p l e vr e r s i o no f t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nagm p l i f i e r .
Rt=0

OV

t o e a r t h ,w h i l ea v o l t a g ei s a p p l i e dt o t h e n o n - i n v e r t i ntge r m i n a l ,
t e r m i n a li s c o n n e c t e d
T h ei n v e r t i r l g
h e n c et h e a m p l i f i eirs N O NI N V E R T I N G .

R e c a lt lh a t f o r t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nagm p l i f i e rt ,h e G A I Ni s g i v e nb y :

Rr
A_L+J 'R,

t o l e a v ea n o p e nc i r c u i t .
R,1i s m a d ez e r o ,a n dt h e R ii s r e m O v e d
I n t h e v o L T A G EF O L L O W E R

t m a k i n gR ii n f i n i t e .
T h i si s e q u i v a l e nt o

T h ec i r c u i tf o r t h e v o l t a g ef o l l o w e rw i l l t h e r e f o r eb e a ss h o w nb e l o w :

148
 S i n c et h e g a i nA : ' 1 + y , t h e n i n t h i s
R1'
n
case,A=1*"-1.
oa)

T h eg a i no f t h e v o i t a g ef o l l o w e r = 1 .

T h ev o l t a g ef o l l o w e ri s n o t u s e da s a v o l t a g ea m p l i f i e rb, u t i n s t e a di t i s u s e da s a V O L T A G E
BUFFER.

T h ev o l t a g eb u f f e ra c t st o i s o l a t ea n i n p u ts i g n a l f r o ma l o a d ,w h i l ea l l o w i n gt h e v o l t a g eo u t p u t
t o b e i d e n t i c at lo t h e i n p u ti n m a g n i t u d ea n d i n p o l a r i t yi.. e .V o= V i n

T h ev o l t a g ef o l l o w e rh a sa h i g hi n p u ti m p e d a n cseo t h a t i t d r a w so n l ya m i n u t ec u r r e n ta, n da t
t h e s a m et i m e ,i t h a sa l o w o u t p u ti m p e d a n cteh u sp r o d u c i n a
g s u f f i c i e n t l ya r g ec u r r e n ta t t h e
o u t p u t .( R e c atl hl a t 1 _ r o t h a t w h e n R i s s m a l l I, w o u l db e s u f f i c i e n t l ya r g e . )
f
C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t : A v o l t m e t e ri s c o n n e c t e d
t o m e a s u r ea p . d .o f 1 V
a c r o s sa 1 M O r e s i s t o rA. t y p i c a vl o l t m e t e rh a sa
r e s i s t a n coef 1 0 0 k Oa n d i n t h i s c i r c u i tt,h e v o l t m e t e r
w i l l d r a wm o s to f t h e c u r r e n a
t n dg i v ea n i n a c c u r a t e .
reading.

T h ev o l t a g ef o l l o w e rc a n b e u s e da ss h o w nb e l o w .

1 M O\
tv
1MO

l"Mo

T h eo p a m p i n p u td r a w sf a r l e s sc u r r e n t h a n t h e v o l t m e t e r b
, utthe OUTPUT
p r o v i d e se n o u g hc u r r e n t
f o r t h e v o l t m e t e rt o o p e r a t e .

T h ei n p u tc u r r e n ti s a b o u t1 p A ( 1 01 2 A ;w, h i l et h e o u t p u ti s a f e w m i l l i a m p(st 0 3 n ) .

T h i sc i r c u i ti s a l s ou s e f u fl o r d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e c u r r e n t st h r o u g hv e r y h i g hr e s i s t a n c eis. e
, .v e r ys m a l l
c u r r e r r tw
s h e n a v e i ' \ s. e n s i t i v a
e m m e t e ri s n o t a v a i l a b l e .

d s b e f o r ea, n dt h e c u r r e n ti s c a l c u l a t efdr o m r - v
I n t h i sc a s et h e p . d .i s m e a s u r e a
R

1,49
 ON OP.AMPS
TUTORIAL

(1)

t h e l a m pi s r a t e da t
r nt h e a b o v ec i r c u i tt,h e o p - a m ph a sa n o p e n r o o pg a i no f 1 o 2 a n d
s 0 m A ,t h e l a m pw i l l b u r n o u t .
2 V ,4 0 m A .l f t h e c u r r e n te x c e e d 4
op-amp is
i. D e t e r m i n et h e v a l u e o f t h e p r o t e c t i v er e s i s t o rR , w h e n t h e
saturated
ii. C a l c u l a tteh e p o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nign p u t
iii. Calculate t h e r e s i s t a n coe f t h e r h e o s t a t h a t w i l l a l l o w t h e p o t e n t i a la t t h e
i n v e r t i n gi n p u tt o a t t a i na v a l u eo f 2 ' 3 8 V '
j u s t c a u s e st h e
iv. w h a t m u s t b e t h e p o t e n t i a/ sl a t t h e i n v e r t i n gt e r m i n a lt h a t
o p - a m Pt o r e a c hs a t u r a t i o n'
v. To what valuesof resistancemust the resistance of the rheostatbe adjristed
same initial
s o t h a t t h e o p - a m p j u s t r e a c h e ss a t u r a t i o n ? ( A s s u mt hee
conditiona s t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i ntge r m i n a l )
( R= 2 5 0 (;)2 . 4 V ; 3 2 9 k O2; . 2 8 Vo r 2 . 5 2 Y ; 3 2 3 k o Or 3 3 7 k Q )

150
(2)

l n t h e a b o v ec i r c u i tt,h 6 o p - a m ph a sa n o p e n l o o pg a i no f 1 0 a a n dt h e l a m pi s r a t e d a t 1 , . 2 V ,
8 0 m A .l f t h e c u r r e n te x c e e d 8
s 0 m A ,t h e l a m pw i l l b u r no u t .

i. D e t e r m i n et h e v a l u eo f t h e p r o t e c t i v er e s i s t o R r ,w h e n t h e o p - a m pi s s a t u r a t e d
ii. C a l c u l a tteh e p o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nign p u t
iii. Calculate the resistanco e f t h e r h e o s t a t h a t w i l l a l l o w t h e p o t e n t i a la t t h e i n v e r t i n g .
'
i n p u tt o a t t a i na v a l u eo f 0 . 8 V .
iv. What must be the potentiad l i f f e r e n c ea c r o s st h e i n p u t t e r m i n a l st h a t j u s t c a u s e st h e
o p - a m pt o r e a c hs a t u r a t i o n .
v. T h e r e s i s t a n coef t h e r h e o s t a it s s e t i n i t i a l l ya t 2 0 0 k Qa n d t h e n a t 1 8 O O k OD.e t e r m i n ea t
w h i c hs e t t i n go f t h e r h e o s t a wt i l l t h e l a m po p e r a t ea n d e x p l a i nh o w y o u a r r i v e da t y o u r
conclusion.

( 2 2 . 5 0; I . 2 Y; 1 0 3 6 k O; 3 0 0 U V; 2 0 0 k 4 )

151
(3)

( i ) F i n dt h e p o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n i n v e r t i nign p u t .

( i i )D e t e r m i n teh e v a l u eo f t h e r e s i s t a n coef t h e r h e o s t aitf t h e o u t p u to f t h e o p -

a m pi sz e r o .

( i i i ) T h el a m pi s r a t e da t 3 V ,1 . . 2 Ad,e t e r m i n e t h er e s i s t a n coef t h e p r o t e c t i v e
r e si s t or .

( 1 , 8 V5; 4 M O ;5 O )

1.s2
 (4)

I n t h e a b o v em u l t i s t a gaem p l i f i e rt ,h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s 1 5 m V .D e t e r m i n teh e g a i no f t h e c i r c u i t
a n dt h e o u t p u tv o l t a g e .

A n s: 2 0 0 ; 3 V

(s)
500ko

T h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s V r =2 0 p t VD
. e t e r m i n et h e o v e r a lgl a i na n dt h e o u t p u tv o l t a g e .

( 1 . 5 6x 1 0 " ; 0 . 3 1 2 V )

153
(6)

76kO
200ko
600ko

s r e A z =4- 0 a n d 4 3 - - 8 0 , a n dt h e o v e r a l gl a i no f t h e s y s t e mi s
( i ) l ft h e g a i n sf o r t h e c a s c a d e ad m p l i f i e r a
6 . 4 x 1 0 4 d, e t e r m i n e s r , R za n d R 3.
t h e v a l u e so f t h e r e s i s t o rR

( i i )l f V r = 3 5 F V ,d e t e r m i n et h e o u t p u tv o l t a g e .

A n s : 4 k O ; 5 k O; 7 . 5 k O; 2 . 2 4 V

(7)
40ko
1s0ko
500ko

s r e A r = -8 0 , a n dA r = -2 0 , a n dt h e o v e r a l gl a i no f t h e
l f t h e g a i n sf o r t h e c a s c a d e ad m p l i f i e r a
s r ,R za n d R 3 .
a m p l i f i e ri s 3 0 0 0 ,d e t e r m i n et h e v a l u e so f t h e r e s i s t o r R

(s00o; 80kct 2sko)

1.54
(8) 2MO

lf V1=2mV,Vz= 10mV,and V3=6mV,

d e t e r m i n et h e o u t p u tv o l t a g e .

-141mV

1
(e)
220kO 500ko

V z =1 2 m V

D e t e r m i n et h e o u t p u tv o l t a g ef o r t h e a b o v ec i r c u i t .

( 0 . 2- 2 s v )

155
 Solutionsfor tutorial

(1)

i . W h e nt h e o p a m p i s s a t u r a t e dt h, e o u t p u tv o l t a g ew o u l db e e q u a tl o t h e s u p p l y
v o l t a g ew h i c hi s 1 2 V .I f t h e l a m pi s r a t e da t 2 V t h e nt h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e l a m pi s 2 V ,s o
t h a t t h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e r e s i s t owr o u l db e 1 0 V( l . e '1 2 V- 2 V = 1 0 V ) '

T h er e s i s t oar n dt h e l a m pa r e i n s e r i e s o t h a t i f 4 0 m Ah a st o f l o w t h r o u g ht h e l a m p ,
t h e n 4 0 m Aw i l l h a v et o f l o w t h r o u g ht h e r e s i s t o rS. of o r t h e r e s i s t o rV, = 1 0 Va n d | =
v10
0 . 0 4 4. R - :250Q
1 0.04

i i .T h e b r a n c ho f r e s i s t o rcso n n e c t etdo t h e n o n i n v e r t i n ign p u t h a sa B 0 k Or e s i s t o r

s e r i e sw i t h a 1 2 0 k OT , h et o t a l r e s i s t a n cies 2 0 0 k Oi n t h a t b r a n c ha, n dt h e p o t e n t i a l
differenceacrossthat branchis 12v-(-r2v)=12V+ r2Y = 2 4 V .

V 24
T h ec u r r e n t t h e b r a n c h1 - :-'
R7 zxros'

T h e o . d a c r o s st h e # x B 0x 1 0 3: 9 . 6 V

T h i si s t h e p o t e n t i aD l I F F E R E Na o f p o t e n t i aal c r o s s
CcEr o s st h e 8 0 k O ,i . et h e d i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s sb o t h e n d s
t h a t r e s i s t o rl.f t h e t o p e n d i s a t a p o t e n t i aol f L 2 Va n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e
o f t h e r e s i s t oirs 9 . 6 V t, h e nt h e p o t e n t i aal t t h e l o w e re n d i s 1 2 V9- . 6 V = 2 . 4 Y

156
 S o l u t i o nf o r q u e s t i o n1 c o n t i n u e d ;

i i i .A t t h e i n v e r t i n gi n p u t ,t h e b r a n c ho f r e s i s t o rcso n t ai n a 2 2 O k Q r e s i s t o irn s e r i e sw i t h a
r h e o s t a tl.f t h e p o t e n t i aal t t h e i n v e r t i n gi n p u ti s 2 . 3 8 V t, h e n t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s st h e
2 2 O k Or e s i s t o irs ( 1 2 V -2 . 3 8 V ) =9 . 6 2 V

T h e c u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e 2 2 0 k Or e s i s t o irs 1 , - -
# #

T h ep . d .a c r o s st h e r h e o s t a=t 2 . 3 8 V - ( - 1 2 V
1 4) . 3 8 V

T h ec u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e r h e o s t aw
t i l l a l s ob e t h e s a m ea st h a t c a l c u l a t eadb o v es i n c et h e t w o
14'38
resistorsare in series.I,' = ? - - - s s3-, Rz=329ko.
R2 R2 220x103

i v .T h ep o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nt e
g r m i n a il s f i x e da t 2 . 4 V T
. h eo p a m p r e a c h e s a t u r a t i o n
w h e nt h e o u t p u tv o l t a g ei s l - 2 V .

R e c a l lt h a t t h e g a i n o f a n o p a m p i s g i v e n b V A - l s t t
vLn
vin=Ynf- # - a.rzv
; hence

T h ed i f f e r e n c be e t w e e nt h e p o t e n t i a last t h e i n v e r t i n a
g n d n o n -i n v e r t i p tge r m i n a l m
s u s tb e
0 . 1 . 2 Vs,o t h a t i f V , = 2 . 4 i t h e nV , c a nb e e i t he r 2 . 2 8 Vo r 2 . 5 2 V .

v ' T h i sp a r tr e q u i r e tsh a t y o u f i n dt h e v a l u e so f t h e r e s i s t a n ct e
h a t w o u l dg i v ep o t e n t i a losf 2 . 2 g V
a n d2 . 5 2 Va t t h e i n v e r t i n tge r m i n a l .

C o n s i d efri r s ta p o t e n t i aol f 2 . 2 8 V T
. h e p o t e n t i aD
l I F F E R E NaCcEr o s st h e 2 2 O k Ar e s i s t o irs

1 ' 2 V- 2 . 2 8 V =9 . 7 2 V . T h ec u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e 2 2 0 k Oa n d h e n c et h r o u g ht h e b r a n c hi s g i v e nb y

v. 9.72
Rr 220xI03

T h e p . d . a c r o s st h e r h e o s t a t 2.28v-(-1Zv)=1.4.28v

T h i sc u r r e n t i s t h e s a m e t h r o u g h t h e r h e o s t a t L e . 3 - 1 4 - 2-8 - s ' 7 2 n
R z = 323kA
R2 R2 ,To" ro= ;

U s e t h e s a m e m e t h o d t o g e t t h e r e s i s t a n c ew h e n t h e p o t e n t i a li s 2 . 5 2 V .

Q u e s t i o n2 a n d 3 c a n b e s o l v e ds i m i l a r l yt o q u e s t i o n1

I
I
I
I

157
 Solutionfor question4

I n t h e c i r c u i t t h ea m p l i f i e rasr e c a s c a d eadn dt h e o v e r a lgl a i ni s g i v e nb y :

A : ArAzAz

T h ef i r s ta m p l i f i e rt(o t h e e x t r e m el e f t )i s N O NI N V E R T I NsG i n c et h e r ei s a s i g n atlo t h e n o n

i n v e r t i n tge r m i n aw l h i l et h e i n v e r t i n tge r m i n a il s c o n n e c t etdo t h e g r o u n d .
Rr
Thegain f or thenon- tnuerttng amp is gtvenby At - t *
&

30c)
Ar:1+200:2.5

s r e i n v e r t i n gs i n c et h e y h a v en o s i g n aal t t h e n o n i n v e r t i n g
T h e s e c o n da n dt h i r d a m p l i f i e r a
l h i l et h e r ei s a s i g n aal p p l i e dt o t h e i n v e r t i n tge r m i n a l .
t e r m i n aw
_Rr
TheGainf or aninverttngop - emp ts gtvenby A - t

-20 -800
' Az=i--4 andA=- - -20
J 40

T h e o u e r a l l G o . t nA : 2 . 5 x ( - 4 ) x ( - 2 0 ) = 2 0 0 .

The OutputVoltageVs- Gatn x Vn - 200 x 0'0tSV : 3V

Solutionfor question5

T h ef i r s to p - a m pi s n o n i n v e r t i n gw h i l et h e o t h e rt w o a r e i n v e r t i n g .

T h eg a i no f t h e f i r s to p - a m pi sA t : 1 * L* -'U
ff: #

T h eg a i no f t h e s e c o n do p - a m pi s A z : - + - - -40
#

: 6 0 0- - 1 5
T h eg a i no f t h e t h i r do p - a m pi s , 4 3- + -

- 1 ' ' 5 6x 1 0 4
T h e o v e r agl la i n i s g i v e bn y A - A 1 A , A 3 - ( 2 6 ) x ( - 4 0 ) x ( - 1 5 )

The output voltageVo= AV,n=1'56 x 10ax20 x 10-6=0'312V

158
 Solutionfor question5

A 6.4 x l_04
Overall Gatn A = A1A2A3 ; henceA, : -
AzAs 40 x B0

T h ef i r s ta m p l i f i e ri s n o n i n v e r t i n gs i n c et h e i n v e r t i n gt e r m i n a li s c o n n e c t e d
t o 0 V w h i l et h e n o n
i n v e r t i n gt e r m i n a li s c o n n e c t e d
to analternating
supply.

Thegainisgib
ve n , , : 2 0- 1 *
vA ; h e n c e R r :r y - 4ke
N-t*T
-200kQ
T h es e c o n da m p l i f i e ri s i n v e r t i n ga n d i t s g a i ni s g i v e nb v A z - - 4 0 : a# :
R2

henceR2: Skf)
-600ko
T h et h i r d a m p l i f i e ri s i n v e r t i n ga n dA z = - - ! f -
-J : -80: vvt R E: 7 . S k e
R1 R3

( i i )T h eo u t p u tv o l t a g eV o= A V t n : 6 . 4 x 1 0 a x 3 5 x 1 0 - 6 - 2 . 2 4 V

Solutionfor question7

Allof the amplifiera

s reinverting,

A 3000
rA1- 2 - - -1,.875
AA= -80 x -20

_Rr 40k0"
-80 hence Rr : 5000
i
R, R1

-Rt -15Okcr
Az : -I'875 ; Rz: BOkf)
Ri R2

. _R, -500k0
A." R=i -20 ; R s: 2 5 k A
R3

159
 D I G I T A LE L E C T R O N I C S

L o g i cg a t e s :

( 1 ) T h e N O Tg a t e :

T h i sg a t e h a s o n e i n p u t a n d o n e o u t p u t ;

I N P U T OUTPUT
0 I
1 0

( 2 ) T h eO Rg a t e :
I N P U T OUTPUT
T h i sg a t eh a st w o i n p u t sa n do n e o u t p u t ; A B c
0 0 0
A 0 1 I
C. 1, 0 1
B I I t
T h eo u t p u ti s h i g h( 1 )w h e ne i t h e ro r b o t hi n p u t sa r eh i g h .

(3) TheNOR gate:

-; . '
T h i sg a t e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e dt o b e t h e N O T o f a n O R g a t e , i . e . N O R= N O T O R
I N P U T OUTPUT
A A B C
0 0 1 I

B
0 I 0
1 0 0
1 I 0

( a ) T h eA N Dg a t e :

T h eo u t p u ti s h i g ho n l yw h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r e h i g h .
I N P U T OUTPUT
A B C
0 0 0
0 T 0
I 0 0
1 1 1

160
 ( 5 ) T h e N A N Dg a t e :

T h i si s e q u i v a l e nt to a n A N Dg a t ef o l l o w e dby a NOTgate.

I N P U T OUTPUT
A
A B c
0 0 1
B
0 I 1.
t 0 t
1 I 0

( 6 ) T h e E X C L U S I V E -gO
aRt e( E X - o R )

T h i si s s o m e w h ast i m i l a r t oa n O Rg a t e ,b u t i t E X C L U D E
t hSe c a s eo f t h e b o t h i n p u t sb e i n gh i g h .

R e c a lt lh a t i n t h e c a s eo f t h e O Rg a t e ,t h e o u t p u ti s h i g hw h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r e h i g h ,h o w e v e r
g a t e ,t h e o u t p u ti s l o w w h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r e h i g h ,b u t i n a l l o t h e rc a s e si,t
withthe EX-OR
b e h a v e s i m i l a tro t h e O Rg a t e .

I N P U T OUTPUT
A B c
A n o t h e re a s yw a y o f r e m e m b e r i n g
0 0 0
A \\------.' t h e t r u t h t a b l ei s t h a t t h e o u t p u ti s
0 I I
\\ h i g ho n l yw h e nt h e i n p u t sa r e N O T
-B--l___-/
t /-c 1 0 1
thesame.
I 1 0

( 7 1 T h e E X C L U S I VNEo-R g a t e( E X - N O R )
I N P U T OUTPUT
c
--l)A \\----\
A
0
B
0 T
-B
lL----/
>-. 0
1
t
0
0
0
t 1. 1

I n ' i t i sg a t et h e o u t p u ti s h i g ho n l yw h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r ee q u a l ,h e n c ei t a c t so p p o s i t et o t h e E X -
O Rg a t e .

t6r
GATE DIAGRAM FUNCTION INPUTS OUTPUT

T h eo u t p u ti s o p p o s i t e 1. 0
NOT of the input
0 I

OR T h eo u t p u ti s L o n l y 0 0 0
w h e n e i t h e ro n e o f t h e 0 1. L
i n p u t si s 1 O Rb o t h
1. 0 1.
i nputsare l -
L t 1.

0 0 I
T h eo u t p u ti s t h e 0 t 0
NOR opposi teof the ORgate.
T 0 0
N O Rm e a n sN O TO R
I L 0

The output i s 1-onl y 0 0 0

AND w h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r e 1 0 1 0

1 0 0
T 1. L

NAND T h eo u t p u ti s t h e 0 0 T
o p p o s i t eo f t h e A N D 0 L L
gate.
T 0 L
N A N Dm e a n sN O T A N D
I T 0

EX-OR T h eo u t p u ti s 1 o n l y 0 0 0
w h e no n e o f t h e i n p u t s 0 L L
a r e1 b u t n o t w h e nb o t h
1. 0 T
i n p u t sa r e 1
1. 1. 0

0 0 1

EX-NOR 0 T 0
T h eo u t p u ti s t h e
opposi teof the E X -OR t 0 0
gate. L 1 1.

r62
 C o m b i n a t i o nosf l o g i cg a t e s

A L Ll o g i cg a t e sc a nb e m a d ef r o m o n l yN A N Dg a t e so r o n l yN o Rg a t e s ( R E M E M I
B E RT H t S ) .
T h e m a i nb e n e f i ti s t h a t t h e s u b s t i t u t i odno e sn o t r e d u c et h e a m o u n t g a t e s
of butinstead
r e d u c e tsh e n u m b e ro f l cC' 'ssr e q u i r e d . ( lm c e a n sl n t e g r a t e cdi r c u i ta n d i s n o r m a l l yc a l l e da
"chip")

I n o r d e rf o r a n yg a t et o b e a b a s i cb u i l d i n gb l o c kf o r o t h e rg a t e s i,t m u s t
h a v et h e I N V E R T I N G
c a p a b i l i t yh,e n c eA N Dg a t e sa n d o R g a t e sc a n n o tb e u s e dt o b u i l do t h e r g a t e s .

T h e r ea r es o m eb a s i cd e s i g n tsh a t y o u m u s tl e a r ni n o r d e rt o m a k eg a t e s
f r o m N A N Do n l yo r
N O Ro n l y .

( 1 ) F i r s t l ya, N o T g a t ec a nb e m a d ef r o m a s i n g l ei n p u tN A N D
o r a s i n g l ei n p u tN o Rg a t e ;

NAND
NOR
Input Output
Input Output
0,0 1
0,0 I
t,r 0
r,t 0

In both cases,the output is the oppositeof the input,henceit is a NOTgate.

( 2 ) s e c o n d l ya, n A N Dg a t ec a nb e m a d eb y c o m b i n i n ga N A N Dt o
a N O Tg a t e :

A B C c D
0 0 1. 1. 0
0 1 1 1. 0
1 0 1 T 0
1 I 0 0 T

163
 ( 3 ) T h eO Rg a t ei s f o r m e db y a d d i n ga N O Tg a t et o e a c hi n p u to f t h e N A N Dg a t e :

A B c D E
0 0 1. 1, 0
0 1, I 0 1
T 0 0 t 1
T 1 0 0 !

( a ) T h e N O Rg a t ec a nb e . m a d ef r o m i n v e r t i n gt h e O Rg a t e .T h i si s d o n eb y a d d i n ga N O T
g a t ea t t h e o u t p u tf r o m t h e p r e v i o u O
s Rg a t e .

T h et r u t h t a b l ef o r t h e o u t p u to f t h i sc o m b i n a t i o ins t h e N O To f t h a t f o r t h e p r e v i o u tsa b l e .

164
 B U I L D I NW
GI T HN O RG A T E S

I n o r d e rt o b u i l da n yg a t e sf r o m N O Rg a t e s i,t i s i m p o r t a ntto p e r f o r mt h e f o l l o w i n gs e q u e n c oe f
actions:

( 1 ) D e s i g nt h e c i r c u i w
t i t h N A N Dg a t e so n l y .

( 2 ) R e p l a c e a c hN A N Dg a t ew i t h a N O Rg a t e

( 3 ) A d d N O Tg a t e st o a l l t h e i n p u t sa n do u t p u t s . ( R e m e m bt h
ear t t h e N O Tg a t ei s m a d ef r o m
a N O Rg. a t e ) .

( 4 ) R e m o v ea n y p a i r so f N O Tg a t e si n s e r i e sw i t h e a c ho t h e rs i n c et h e y c a n c eol u t e a c h
other.

E X A MP L E :

( 1 ) s h o wt h a t t h e f o l f o w i n gc i r c u i ti s e q u i v a l e nt to a N o Rg a t e :

F i r s t l yr,e p l a c ea l l N A N Dg a t e sb y N O Rg a t e s :

T i i e i t i n s e r t N O Tg a t e sa t A , B ,a n d C .

165
B yc a n c e l l i nogu t t h e p a i r so f N O Tg a t e st h a t a r e i n s e r i e sw i t h e a c ho t h e r ,t h e e n d r e s u l ti sj u s t
t h e l o n eN O Rg a t eX .

E x a m p l 2e :

D e s i g na n A N Dg a t ef r o m u r i n gN O Rg a t e so n l y .

Step1-;Designthe ANDfrom the NANDgatesi.e.

A NANDgatefollowedby a NOTgate
g i v e sa n A N Dg a t e .i . e N O To f N A N D
=AND

S t e p2 ; R e p l a cteh e N A N Dg a t e sw i t h N O Rg a t e s :

166
Step3; lnsertNOTgatesat A, B, and C.

T h e N O Tg a t e s4 a n d 5 a r e i n s e r i e sa n d w i l l c a n c eol u t e a c ho t h e r ,a n dt h e r e s u l t i n gc i r c u i tw i l l b e :

N OTgatesi n ser ies

Tw o successi ve
w i l l a l w a y sc a n c eol u t e a c ho t h e r
= (posit ive)
as (negati ve)(negati ve)

T h ea b o v ec i r c u i tr e p r e s e n tasn A N Dg a t e
O n l o o k i n ga t t h e i n p u t sA a n d B , i t i s s e e nt h a t t h e
O U T P U Ti s i d e n t i c atlo t h a t o f a n A N Dg a t e

A B NOT A NOT B NOT A NOR NOT B

0 0 1, 1. 0
0 1 T 0 0
1 0 0 t 0
I t 0 0 1

1.67
The Exclusive-OR
Gate :

Desired Gate NOR Construction

TruthTable
lnput A Input B OutputQ
000
011
101
110

The ExclusiveNORgate:

Desired Gate NOR Construction

t=Dr-
TruthTable
Input A Input B Output Q
0 01
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 I

168
 B u i l d i n gW i t h N A N DG a t e s

The ORgate:

Desired Gate NAND Construction

:-TF-
TruthTable
Input A Input B Outpute
000
011
l0l
111

The NORgate :

A NoR gateis simply an oR gatewith an invertedoutput:

Desired Gate NAND Construction

:Ir-
TruthTable
Input A Input B OutputQ
0 01
0 l0
I 00
I 10

169
 ORgate
TheExclusive

A n X O Rg a t ei s c o n s t r u c t esdi m i l a r l tyo a n O Rg a t e ,e x c e p w t i t h a n a d d i t i o n aNl A N Dg a t e

i n s e r t e ds u c ht h a t i f b o t h i n p u t sa r e h i g h ,t h e i n p u t st o t h e f i n a lN A N Dg a t ew i l l a l s ob e h i g h ,
a n dt h e o u t p u tw i l l b e l o w .T h i se f f e c t i v e lrye p r e s e n t sh e f o r m u l a :" N A N D ( A N A N D( A N A N D
B ) )N A N D( B N A N D( A N A N DB ) ) " .

Desired Gate NAND Construction

lfl-
TruthTable
Input A Input B OutputQ
000
011
101
110

The X- NORgate :

An XNOR gate is simply an XOR gate with an inverted output:

Desired Gate NAND Construction

lilr-
TruthTable
Input A Input B OutputQ
001
010
100
111

170
NOTES

171
 B IN A R YA D D E R S

T h e r ea r et w o t y p e so f B I N A R A
Y D D E RiS. e .t h e H A L FA D D E R
a n dt h e F U L LA D D E R .

T h e H A L FA D D E R i s u s e dw h e nt w o o n e b i t n u m b e r sa r ea d d e d T
. h ew o r d " b i t " m e a n sb i n a r y
digit.
T h eo n e b i t n u m b e r sc a no n l yh a v et h e v a l u e so f 0 a n d L .

T h e r ea r ef o u r d i s t i n cst i t u a t i o ntso c o n s i d ew
r i t h t h e H A L FA D D E RT.h e ya r e :

carry

I n ( d ) ,t h e s u mo f L + L = 1 0 ,a n dt h e 0 i s c a l l e dt h e S U Ma n dt h e 1 i s c a l l e dt h e C A R R y .

T h ev a l u eo f 1 0 o n t h e D E C I M A sL c a l ei s 2 . T h i si s e x p l a i n eadsf o l l o w s :

t0
\ The0isequalto0x20=0

T h e1 i s e q u a tl o 1 x 2 r = 2

T h eH A L FA D D E R
i s m a d ef r o m a n E X - O Rg a t ea n da n A N DG A T E :

A sum
A B CARRY S U M
0 0 0 0
0 I 0 t
I 0 0 1
carry 1. 1. 1. 0

( T h eE X - O R
g a t eg i v e :l h e s u ma n dt h e A N Dg a t eg i v e st h e c a r r y )

172
T h e H A L FA D D E Rc a na l s ob e b u i l tf r o m t w o N O R sa n d a n A N Dg a t e( L E A R N
T H | S! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )

SUM

T h ec i r c u i tg i v e st h e
f o l l o w i n gr e s u l t s :

CARRY S U M 0+0=00
A B c D E
0+l-=01
0 0 1, 0 0
0 1' 0 0 1 1+0=01
I 0 0 0 1
1+1=10
I I 0 T 0

173
 T H EF U L LA D D E R

The FULLADDERaddsthree bits at a time.

C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gb i n a r ya d d i t i o n :

I t + 1 . L ;t h i s i s r e w r i t t e ni n t h e f o l l o w i n gf o r m a tf o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n :

t1

0t L

OL I

1.1.0

Consider the leastsignificant bitsfirst,i.e.the digitson the extremeright;

1 + 1 = l - 0 .T h e 1 i n t h i s r e s u l ti s c a r r i e dt o t h e n e x tc o l u m n h
, e n c et h e m i d d l ec o l u m ng i v e s
L + 1+1 j 1 1 ( 3 b i t sh e r e ,s o t h a t t h r e eI N P U T aSr e n e e d e d ) A . F U L LA D D E R i s r e q u i r e df o r t h i s
part.

T h e r e f o r e1 1 - + 1 1
, , =1 1 0

174
T h e F U L LA D D E R
i s m a d ef r o m t w o H A L FA D D E RaSn d a n O Rg a t e .( H A ra n d H A 2a r e H A L F
ADDERS)

sum

T h et r u t h t a b l ef o r t h e F U L LA D D E R
i s g i v e nb e l o w :

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B c SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 t 0
0 T 0 1 0
1 0 0 t 0
0 1 1 0 t
T 0 T 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
T I I 1. 1,

{l*iriLis is ittr.'ilr-r LtL-nl

i*spir"atiixi.ni*etv-i:ine p*r dcltt [']u-rs!lit'ation.

-ffi:;id:jr', jVr.:
T'homas .{. Edison. 1*irt;r-';"lE

175
 CIRCUITS
BISTABLE

circuithastwo stablestatesof L or 0 .
A BISTABLE

A c i r c u i ti s c o n s i d e r etdo b e s t a b l ei f i t s o u t p u ts t a y sf i x e de v e na f t e r t h ei n p u tc h a n g e sI n . order
f o r t h i sc i r c u i t o m a i n t a i ni t s o u t p u tw h i l et h e r ei s a c h a n g ei n i t s i n p u t , i t m u s ti n c o r p o r a t e
sometype of LATCH in its design.

T h eL A T C H i s s i m p l ya p a r to f t h e c i r c u i t h a t " l o c k s "o r " s e t s "t h e o u t p u t ,s o i t w i l l n o t c h a n g e

w h e nt h e r ei s s o m ec h a n g ei n t h e i n p u ts i g n a l .

T h ep r i n c i p l e c a nb e u n d e r s t o o idn t h e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t :
o f o p e r a t i o no f t h e L A T C H

A L AT C HC IR C U IT

output
input

, n d h e n c et h e i n p u tt o B i s h i g h .
W h e nt h e i n p u tA i s h i g ht h e o u t p u ta t C i s h i g h a
W h e nt h e . i n p utto A g o e s to l o w ,t h e i n p u ta t B d o e sn o t c h a n g ea n d h e n c et h e o u t p u ta t C i s
s t i l lh i g h .

A s i m p l ew a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i nt hgi sc i r c u i w t o u l db e t o a s s u m et h a t w h e nt h e i n p u ta t A w a sc u t
o f f i . e .s e n tf r o m L t o 0 , t h e r ew a sa d e l a y e dr e a c t i o ni n t h e o u t p u t( e g .a m i c r o s e c o n d. )T h i s
d e l a yi s s u f f i c i e nt to a l l o wt h e o u t p u ts i g n atlo f l o w t o B s o t h a t t h e i n p u tt o t h e O Rg a t ew o u l d
b e l a n d0 , h e n c ei t s o u t p u tw o u l db e 1 , a n dt h i so u t p u tw i l l b e c o n t i n u o u s l y f ebda c k t oB s o
t h e O Rg a t ew i l l h a v ea l w a y sa n o u t p u to f 1

T h ea b o v ec i r c u i th a so n e s t a b l es t a t e , b u t f o rp r a c t i c apl u r p o s e ss,o m ec i r c u i t sa r e d e s i g n e d
w i t h t w o s t a b l es t a t e sa n dt h e s ea r ec a l l e dB I S T A B Lc E ircuits.

i r c u i tc a nb e m a d ef r o m t w o N O Ro r t w o N A N Dg a t e sa, n d s u c ha c i r c u i ti s c a l l e d
A B I S T A B Lc E
a n S - RB I S T A B L E .
The "S" refersto SETandthe "R" refersto RESET.

176
 C o n s i d et rh e B I S T A B Lc E
i r c u i t h a t i s m a d ef r o m N O Rg a t e s :

a
a

Q'
Q'

OPERATION:

C A S E1 :
T h e o u t p u to f a N O Rg a t ei s L o n l y i f b o t h i n p u t sa r e 0 . H e n c ei f S o r R i s L , t h e o u t p u to f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
g a t em u s t b e 0 .
F o re x a m p l ei,f S = 1 a n d R = 0 , t h e o u t p u to f G A T E1 i s 0 i . e .Q = 6 .
T h i so u t p u tQ i s f e d t o G A T E2 , s o t h a t n o w G A T E2 h a st w o i n p u t st h a t a r e0 , a n d i t so u t p u tw i l l b e 1 .
i.e. Q' -1,.

T h i s Q ' i s n o w f e d i n t o G A T E1 , s o t h a t G A T E1 n o w h a st w o i n p u t st h a t a r e 1 ( S = 1f r o m b e f o r e) , s ot h a t
Q r e m a i n sa t 0 .
I n s u m m a r v . w h esn= 1 a n d R = 0 . t h e c i r c u i t i s s t a b l e w i et h= 0 a n d e ' = 1 .

CASE 2
'lf S is nowresetto0 sothatS = R =0,
l stillhasan inputof l from q, sothattheoutputat eis still0.
GATE
ThisQ =0 isfed intoGATE2 sothat bothinputsto thisgate=0 andthe outputCf remainsat 1.

CASE3 :

R i s n o w r e s e t o l l e a v i n gs = 0 . T h e i n p u t st o G A T E2 a r e n o w l a n d0 ( e w a s 0 i n t h e p r e v i o u cs a s e ) ,
h e n c eQ ' = 0 a n d t h i s b e c o m e st h e s e c o n di n p u tt o G A T E1 . T h i sG A T E1 t h e r e h a st w o i n p u t so f 0 , s o
t h a t i t so u t p u t Q = l w h i c hi s f e d b a c kt o G A T E2 t o e n s u r et h a t Q ' r e m a i n sa t O .

CASE4:

R r ss w i t c h e dt o 0 w i t h S = 0 , Q i s s t i l la t L s o g a t e2 h a si n p u t so f 0 a n d 1 s o t h e o u t p u tQ ' i s 0 .

T h eo u t p u t sa r et h e r e f o : €U n c h a n g eads R i s s w i t c h e dt o 0 .

177
 i s 'SET"by settingS = 1 and R=0.
The BISTABLE
i s 'RESET"by settingS =0 and R=1.
The BISTABLE

circuit
TheTruth table for the BISTABLE
(uslNGNoRGATEs)

T h et r u t h t a b l es h o w st h a t w h e n S i s
S R a a'
"set" at 1-, with R beingkePtat 0, the

1 0 0 t o u t p u t sQ a n d Q ' a r e s t a b l e ( u n c h a n g e d )
0 0 0 I w h e n S i s c h a n g e dt o 1 .
0 L I 0
H o w e v e tr h e o u t p u t sc h a n g ew h e n R i s
0 0 1 0
" R e s e t "t o 1 , a n dt h e s eo u t P u t sr e m a i n
s t a b l e( u n c h a n g e dw)h e n R i s c h a n g e d
to 0.

T h e o u t p u t sc a n b e c h a n g e da g a i nb Y
r e s e t t i n gt o t h e o r i g i n asl t a t ew i t h S =1
a n d R =0 .

t78
BistablecircuitusingNANDgates

S R a Q'
T h et r u t h t a b l es h o w st h a t w h e n S i s
"set" at 1-, with R beingkept at 0, the
L 0 10
o u t p u t sQ a n d Q ' a r e s t a b l e ( u n c h a n g e d )
0 0 0 1
w h e n S i s c h a n g e dt o 1 .
0 I 1, 0
0 0 1 0 H o w e v e trh e o u t p u t sc h a n g ew h e n R i s
" R e s e t "t o 1 - a
, n dt h e s eo u t p u t sr e m a i n
s t a b l e( u n c h a n g e dw)h e n R i s c h a n g e d
to 0.

T h eo u t p u t sc a n b e c h a n g e da g a i nb y
resettingto the originalstatewith S=1
a n d R =0 .

179
 F L I PF L O P S

F l i pF o p sa r e b i s t a b l es t o r a g ed e v i c e tsh a t a r e c a p a b l eo f s t o r i n go n e b i t .
T h ed i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e na L A T C H a n da F L I P - F L O i sPt h e m e t h o dt h a t i s u s e dt o c h a n g et h e i r
states.
L a t c h eas r ec o n s i d e r etdo b e " L e v eTl r i g g e r e d i".,et h e y c h a n g es t a t ed e p e n d i n o gn t h e v o l t a g e
l e v eal pplied.

F l i p - F l o pasr es a i dt o b e " E d g eT r i g g e r e d " , i .teh.e o u t p u td e p e n d so n t h e T R A N S I T I Oo N

f the
s i g n awl h i c hc a nb e L O Wt o H I G H ( r i s i n egd g e )o r H I G Ht o L O W( f a l l i n e gd g e ) .

T h et e r m s" r i s i n ge d g e "a n d " f a l l i n ge d g e "r e f e r t ot h e s q u a r ew a v es i g n atlh a t i s a p p l i e dt o t h e

deviceto causeit to changeits state.
T h i ss q u a r ew a v es i g n ails c a l l e da c l o c kp u l s e .

Rising
edge
F a l l i n ge d g e

T h ed i a g r a . m s h o w st h a t f o r t h e c l o c kp u l s et h e " R l S l N GE D G Ei's a t t h e l e f t s i d eo f t h e
r : e c t a n g u lparro j e c t i o n(sa r r o w sp o i n tu p w a r d sw ) h i l et h e " F A L L I N E
GD G Ei"s a t t h e r i g h ts i d eo f
t h e r e c t a n g u l aprr o j e c t i o n(sa r r o w sp o i n td o w n w a r d s ) .

180
 ACTION
OFFLIP
FLOPS

T y p i c aFl L I P - F L OaPrSe r i s i n ge d g et r i g g e r e di ,. e .t h e o u t p u tc h a n g eas t t h e r i s i n ge d g eo f e a c h

c l o c kp u l s e .

T h eT - t y p eF L I P - F L O P :

The "T" in T-typestandsfor the word TOGGLE- t h i s m e a n st h a t t h e o u t p u t sQ a n d Q ' t o g g l eo r

e x c h a n g set a t e sa t e a c hr i s i n ge d g e .
T a Q'
T h ef l i p - f l o ph ' a st h e f o l l o w i n gd i a g r a m
0 0 1

T h ee x p l a n a t i o n
1 I 0
f o r t h e s ea r r o w s
t o t h e r i g h ti s
+ 0 0
g i v e nb e l o w t I

+ 1 0 I

0 0 I
t
T h eT r u t ht a b l ea n dt i m i n gd i a g r a masr eg i v e na s
I 1, L 0

follows:

J-O

I n t h e t r u t h t a b l et h e r ea r es o m ea r r o w st o t h e l e f t o f i t . T h ef i r s ta r r o wi n d i c a t etsh a t t h e c l o c k
. u l s ei s o n 0 b u t m o v e su p t o 1 . T h i si s a l s os h o w no n t h e c l o c kp u l s et i m i n gd i a g r a mT. h e
p
s e c o n da r r o wf r o m t h e t r u t h t a b l e ,i n d i c a t etsh a t t h e i n p u tl e v e li s 1 a n dt h e r e f o r em o v e sd o w n
t o 0 e t c .T h i si s n o t s h o w no n t h e t i m i n gd i a g r a mb e c a u s w e e a r e u s i n gt h e t i m i n gd i a g r a mt o
s h o wo n l yt h e R I S I N E GD G E Sa,st h e f l i pf l o p i s o n l ya c t i v a t eodn t h e r i s i n ge d g e s .

T h et r u t h t a b l ea l s os h o w st h a t t h e o u t p u t sQ a n d Q ' t o g g l ea t e a c hr i s i n ge d g eo f a c l o c kp u l s e .
F o re x a m p l ea, t t h e f i r s tc l o c kl e v e l, Q = 0 a n d Q ' - 1 . A t t h e s e c o n dp u l s eo f L t h e i n p u tw o u l d
h a v eR I S E N f r o m C t o 1 , i . e .i t i s a R I S I N G
e d g e ,a n dt h e o u t p u t sw o u l dt o g g l es o t h a t Q = 1 a n d
( j" 1.

181
 t o g g l ea s
W h e nt h e c l o c kl e v e lf a l l sb a c kt o Ot h i s i s a f a l l i n ge d g ea n dt h e o u t p u t sw o u l dN O T
n e x tr i s i n g
t h e y r e s p o n do n l yt o r i s i n ge d g e s ,h e n c et h e o u t p u t sr e m a i nu n c h a n g e dA.t t h e
edge,therewould againbe togglingi.e.the Q and Q' would exchange states.

T h et i m i n gd i a g r a mfso r i n p u ta n do u t p u t sa r es h o w nb e l o w

Q'
l & , a n do u t p u t sa r es h o w nh e r e .T h e
lettersA, B, C, D, E,and F are not part of the diagrambut they have
b e e ni n s e r t e da s l a b e l sf o r s o m ei m p o r t a n p
t oints.

A t A t h e i n p u ti s a t a r i s i n ge d g ea n d Q w o u l ds w i t c ht o 1 w h i l eQ '
wouldswitchto 0.

A t B , t h e r ei s a n o t h e r i s i n ge d g ea t t h e i n p u t ,s o Q a n d Q ' w o u l d
n o w t o g g l e. i . e .Q w o u l dg o t o 0 a n d Q ' w o u l dg o t o 1 '

A t C , t h e r i s i n ge d g eo n t h e i n p u tw o u l da g a i nc a u s et o g g l i n g
,causing Q to go to l- and Q' to 0.

A t o B , B t o C ,C t o D , D t o E , a n d E t o F ,h a v eo n l y
T h es p a c e s f r o m
F A L L I NeGd g e so n t h e i n p u tt i m i n gd i a g r a ma n dt h e r e f o r ed u r i n g
theseintervals, thereare no changes to both Q and Q'.

1,82
 COUNTERS

A THREE BITbinarycountercan be madefrom eitherthree fallingedgetriggeredtogglingFLlp-

FLOPsor three risingedgetriggeredtogglingFLlp-FLOpS.

T h ea r r a n g e m e nf ot r t h e t h r e ef a l l i n ge d g eT - F L I PF-L O P iSs a sf o l l o w s :
Qz(m.s.b.)
Q r ( 1 .bs .)
Most SignificantBit Q'
LeastSignificantBit

Clock
pulses

I t i s i m p o r t a nt o n o t et h e s i g n i f i c a n coef t h e s y m b o l fso r R I S I N G
EDGE
TRIGGERE
anDd F A L L I N G
EDGE TRIGGERED.

The FALLING
EDGE
TRIGGERED
is denotedby I t i s a n a r r o ww i t h a b u b b l ec l o s e
1pr-
to thetip

T h eR I S I N E
GD G E
T R I G G E R iEsD
d e n o t e db y + T h e r ei s n o b u b b l e

183
T h et i m i n gd i a g r a masn dt h e c o r r e s p o n d i tnrgu t ht a b l ea r eg i v e nb e l o w :
C l o c kp u l s e s

a o( l . s . b . )

Q, (m.s.b.)

Remembe : rL s . bm e a n L
s E A SSTI G N I F I C ABNI TT
m . s . bm e a n Ms OSS TIGNIFICA BNI TT

W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s ei s 0 t h e t o t a l o u t p u ti s 0 .
W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s e= I , t h e o u t p u ti s 0 0 1 =1 , =2 0( o n l yt h e f i r s tf l i p - f l o pi s o n )
W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s e= 2 , t h e o u t p u t= 0 1 0= 0 + 2 r + O =2 ( t h es e c o n df l i p - f l o pi s o n a n dt h e
first is off)
k u l s e= T , t h e o u t p u t= ! ! L = 2 2+ 2 1+ 2 0= 7 e t c . ( A ltlh r e ef l i p - f l o p a
W h e nt h e . c l o c p s r eo n )

W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s ei s 5 , t h e t i m i n gd i a g r a ms h o w st h a t t h e 3 ' of l i p f l o p i s o n , t h e s e c o n di s o f f
a n dt h e f i r s ti s o n t o g i v e 2 2+ 0 + 2 0= 4 + 1 = 5

Outputs
Numbeo r f Qz=22=4 Qt= 2'= 2 Q o = 2 u= 1
C l o c kP u l s e m . s b. . l.s.b.
0 0 0 0
I 0 0 1
2 0 I 0
3 0 1 I
4 1, c 0
5 1, 0 I
6 1, 1, 0
7 1, T 1,

1.84
 MODULE
3
Atomic and NuclearPhysics

I M P O R T A NFTO R M U L A E :

(1) Photon Energy E - hf

(2)Work functi.onenergy e: ltfo

( 3 ) E t n s t e t n 's P l t o t o e l e c t r ie
c q u a t i " o n: h f : , *;mv2

OR ltf - E + eV,

(4)Attenuatton of X ra"ys:I : Io€GFx)

(S)Energy LeuelTransi"tton AE - hf : Ez - Er

$ ) f h e d . eB r o g l i . eW a u e t e n g t l tl , : L
p

(7)Massnumber-A*Z

(B)Einstei"n'sMassEnergy Relatton L,E = Lmc2

A =#:
(e) Acti.utty -AN

(I})Number of nuclei present N : Noe-At

( 1 1 )H a t fL i' fe r r , : Y
/2 A

(1 2 )A c ti u i .ty A = Ao (;)" w here n i s ttte number of hal f ti " ues

185
 EFFECT
ThCPHOTOELECTRIC
PARTIC TE NATUREOF E ROMAG RA

, , p a r t i c u l aN
t ea t u r e "m e a n sp a r t i c l ep r o p e r t i eis. e .l i g h ta sw e l l a sa l l o t h e r t y p e so f
T h et e r m
electromagnetic radiation(eg.microwaves, X -rays,radiowavesetc,) behaveas particlesin
a d d i t i o nt o e x h i b i t i n wg a v ep r o p e r t i e s .

CE CoTf l i g h t .
T h i sp a r t i c u l a tnea t u r ei s d e m o n s t r a t eidn t h e P H O T O E L E C TERFI F

Thisphotoelectriceffectcanbestbe explainedasfollows:When lightof a suitablyhigh

frequencyfallson a metalsurface,electronsare emittedfrom the metalsurface.
sm.ittea
T h ee l e c t r o n e t h e i re m i s s i o cn a nb e d e m o n s t r a t ebdy
d r ec a l l e dP H O T O E L E C T RaOnNdS
meansof a GoldLeafElectroscope.

u . v .l i g h t

lll-e
lila
+++
l
Polished
Zinc
plate

E x p ln
aa t i o n :

is givena negativechargeandthis causesits leavesto divergedue to

A Goldleafelectroscope
the repulsioo nf charges.
A sheetof polishedzincis placedat the top of the capof the ele.ctroscope.
is
U l t r a v i o l el it g h tf o r a m e r c u r yv a p o u rl a m pi s t h e n i l l u m i n a t e od n t h e z i n cp l a t ea n d i t
observedthat the leavesof the electroscope beginto collapse'
c h a r g ew h i c hw o u l dh a v eo c c u r r e d
e f t h e l e a v e si s d u et o t h e l o s so f n e g a t i v e
T h i sc o l l a p s o
rvhenphotoelectrons were emittedfrom the zincsurface.

p l a t ep l a c e do n
W h e nt h e e l e c t r o s c o pwea s i n i t i a l l yg i v e na p o s i t i v ec h a r g ea, n dt h e nt h e z i n c
t h e c o p ,t h e r ew a sn o c h a n g ei n t h e d i v e r g e n coef t h e l e a v e sw h e nt h e z i n cw a si l l u m i n a t e d
with uv " Thismeansrhattherewas no changeof positivecharge,and photoelectrons were

ur.lilr:l€ to leavethe electroscope asthey were heldin placeby electrostatic attractionof the
positivechargeson the electroscope.

186
 Onesignificant otherobservation with the caseof the negatively chargedelectroscope, was
t h a t w h e n a s h e e to f g l a s sw a s i n s e r t e db e t w e e nt h e u v . s o u r caen dt h e z i n cp l a t e ,t h e r ew a sn o
collapso ef the leaves..

T h i so b s e r v a t i ocna nb e e x p l a i n e a
d sf o l l o w s : .

T h eg l a s sc a u s e tsh e R E F R A C T I o OfNl i g h t .T h eu v l i g h th a sa v e r ys m a l w
l a v e l e n g t ah n d i s t o t a l l y
i n t e r n a l l rye f l e c t e d
s o i t i s u n a b l et o r e a c ht h e z i n cp l a t e .
T h eo t h e rl o n g e rw a v e l e n g t hwsi l l p a s st h r o u g hb u t d o n o t h a v es u f f i c i e net n e r g yt o s u p p l yt o
the electronsto causethem to escapefrom the metalsurface.As a result,the pHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT doesnot occur.

L a w so f P h o t o e l e c t r iEcm i s s i o n :

( 1 ) T h e p h o t o c u r r e nw
t h i c h i s t h e n u m b e ro f p h o t o e l e c t r o npse r s e c o n d i, s p r o p o r t i o n a l
t o t h e I N T E N S I ToYf t h e i n c i d e n rt a d i a t i o n .

( 2 ) T h e m a x i m u m K i n e t i cE n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o niss d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n atlo t h e
F R E Q U E N Co Y f t h e i n c i d e n tr a d i a t i o na, n d i s i n d e p e n d e not f t h e i n t e n s i t yo f t h e
i n c i d e n tr a d i a t i o n (. t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o nasr e e m i t t e d w i t h a r a n g eo f k i n e t i ce n e r g i e s
f r o m z e r ou p t o a m a x i m u mv a l u e .

( 3 ) F o r a n y p a r t i c u l amr e t a l ,t h e r e i s a m i n i m u mf r e q u e n c yo f r a d i a t i o nt h a t w i l l c a u s e
p h o t o e m i s s i oT nh. i sm i n i m u mf r e q u e n c yi s c a l l e dt h e T H R E S H O LFD REeUENCY an,d
b e l o wt h i sf r e q u e n c yn, o p h o t o e m i s s i ot na k e sp l a c e .

A c c o r d i ntgo W a v eT h e o r yt,h e i n t e n s i t yo f r a d i a t i o ni s t h e p o w e rp e r u n i t a r e a ,s o a g r e a t e r
l n t e n s i t yi m p l i e sa g r e a t e ra m o u n to f e n e r g yi n c i d e not n t h e m e t a ls u r f a c el .t w o u l db e
r e a s o n a b lteo a s s u m et h e n t h a t w h e nt h e i n t e n s i t yi s i n c r e a s e dt h, e p h o t o e l e c t r o nssh o u l d
a c q u i r ea g r e a t e ra m o u n to f K i n e t i cE n e r g ya st h e y l e a v et h e m e t a ls u r f a c e .
However, this is not observedand the fact that the kineticenergyof the photoelectrons is
i n d e p e n d e notf i n t e n s i t y , ( L a2w) i s a c a s eo f t h e F A I L U RoEF T H EW A V ET H E o R yo F L t G H T .

Alsoaccording to WAVETHEORY, the energytransportedby a waveis continuousand for

f r e q u e n c i ebse l o wt h e t h r e s h o l df r e q u e n c yt h
, e e l e c t r o ns h o u l db e a b l et o a c q u i r es u f f i c i e n t
energyaftera periodof time to be ableto escapefrom the metalsurface.Thisis not observed
a n d i s t h e r e f o r ea n o t h e rc a s eo f t h e F A I L U RoEF T H EW A V ET H E o R yo F L I G H T .

T h eo b s e r v a t i o ni n
s the photoelectre i cf f e c tc a no n l yb e e x p l a i n e b
d y a s s u m i ntgh a t t h e
r a d i a t i o nh a sa P A . : , T I C U L A
NTAET U R ET .h a ti s ,e l e c t r o m a g n e triacd i a t i o nb e h a v e sl i k ea s t r e a m
of iiiscreteparticles.

1.87
 THEQUANTUMTHEORY

A L B E RE
T I N S T E IdNe v i s e da t h e o r yt h a t w o u l da c c u r a t e leyx p l a i nt h e P h o t o e l e c t rE
i cf f e c t :
T H E Q U A N T U MT H E O R Y .

T h i st h e o r yi m p l i e st h a t a l l e l e c t r o m a g n e rt a
i cd i a t i o ins m a d eu p o f i n d i v i d u auln i t sc a l l e d
PHOTONS.

radiationthat behavesas a discreteparticle.

A PHOTONis a basicunit of electromagnetic
( L E A R)N

E a c hp h o t o nh a sa f i x e da m o u n to f e n e r g yc a l l e da Q U A N T I . J o
Mf e n e r g y .

l f t h e i n c i d e net n e r g yh a sa f r e q u e n c y /t,h e nt h e q u a n t u mo f e n e r g yi n a p h o t o ni s g i v e nb y :
E:hf
W h e r eh i s a c o n s t a nct a l l e dt h e P l a n c k 'cso n s t a n(t h =6 . 6 3x 1 O - 3 a J s )

A l l e l e c t r o m a g n e triac d i a t i o nh a v ea s p e e dc = 3 x 1 0 8 m s1 i n a v a c u u ma, n dt h e w a v e l e n g tohf

a n ye . m .r a d i a t i o ins g i v e nA VA : ( f r o mv : f 7 ) .
|
ht
H e n c et h e e n e r g yo f a s i n g l ep h o t o nc a na l s ob e w r i t t e na stE- ' - .
1'

hc
E_ -hf !-EARNI
1

T h ep h o t o nm o d e lc a ne x p l a i nt h e r e s u l t so f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r e
i cf f e c ta sf o l l o w s :

T h ei n t e n s i t yo f t h e i n c i d e nrt a d i a t i o ni s a m e a s u r eo f t h e n u m b e ro f i n c i d e npt h o t o . npse r

s e c o n da, n dw h e nt h e s ep h o t o n ss t r i k et h e m e t a ls u r f a c et ,h e r ei s a d i r e c t r a n s f e o r f energy
f r o m e a c hp h o t o nt o a p a r t i c u l aer l e c t r o nH . e n c ea g r e a t e ri n t e n s i t yo f i n c i d e nlti g h tm e a n sa
g r e a t e rn u m b e ro f p h o t o n sp e r s e c o n ds t r i k i n gt h e m e t a ls u r f a c ea, n dt h i sw o u l dm e a na
g f e a t e rn u m b e ro f p h o t o e l e c t r o nesm i t t e dp e r s e c o n da so b s e r v e d .

W h e nt h e f r e q u e n c o y f t h e i n c i d e nlti g h ti s i n c r e a s e dt h, e e n e r g yo f e a c hp h o t o ni s i n c r e a s e(dE
= h f ) ,c a u s i n tgh e p h o t o n st o n o w t r a n s f e a r g r e a t e ra m o u n to f e n e r g yt o t h e e l e c t r o n sw, h i c h
i n t u r n c a u s e tsh o s ep h o t o e l e c t r o nt os n o w h a v ea g r e a t e rK Ew h e nt h e y l e a v et h e m e t a l
surface.

\ l / h e nt h e i n c i d e nrt a r J i a t i oi n
s b e l o wt h e T H R E S H O L FD
REQUENC t hYe, e n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o ni s
'low;:r,ij
t h e e n e r g yt r a n s f e r r etdo e a c he l e c t r o ni n t h e m e t a li s t o o l o w f o r i t t o e s c a p ef r o m t h e

188
 m e t a ls u r f a c eT. h ee n e r g yi s n o t c o n t i n u o uasn dt h e e l e c t r o ncsa n n o ta b s o r bm o r e
t h a no n e
q u a n t u ma t a n yt i m e ,a n da r et h e r e f o r eu n a b l et o e s c a p teh e m e t a l .

PROPERTIES
OFTHEMETALSURFACE

F o re a c hp a r t i c u l am r e t a l ,t h e r ei s a m i n i m u mf r e q u e n c o y f l i g h tt h a t c a nb e r a d i a t e do n i t s
s u r f a c et o c a u s ep h o t o e m i s s i o n
T h i sm i n i m u mf r e q u e n c o y f e l e c t r o m a g n e triacd i a t i o n
t h a t i s r e q u i r e dt o c a u s ep h o t o e l e c t r o n
e m i s s i o ins c a l l e dt h e T H R E S H O F LRD E e U E N COYRC U TO F FF R E e U E N C f oYr t h e m e t a l .

R e c a ltlh a t c = ' f l h e n c e l - : . l f t h e t h r e s h o l d f r e q u e n c yi s d e n o t e db y f o ,t h e n t h e
I
c o r r e s p o n d i nwga v e l e n g t ihs c a l l e dt h e T H R E S H o LWDA V E L E N G T oH r C U T - O FW F AVELENGTH
and is denotedby trg.
C
Ao: r
lo

T h em i n i m u me n e r g yt h a t a p h o t o n m u s th a v et o c a u s ep h o t o e l e c t r oenm i s s i o n
i s d e n o t e db y
$ a n d i s c a l l e dt h e w o r k f u n c t i o ne n e r g yo f t h e m e t a l
Q : hf o

L E A RT
NH I S :

The WoRK FUNCTIoNenergyof a metal is the minimum energythat an incidentphoton

must havein
order to causethe emissionof a photoelectron.

W h e nt h e e n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o ni s e q u a l t ot h e w o r k f u n c t i o ne n e r g yo f t h e m e t a l ,t h e e m i t t e d
p h o t o e l e c t r odno e sn o t h a v ea n y i n c r e a s ien i t s K i n e t i ce n e r g y .

H o w e v e ri,f t h e e n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o n( E : h f ) i s G R E A T Et hRa nt h e w o r k f u n c t i o ne n e r g y
of
t h e m e t a l ,t h e nt h e d i f f e r e n c ien t h e t w o e n e r g i e (si . e .h f - g o e s i n t o i n c r e a s i nt g
h e
il K I N ETIC
E N E R GoYf t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n .
T h ep h o t o e l e c t r o nasr e l i b e r a t e dw i t h a r a n g eo f K i n e t i ce n e r g i e u
s p t o a m a x i m u mv a l u ew h i c h
is denotedby KEr.".

KE."*= hf - O. Thisis EtNSTE|N,S

PHOTELECTRTC
EeUAT|ON.

L E A R NT H I : :

Einstein's
Photoelectric is:KE.",= hf - e ORKE.."=!^uko*:
equation hf - e

189
 POTENTIAL
STOPPING
W h e n l i g h ts t r i k e st h e m e t a l
C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t : p l a t eC , p h o t o e m i s s i ot n
akes
p l a c e( a s s u m i nt gh a t t h e
V a c u u mc h a m b e r
f r e q u e n c yo f l i g h ti s
s u f f i c i e n t lhyi g h ) .

P h o t o e l e c t r o nasr e l i b e r a t e d
from C and moveto strikethe
p l a t eA .

T h e m i g r a t i o no f e l e c t r o n s
f r o m C t o A c o m P l e t etsh e
c i r c u i ta n d a c u r r e n ti s
d e t e c t e da n d d i s P l a Y eodn t h e
ammeter.

e c r o s sA Ca s s h o w n :
C o n s i d enr o w t h e c a s ew h e r et h e r ei s a p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c a

The reversepotentialis continuously adjusteduntilthe plateA is sufficiently negative

t o i u s t r e p e la n y p h o t o e l e c t r o nf rso m r e a c h i n igt , t h u sc a u s i n tgh e p h o t o c u r r e n t
r e c o r d e db y t h e a m m e t e rt o f a l lt o z e r o

A t t h i s p o i n t ,t h e r e v e r s ep o t e n t i aal c r o s sA Ci s c a l l e dt h e s t o p p i n gp o t e n t i aal n d i s
denotedby V, , and the energyneededby the photoelectrons to crossthe gapacross
- O
ACwould havebeenequafto ] mvlro, - llf

Recallr!-rat the energyireededby an electronto overcomea barrierpotentialis equal

the stopping
s u s th a v et o o v e r c o m e
i o e V ,i l e n c et h e K i n e t i ce n e r g yt h a t t h e e l e c t r o n m
p o t e n t i ails e q u a lt o e V '

190
 H e n c e€ V , - K E ^ o * - ! * u , ^ q x : hf - O.
E i n s t e i n 'psh o t o e l e c t r e
i cq u a t i o nc a nt h e r e f o r eb e r e = w r i t t e na s :
'J-
't
€rV
r
,: ; m v k o * - h f - 0 .
L

B u t@: h f o ; €Vr: hf - hfo: h(f - f).

T h i se q u a t i ocna nb e r e -a r r a n g eadsf o l l o w s :

v' : h f - h f o
ee
l f a g r a p ho f S t o p p i n gP o t e n t i avl e r s u sf r e q u e n c iys p l o t t e d i, t w o u l dh a v et h e f o l l o w i n g
shape:

Stopping
Potential

fo frequency

The pointwherethe graphcutsthe x-axisrepresents a stoppingpotentialof zeroand this is

p o i n tw h e r et h e f r e q u e n c o
y f t h e i n c i d e nrt a d i a t i o ni s e q u a lt o t h e T H R E S H o LFDR E Q U E N c y
F O RT H EM E T A L .

T h i sc a nb e d e d u c e df r o m t h e e q u a t i o n :

v' : h f - h f o
e

V ,w i l l b e e r o w h e n
hf hfo
l"l_-
ee
W h i c hm e a n st h a t
f =foat V, =0

191
 I
Fromthe previousgraph,the gradientwould be equalto

can
The stoppingpotentialfor a metal irradiatedwith photonsof sufficientlyhigh energy
thereforebe definedas the REVERSE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE that must be appliedacross
preventthe
the metal surfaceand a collectorplate in an evacuatedchamberto iust
photoelectronsfrom reachingthe collector'

T h e e n e r g yo f a p h o t o nc a nb e e x p r e s s eidn J o u l e so r a l t e r n a t i v e liyn E L E C T R o N V o L T S ( e V )
1eJ'
L e V= e l e c t r o n i c h a r g ex l V o l t = 1 ' 6 x L 0

O T H E RU S E F UG
LRAPHS:

rrent
Photocu
4rlntensitYr (C)

Intensityz(B)

\ I n t e n s i t v 3( A )

-vr. A<B <C

T h eg r a p hs h o w s3 s i g n i f i c a nf e
t atures:

( 1 ) A s t h e i n t e n s i t yi s i n c r e a s e dt h, e m a x i m u mp h o t o c u r r e ni tn c r e a s e s '
s u r f a c ea, n d a s a
A g r e a t e ri n t e n s i t ym e a n st h a t t h e r ea r e m o r e p h o t o n sp e r s e c o n ds t r i k i n gt h e m e t a l
> T h i sl e a d st o a
r e s u l t h e r ew o u l d b e m o r ee l e c t r o n sp e r s e c o n db e i n ge j e c t e df r o m t h e m e t a ls u r f a c e
g r e a t e rp h o t o c u r r e n t .

( 2 ) T h e p h o t oc u r r e n ti n c r e a s efsr o m z e r o( a t - V , ) u p t o a m a x i m u ma t
the
V = 0 .A s t h e p . d i s m a d el e s sa n d l e s sn e g a t i v et ,h e r e i s l e s sr e s i s t i v feo r c ea c t i n go n
p h o t o e l e c t r o nhse n c em o r eo f t h e m w o u l d b e a b l et o t r a v e lf r o m t h e m e t a ls u r f a c et o t h e
f r e et o
a n o d e .A t V = 0 , t h e r ea r e n o r e s i s t i v feo r c e sa c t i n go n t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o nasn d a l l a r e
m o v et o t h e a n o d et o p r o d u c et h e p h o t o c u r r e n T e f V b e y o n dz e r od o e sn o t
t .h e i n c r e a s o
remain
i n c r e a s teh e p h o t o c u r r e nat st h e n u m b e ro f p h o t o e l e c t r o nl se a v i n gt h e m e t a ls u r f a c e
u n c h a n g q (dt h i sc h a n g e o s n l y i f i n t e n s i t yc h a n g e s )
( 3 ) R e g a r d l e sosf h o w t h e i n t e n s i t yi s c h a n g e dt,h e s t o p p i n gp o t e n t i a l( - V , )r e m a i n su n c h a n g e d '
which is
T h e s t o p p i n gp, o t e n t i a li s o n l y d e t e r m i n e db y t h e e n e r g y o f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n s
d e t e r m i n e db y t h e f r e q u e n c yo f t h e i n c i d e n rt a d i a t i o n

192
 TUTORIAL
SHEET

(DATA: speed"of li"ghtls 3 x 1O8ms-1,Planck constanth _ 6.63 x 10-34Js

m a s s o f e l e c t r o n : 9 , 1 x 1 0 - 3 t k g , c h a r g eo f e l e c t r o n : r . 6 L0-1eC)
i
(1) A metalsurfacehasa cut off wavelengthof O.7zgm.calculate
( a )T h ec u t o f f f r e q u e n c y
( b )T h ew o r k f u n c t i o ni n b o t hJ o u l e sa n d e l e c t r o n v o l t s
( c )T h e m a x i m u mK Eo f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o nwsh e nt h e i n c i d e nlti g h th a sa w a v e l e n g t h
of 0.42;rm.
( d )T h em a x i m u ms p e e do f t h e e m i t t e dp h o t o e l e c t r o nwsh e nt h e s u r f a c ei s
i r r a d i a t ewd i t h l i g h to f w a v e l e n g tO h .42gm
(Ans4 ; . r 7 x l , o r a H z ; 2 . 7x61 0 - 1 s1J .; 7 3 e V; 1 . 9 gx 1 O - i e; 6
J .6 x 10sms-1)
( 2 ) l f a m e t a ls u r f a c eh a sa w o r k f u n c t i o no f 3 . 2 e Vf,i n d :
(i) T h et h r e s h o l dw a v e l e n g t h
(ii) T h et h r e s h o l df r e q u e n c y
( i i i ) T h e m a x i m u mK Eo f t h e e m i t t e dp h o t o e l e c t r o ni fst h e s u r f a c ei s i r r a d i a t e d
with ligfrtof wavelength O.2Zp,m.
( A n s :3 . 9x 1 , 0 m - 7; 7 . 7 xl O r a H z ; 3 . gx21 0 - 1 e J )

( 3 ) A m e t a ls u r f a c eh a sa w o r k f u n c t i o no f 4 e V .W h a t m u s tb e t h e f r e q u e n c ya n d
w a v e l e n g toh f i n c i d e nlti g h to n i t t o c a u s ep h o t o e l e c t r o nt os b e e m i t t e dw i t h a
'
maximum speedof 4.4x1,0sms-t?
( A n s t: . L x L O 1 s H ; 2z. 7 3x 1 0 - 7 m )

( a ) T h e m a x i m u mK Eo f p h o t o e l e c t r o nesm i t t e df r o m a m e t a ls u r f a c ei s 1 . 8e V w h e nt h e
frequencyof the incidentlightis 7.9 xi,OraHz. Calculate
(i) T h ew o r k f u n c t i o no f t h e m e t a l
(ii) T h e m a x i m u ms p e e do f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n s
( i i i ) T h et h r e s h o l df r e q u e n c y
(iv) The cut off wavelength
(v) T h e m a x i m u mK Ea n d s p e e do f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o nwsh e nt h e i n c i d e n lti g h t
h a sa f r e q u e n c o y f 8 . 8x 1 0 ' o H z .
(Ans:2.35x 10 1eJ; 7.96x 10sms-1;3.54 x l-o1aHz ;8.47 x r-0-7m ;3.4gx 10-1sJ ;
8.7 xl-Osms-1)

193
(5) A metalsurfacehasa work functionof 4.4eV,and when lightof frequency3x 101sHz is
incidenton it, a photocurrentof O.221tA flowsin the circuitwith the metaland a
c o l e c t o rp l a t e .D. e t e r mni e :
(i) The KEof the photoelectrons
(ii) T h e n u m b e ro f p h o t o n ss t r i k i n gt h e m e t a ls u r f a c e a c hs e c o n d .
(Ans:1,.2gx 10-18J; 1012electronsper second)
1..375x

(6) When lightof frequency5.8x L0isHzstrikesa rnetalsurface,photoelectrons a

l i b e r a t e dw i t h a m a x i m u mK Eo f 2 . 8x 1 0 - 1 8 J
( a ) W h am t u s tb e t h e s t o p p i n gp o t e n t i aflo r t h i sf r e q u e n c o
yf light?
( b )W h a t i s t h e w o r k f u n c t i o no f t h e m e t a l ?
(c)What is the cut off wavelengthof the metal?
( A n s: 1 7. 5 Y ; 6 . 5 3 e V1;. 9x 1 0 - 7 m )

(7) When a metalsurfaceis irradiatedwith lightof frequency5.8 x LOlsHz, electronsare

l i b e r a t e dw i t h a m a x i m u ms p e e do f 1 . 8x 1 0 6 m s - t . D e t e r m :i n e
(i) T h ew o r kf u n c t i o no f t h e m e t a l
(ii) T h es t o p p i n gp o t e n t i arl e q u i r e df o r t h i sf r e q u e n c y
( i i i ) T h et h r e s h o l df r e q u e n c fyo r t h e m e t a l
( A n s :2 . 3 7x 1 o - 1 8 J. 2; 9Y ; 3 . 6x 1 o 1 s H z )

194
 S O L U T I OG
NU i D E L I N E S

t; ^ - c 3x108 - 4'1'7x Lol4Hz

(l)a. lo:7.2xL0-7m;c:3x10ems-' fo
i: ,.r r r*
(b) 0 - hfo : 6.63 x 10-34x 4.1'7x 1014- 2.76 x !0-7eJ

2'76x 1'0--1e
L e V - t . 6 x r 0 - r r J , l t e n c ez . T 6 x 1 0 - 1 e - L.7Z6eV
t.6 x L0-1e
Itc 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4x 3 x 1 0 8
KE:hf-0-T-Q- - 2 . 7 6 x 1 o - l e - 1 . 9 8x 1 0 - 1 e /
4.2x L0-7

KE -;mv-;
rrn 1' 2
v - -2:K E zxr9Bx1o-1e
- 6 . 6x l , O s m s - 1
m 9.1x1o-31

( 2 ) 0 : 3 . 2 e v- 3 . 2 x L . 6x ' J , 0 - 7 e-J 5 . L Zx 1 0 - 1 e J

hc hc 6 . 6 3x l - 0 - 3 4x 3 x 1 0 8
UseQ:10, tro: : 3.9 x 1-0-7m
e: 5 . 1 , 2x 1 0 - 1 e

c 3x108
fo:i- :7'7x1'o14Hz

( 3 ) E n e r g yo f p h o t o e l e c t r o -n -)x o . t X L 0 - 3 tx ( + . +x L 0 s ' ) : B . Bx L 0 - 2 o J
).*u'
Work functton - 4eV - 4 x 1,.6x L o - r s J : 6 . 4 x 1 ' o - r s J

hf - Q-KE; hf :KE+ O - B . B x 1 ' 0 - 2 0 + 6 . 4 x 1 0 - 1 e- 7 . 2 8 x L } - r e J

7 . 2 8x 1 0 - 1 e-
f-
t- t . 1 x 1 0 7 s H z ; I J s1e- r t u fhdwavelength
6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4 l

195
 (4) K E - l . B e V: 1 . 8x I . 6 X 1 0 - 1 e- 2.BBx L'0-1sJ

K E * o , - h f - Q ; O - h f - K E - ( 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 - 3 4x 7 . 9 x 1 g t o )_ Z . B Bx 1 0 - 1 e
: 2 . 3 5x 1 0 - 1 e J

2KE 2x2.BB x 10-1e

( t t ) U s eK E - : Z . B B x 1 0 - t e; u 7.g6x l-0sms-1
),^r' m 9.1 x 10-31

(i.ii")Thecutof f frequency ts the frequency correspondtng to the work functfnn

6 2 . 3 5x L 0 - 1 e
hfo - Q t fo :;- : 3 . 5 4x L 0 1 4 H z
ffi
C 3 x l-08
(tv)l,: : 8.47 x 10-7m
n: 3 . 5 4x 1 0 1 4
-3a
energy E - hf : 6.63 x 10
(v)lnci"d"ent x B.Bx L0t4 : 5.8 x 1,0-1e
J

KE^o* - Itf'- Q - 5.8 x 10-1e- 2.35 x 10-1e : 3.48 x 1.0-1eJ

2KE 2 x 3 . 4 8 x 1 0 - 1 e-
-: 8.7x l0sms-1
m 9.t x L0-31

( s ) I ( E - t r f - Q , ( w h e r e Q- 4 . 4 x 1 . 6 x 1 0 - I e : 7 . 0 4 x t 0 - 1 e 1 )

K E : ( 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 ax 3 x 1 0 1 s )- 7 . 0 4 x 1 0 - 1 e- L . 2 9x L 0 - 1 8 /

The number of photons striktng each second ts equal to the number of electrons leavtng

each second.

Stncethe photocurrent ts 2.2 x l0-7 A,ilre current - rate of f low of charge.

n :o n
I - where Q - electronf"ccharge and - - nltmber of electrons per second
tt
n I 2 . 2x ! 0 - 7
h':nce - 1.375 x 1.012
per second
t a L . 6x 1 0 - 1 e

196
 KE*o, 2.8 x 1018
(6)eV, : KE^ox iVs : - 17.5V
e 1 , . 6x 1 0 - 1 e
(it) K Emax - h f - Q ; Q - I t f - K E ^ o , - ( 6 . 6 3x L 0 - 3 4x 5 . 8 x 1 0 1 s )_ Z . B x 1 0 - 1 8

0 - 10.4x 1,0-7e
J

1 0 . 4x L 0 - 1 e
Q_ - 6 . 53 e V
1 , . 6x 1 0 - 1 e
hc hc 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 ax 3 x 1 0 8
(tll)Q- ) 7o: - 1 . 9x I 0 - 7 m
1, O: 1 , 0 . 4x 1 0 - 1 e

t n e r g y - l ^ L -f 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 - 3 4x 5 . 8 x 1 0 1 s: 3 . 8 4 x L 0 - 1 8 /
( 7 ) I n c i " d e nE

u m o r : 1 . 8x t O 6 m s - . ; K E * o r : ; m v f r " o * - ) r 9 . I x l - 0 - 3 1 x ( 1 . 8x t 0 6 ) z
_ 1,.47x 10-18/

KE^o' -hf -Q; -KE^o*:3.84x

Q -hf 1 0 - 1 8- 1 . 4 7 x 1 0 - 1 8- 2 . 3 7x L 0 - 1 8 /

KE*o,
(i.i) eV, - KE^oy; W - _t :r." :9-:rJ_ e.Zv
e L6 x 10-1e

(tli)Q:hfoifo: a 2 . 3 7x 1 0 - 1 8
- 3.57 x 1,01s
Hz
It 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4

1.97
 X.RAYS

Production:
T h e P r i n c i p loef X - R a Y

strikea metal.target such

Whenvery highenergyelectrons(in the orderof kiloelectron-volts)
s e c e l e r a trea p i d l ya, n dw h i l em o s to f t h e i rk i n e t i ce n e r g yi s
a st u n g s t e nt,h e e l e c t r o n d
dissipated in the form of heat,a smallpart (aboutt%|, is convertedto X radiation.Additionally,
s i l l s o m e t i m ecsa u s ee n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o nosf e l e c t r o n isn t h e
t h e h i g he n e r g ye l e c t r o nw
targetatomsand causethe emissionof X rays

two processes
At the pointof collisionbetweenthe electronand the tungstenatom,thereare
that leadto X-raYProduction:
(1) Bremsstrahlun Pgr o c e s s
(2) K - s h e l lemission

Thesetwo processes leadto two differenttypesof X-rayspectra.

T h eB r e m s s t r a h l u n pgr o c e s lse a d st o a C O N T I N U O USSP E C T R U M w h, i l et h e K - s h e lel m i s s i o n
l e a d st o w h a t i s c a l l e da L I N GS P E C T R U(M a l s oc a l l e da c h a r a c t e r i s tsi cp e c t r u m )

LUNG PROCESS:
BREMSSTRAH

Bremsstrqhlun i sgo f G e r m a no r i g i n (B r e m sm e a n s" b r a k i n g a" n d s t r a h l u n g m e a n s" r a d i a t i o n ' j ) , .

X radiation
a n d i s d u et o t h e c o n v e r s i oonf t h e k i n e t i ce n e r g yo f t h e h i g he n e r g ye l e c t r o nt o
' b r a k e sa' r e i m p o s e do n t h e e l e c t r o na s i t c o l l i d e w
s ithanobstacle.
w h e nt h e

atoms,the
When an incominghighspeedelectronof kineticenergyEostrikesone of the target
of anX-ray
e l e c t r o nw i l l l o s ea n a m o u n to f e n e r g yA E, a n d p a r to f t h i se n e r g yw i l l b e t h e e n e r g y
photon.(Therestof AEwill be convertedto heat)

Theelectronwill be deflectedby the collisionand it is now referredto asa SCATTERED

electron.
This.scattered electron'whoseenergyis now lessthan Eswill now go on to collidewith
, h i c hw i l l h a v ea n e n e r g y t h a its d i f f e r e n t
a n o t h e ra t o m a n d p r o d u c ea n o t h e rX - r a yp h o t o n w
from that of the first Photon.

Theelectronscattering processwill continueand a seriesof photonsof differentenergiesare

p r o d u c e dc,a u s i n tgh e f o r m a t i o no f a c o N T I N U o U xS r a ys p e c t r u mT. h ee l e c t r o nw i l l s t o p
producingphotonsrvhenit hascometo rest'

198
 THEK-SHELL
EMISSION
PROCESS:

W h e na n i n c o m i n gh i g hs p e e de l e c t r o ns t r i k e sa targetatom,that electronmay knockout one

o f t h e e l e c t r o n isn t h e K - s h e l(ll o we n e r g ys h e l w
l h i c hi s c l o s et o t h e n u c l e u s, )l e a v i n g
a h o l ei n
t h a ts h e l l .

A n e l e c t r o ni n o n e o f t h e h i g h e rs h e l l sw i l l n o w j u m p i n t ot h a t l o w e rK s h e l tl o f i l l t h e v a c a n c y ,
a n d i n d o i n gs o ,i t w i l l g i v eu p s o m eo f i t s e n e r g yb y e m i t t i n ga n X - r a yp h o t o n .
T h e K s h e l li s t h a t s h e l fl o r n = 1 , t h e L s h e l li s t h e o n ef o r w h i c hn = 2 a n dt h e M s h e t fl o r n = 3 .

W h e na v a c a n c yi s c r e a t e di n t h e K s h e l ld u e t o t h e e j e c t i o no f a n e l e c t r o na, n d a n e l e c t r o n
f r o m t h e L s h e l fl i l l st h a t v a c a n c yt ,h e e m i t t e dr a d i a t i o ni s c a l l e dt h e K ol i n ei n t h e s p e c t r u m .

l f t h e v a c a n c yi n t h e K s h e l li s f i l l e db y a n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e M s h e l l t, h e nt h e e m i t t e dr a d i a t i o n
i s c a l l e dt h e K sl i n ei n t h e s p e c t r u m .

T h ed i s t r i b u t i o on f w a v e l e n g t hi sn t h e e n t i r es p e c t r u ms h o w i n gb o t ht h e C O N T IU
NO U S
S P E C T R UaMn dt h e L I N ES P E C T R Ui M s g i v e nb e l o w .
T h e K pl i n eh a s
greaterenergy(due
Relative t o i t ss m a l l e r
intensity w a v e l e n g t hb) u t
h a sa s m a l l e r
INTENSITY.

Continuous T h e s h a r pp e a k sa r e
d u et o K s h e l l
e m i s s i o nw, h i l et h e
continuous
s p e c t r u mi s d u e t o
B16msstrahlune
,
trrin Wavelength(pm)
E n e r g yl e v e l t r a n s i t i o n
Diagram:

M ( n = 3)

L(n=2)

K(n=1)

199
 OFX.RAYS
PRODUCTION

Target anode

Coolingoil+
Orwater
:---------------
I E v a c u a t etdu b e
*

Lead C a t h o d e( t o e m i t e l e c t r o n s )

T h ec a t h o d ei s a c o i lo f t u n g s t e na c r o s sw h i c hi s c o n n e c t e tdo t h e m a i n ss u p p l y( 2 2 0 Va . c . ). A s
a c u r r e n ft l o w st h r o u g hi t , e l e c t r o nas r e e m i t t e d T
. h e s ee l e c t r o n as r et h e n a c c e l e r a t e d
t h r o u g ha p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c o
e f a b o u t1 0 0 k Vw h i c hi s a p p l i e da c r o s st h e a n o d et o t h e
cathode.

T h ea n o d ei s m a d eo f c o p p e ra n d h a sa s m a l lb l o c ko f t u n g s t e nf i x e do n i t . T h et u n g s t e ni s t h e
t a r g e tf o r t h e h i g hs p e e de l e c t r o n sA. st h e e l e c t r o ncso l l i d ew i t h t h e t u n g s t e n9, 9 %o f t h e i r
I % i s c o n v e r t e di n t o X r a y p h o t o n s .
k i n e t i ce n e r g yi s c o n v e r t e di n t o h e a ta n dt h e r e m a i n i n g

i s a s u i t a b l em a t e r i a l f o r t h et a r g e ts i n c ei t c a nw i t h s t a n dv e r yh i g ht e m p e r a t u r e s
Tungsten
w i t h o u tm e l t i n g .

T h el e a ds h i e l di s a n e c e s s a rsya f e t yd e s i g nt o p r e v e n t h e e s c a p eo f x r a y sf r o m a l l p o i n t s
o t h e rt h a nt h e w i n d o w .

T h eh i g ht e m p e r a t u r edse v e l o p e d
b y t h e c o l l i s i o nbse t w e e nt h e e l e c t r o nas n dt h e t a r g e t ,
m u s tb e c o n t r o l l e db y m e a n so f a c o o l i n gf l u i d ,w h i c hi s t y p i c a l l o
y i l .O i l d o e sn o t e v a p o r a t e
as
w a t e rd o e s ,a n d h e n c et h e r ei s n o d a n g e ro f a v a p o u rp r e s s u r b e u i l du p .W a t e rc a nb e u s e d
',,vhen there is a veryefficientflow design.

I
t_
200
 ABSORPTION
OFX RAYS

X r a y sa r ea b s o r b e db y m e t a l s ,w h i c hm e a n st h a t t h e i ri n t e n s i t yd e c r e a s easst h e y p a s st h r o u g h
m e t a l sa n dw e s a yt h a t t h e y u n d e r g oA T T E N U A T I O N .

Attenuation
i s t h e g r a d u adl e c r e a s ien i n t e n s i t y .

l f a b e a mo f X - r a y sh a sa n i n c i d e nitn t e n s i t y1 oo n a m e t a ls u r f a c et ,h e n a s i t p a s s etsh r o u g ha
d e p t hx o f t h e m e t a l ,t h e i n t e n s i t y w o u ldde c r e a s e t o
a n e w v a l u el w h e r e I : I o € - v r .

T h eq u a n t i t yp i s c a l l e dt h e L T N E AARB S O R P I OcNo E F F t c l E N T .

TUTORIAT
SHEET

(1) A beamof X raysof intensityleis irradiated

on a pieceof material
thathasan absorotron
coefficient
of 0.18cm-1.
what mustbethethickness of the material
to causethe
intensitv
of the beamto fallto:
(a) 4Oo/o
(bl 76%
(c) 0.03%
(Ans:5.1cm;10cm;45.Ocm)

(2) What is the valueof the absorptioncoefficientof a materialif for a thickness

of 0.4rnm
'the
intensityof a beamof X raysis reducedto 4o/oof its initialvalue.
(Ans8.05mm-1)

( 3 ) A b e a mo f X r a y so f i n t e n s i t y5 5 W m m - i2s i n c i d e not n a m a t e r i aw
l h o s el i n e a ra b s o r p t i o n
coefficientis 0.44mm-1. What is the intensityof the beamat a depthof :
(a)0.75mm
(b)2.6cm
(Ans3 : 9 . 5 W mm - 2 ; 5 . x9 1 0 - 4 W m m - 2 )

( a ) W h e na b e a mo f X r a y s i s i n c i d e not n a s p e c i m e nt h , e intensitd y e c r e a s eBsY3 5 %o f i t s

i n i t i a vl a l u ef o r a d e p t ho f 0 . 8 5 c m .
calculate t h e l i n e a ra b s o r p t i o cno e f f i c i e notf t h e m a t e r i a l .
( A n s0 . 5 L c . n ' 1 )

20r
 SOLUTIONS

( 1 ) 1 : I o € - F x ; I = 0 . 4 I o . , l t e n c e0 . 4 l l 0 = -I s e - t t x ; 0 . 4 : s-Lrx

T a k t n g I o g s : l n ( 0 . + )- - P x , where F : 0.1Bcm-7
-0.92 - -0.18x ; x - 5.1,cm

( i i ) l n ( 0 . 1 , 6 )- -0.L8x ; -1.8 : -0.18x ; x - 10cm

( l i l ) l n ( 0 . 0 0 0 3 )- -0.18x ; -8.11 :0.LBx ;x = 45cm

(2)l-lse-ttx ; I=0.04 Is,x-0.4mm

h e n c e0 . 0 4 / s = - I o e - j ' + u i 0 ' 0 4 - e - o ' 4 t t

ln(0.04) - -0.4t , -3.21t - -0.4tt ; lt: B'\Smm-r

(3)1 I s e - t r x ; I : $ J s - @ ' + + x 0 ' 7:s ) 3 9 . 5 W m m - 2

;
I z : 5 $ s - ( o ' + + x 2 6 -) 5 . 9 x L 0 - 4 W m m - 2 ( N o t e t h a t 2 . 6 c m - 2 6 m m )

(4)A d"ecreaseby 350/omeans that the new Intenstt! : 650/oIo

I : I o e - F * ; 0 . 6 5 1 s: I o e - F x

ln 0.65
l n 0 . 6 5- -0.85p ; p: - S.Lcm-'
_0S5

202
 APPLICATION
OFX RAYS
IN MEDICINE

C A N C EFRA C T N S a t i o n aCl a n c e !rn s t i t u t eN a t i o n aIln s t i t u t eos f

H e a l t hR a d i o t h e r o payl,s oc a l l e dr a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y i,s t h e
treatmeno t f cancea r n d o t h e rd i s e a s ews i t h i o n i z i n gr a d i a t i o n .
l o n i z i n gr a d i a t i o nd e p o s i t e
s n e r g yt h a t i n j u r e so r d e s t r o y cs e l l s
i n t h e a r e ab e i n gt r e a t e d( t h e" t a r g e t i s s u e "b) y d a m a g i n g
t h e i rg e n e t i cm a t e r i a lm , a k i n gi t i m p o s s i b lfeo r t h e s ec e l l st o
c o n t i n u et o g r o w .A l t h o u g hr a d i a t i o nd a m a g e b s o t hc a n c e r
c e l l sa n d n o r m a lc e l l st,h e l a t t e ra r ea b l et o r e p a i rt h e m s e l v e s
A s * s n n s d ' l * v e rs l i c e
How doesa CTscannerwork?
l n 1 9 6 7a n E n g l i s h m abny t h e n a m eo f G o d f r e yH o u s n f i e lm d u l l e do v e rt h e p o s s i b i l i toyf
producing a c r o s s - s e c t i o ni m
a la g eo f a n o b j e c t .C o m p u t e da x i a tl o m o g r a p h (yC A Tt)h u sb e c a m e
t h e f i r s tn o n - i n v a s i vt e c h n i q u e
f o r d i s p l a y i nagn i m a g eo f t h e h u m a nb o d yf r e eo f
s u p e r i m p o s i t i of rno m o v e r l y i n gorgans.

T h ef i r s tC Ts c a n n eur s e di n 1 . 9 7 2 w a se x t r e m e l yr u d i m e n t a r yb y t o d a y ' ss t a n d a r d s T . o
p r o d u c eo n e r e c o g n i z a bilm e a g et o o k n i n ed a y s i, m a g er e c o n s t r u c t i ot w
n o a n d a h a l fh o u r sa n d
p u n c ht a p ef e e d - i nt i m e ' ag r e a td e a ll o n g e r E
. a r l ys c a n n e rcso u l do n l yd i s p l a yi m a g e si n o n e
p l a n e( a x i apl l a n e )h, e n c et h e t e r m C A Ts c a n- ' A ' m e a n i n ga x i a lS . c a n n e rnso w c a nd i s p l a y
i m a g e si n a n yp l a n e i,n c l u d i n3gD s o t h e ' A ' w a sd r o p p e df r o mt h e t i t l e .

T o d a yC , Ts c a n n e rcsa na c q u i r ea n i m a g e ( si )n l e s st h a no n e s e c o n dw , i t h t h e i m a g ed i s p l a y e d
immediatelM y .o d e r n ' h i g h e n d ' s c a n n e rcsa na c q u i r eu p t o 6 4 i m a g e a
s t onceS . u c hs c a n n e r s
a r ec a l l e dM u l t iS l i c eu n i t s .

A C Ts c a n n eer s s e n t i a l cl yo m p r i s eosf a t a b l e ,a c o m p u t e ra, n d a g a n t r y( t h e' d o n u t ' s h a p e rdi n g

c a s i n g )l.n s i d et h e g a n t r yi s a n x - r a yt u b e a n d a r i n go f r a d i a t i o nd e t e c t o r w s h i c hs u r r o u n dt h e
t a b l e . D u r i n ga C Ts c a n t, h e x - r a yt u b e s p i n sa r o u n dt h e p a t i e n te m i t t i n gx - r a y sw , h i c hp a s s
t h r o u g ht h e p a t i e n t ' sb o d y . T h ea m o u n to f r a d i a t i o na b s o r b e d b y t h e p a t i e n ti s m e a s u r e dby
t h e d e t e c t o r sT. h i si n f o r m a t i o n
i s t h e n s e n tt o a c o m p u t e rw , h i c hu s e st h e s em e a s u r e m e n t s ,
t h e p o s i t i o no f t h e p a t i e n ta n dt h e a n g l et h e r a d i a t i o nw a sd e t e c t e da t , t o d e c i d ew h e t h e re a c h
p a r to f t h e p a t i e n ts c a n n e d c o m p r i s eosf a i r ,f l u i d ,b o n e ,f a t , o r m u s c l e .T h i si n f o r m a t i o n
is
t h e n d i s p l a y e ad sa p i c t u r e .I n t h i sw a y ,a C Ts c a n n eer n a b l e sa d o c t o rt o l o o ka t t h e b o d ys l i c e
byslice.
a n df u n c t i o np r o p e r l y .

l o c a l i z esdo l i dt u m o r s ,s u c ha s c a n c e r o s f t h e s k i n ,t o n g u e ,l a r y n xb, r a i n ,b r e a s to, r u t e r i n e

c e r v i xl.t c a na l s ob e u s e dt o t r e a t l e u k e m i a n d l y m p h o m a( c a n c e rosf t h e b l o o d - f o r m i ncge l l s
a n d l y m p h a t i sc y : ie m , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .

203
 LINESPECTRA

T h ee l e c t r o n isn a t o m sa r e b e l i e v e d . v i d e n coef t h i s i s
t o e x i s ti n p a r t i c u l aer n e r g yl e v e l sE
o b t a i n e db y t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f l i n es p e c t r a .

E l e c t r o nws i l l t e n d t o p o p u l a t et h e l o w e s te n e r g yl e v e l sf i r s t ,a n d a st h e s eb e c o m e f i l l e dt h, e
e l e c t r o n s t a r to c c u p y i ntgh e h i g h e rl e v e l s .

W h e na n e l e c t r o na b s o r b se n e r g y f o re x a m p l ei f t h e m a t e r i ails h e a t e do r i f i t i s i r r a d i a t e w
d ith
e l e c t r o m a g n e twi ca v e s a, n e l e c t r o nm a ya b s o r be n e r g ya n d m o v ef r o m i t s i n i t i a l l y l o w e n e rgy
s t a t e( l e v e lt)o a h i g h e rl e v e l

I n t h i sh i g h e rl e v e lt,h e e l e c t r o nh a sm o r ee n e r g ya n d i s c o n s i d e r et d o b e u n s t a b l e* .T h e
b y t h e a m o u n to f e n e r g yi t p o s s e s s etsh;e g r e a t e r t h e
s t a b i l i t yo f t h e e l e c t r o ni s d e t e r m i n e d
a m o u n to f e n e r g yt,h e m o r eu n s t a b l ei t i s .

T h ee l e c t r o na t t h e h i g h e rl e v e tl h e n t r i e st o r e g a i ni t s s t a b i l i t ya, n d i t d o e st h i s b y e m i t t i n gt h e
e n e r g yt h a t i t p r e v i o u s layb s o r b e dT. h i se n e r g yi s e m i t t e di n t h e f o r m o f l i g h to r s o m eo t h e r
f o r e x a m p l eX - r a y sg, a m m ar a y se t c .
t y p e o f e l e c t r o m a g n e triac d i a t i o n

F o rd i f f e r e n et n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o nisn t h e a t o m ,d i f f e r e n at m o u n t so f e n e r g i eas r ee m i t t e d ,
a n de a c hp a r t i c u l aarm o u n t b fe n e r g yh a sa d i s t i n cw t a v e l e n g tahn dh e n c ea d i s t i n cct o l o u r
a s s o c i a t ewdi t h i t .
is
H e n c ef o r a s e r i e so f e n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o n sa,S P E C T R UOMFB R I G H T LCYO L O U R ELDI N E S
produced.

T h ef o l l o w j n gd i a g r a ms h o w ss o m ep o s s i b l e n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o nisn a n a t o m .

n=5

^-A
tt - a F o ra n e n e r g yl e v e lt r a n s i t i o n
f r o m E 4t o E s, t h e e n e r g y
n=3 r a d i a t e db y t h e a t o m i s g i v e n
by:

AE:hf: Ea-En
-
l t L

t n e r g yt r a n s i t i o ni s f r o m E 4t o E sa n d t h i s t r a n s i t i o nw i l l h a v e t h e
I n t h e a h r o v ed i a g r a m , r e g r e a t e se
hct
t a v e l e n g t h( A E - h f : = l
g r e r r. ' , ' r tf r e q u e n c y a n d t h e s h o r t e sw
A

204
 L i n es dencefor
E a c hl i n ei n t h e s p e c t r u m
i n d i c a t eas p a r t i c u l aern e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o n
a n d a n o b s e r v a t i oonf t h e
s p e c t r u mo f I S O L A T EADT O M Sr e v e a l tsh a t t h e l i n e sa r es e p a r a t e
a n dd i s t i n cftr o m e a c ho t h e r .

T h ef a c tt h a t t h e l i n e sd o n o t t o u c he a c ho t h e rt o f o r m a c o n t i n u o ubs a n d ,i n d l c a t etsh a t t h e
e n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o nasr eq u i t ed i s c r e t ea, n dt h e r ei s n o t a c o n t i n u u m( a c o n t i n u o u rse g i o n i)n
t h e t r a n s i t i o np r o c e s s .

The EMISSION
SPRECTRUM
for any atom is seenas a seriesof brightlycolouredlinesagainst
a dark background.

ABSORPTION
SPECTRA

E a c he l e m e n th a si t s o w n d i s t i n cst e t o f s p e c t r al li n e sa s s o c i a t ewdi t h t h e e n e r g yl e v e l
t r a n s i t i o nt sh a t a r eu n i q u ef o r e a c he l e m e n t .
R e c a ltlh a t e a c hc o l o u ri n t h e s p e c t r u mc o r r e s p o n dt o s a p a r t i c u l aar m o u n to f e n e r g yt h a t i s
r a di a t e d ,
T h ee l e m e n st o d i u mh a s p n l yo r a n g es p e c t r al il n e s .

C o n s i d enro w a n e l e m e n itn i t sg a s e o ufso r m (f o r e x a m p l e s o d i u mv a p o u r b) e i n gi r r a d i a t e d

w i t h w h i t e l i g h t .T h ew h i t e l i g h ti s m a d eu p o f a s e r i e so f c o l o u r s( V I B G y O R
w)h i c hc a nb e s p l i t
u p b y m e a n so f a p r i s ma n dt h e l i n e so f t h e d i f f e r e nct o l o u r sc a nb e v i e w e d t h r o u g a h device
c a l l e da L I G H S T PECTROMETER.

W h e nt h e w h i t el i g h tp a s s etsh r o u g ht h e s o d i u mv a p o r ,t h e a t o m so f s o d i u ma b s o r bt h e e n e r g y
c o r r e s p o n d i nt og t h e o r a n g el i g h t , c a u s i nt hge e l e c t r o n isn t h e a t o mt o m o v et o a h i g h e rl e v e l .
A t t h i s h i g h e rl e v e tl h e e l e c t r o ni s u n s t a b l e
a n df a l l sb a c kd o w nt o a l o w e rl e v e l a
, n dr a d i a t e s
t h e e n e r g ya s s o c i a t ewdi t h t h e o r a n g ew a v e l e n g t h .

H o w e v etrh i s r a d i a t i o no f o r a n g el i g h to c c u r si n A L Ld i r e c t i o nasn d h e n c et h e s p a c et h a t w a s
p r e v i o u s loyc c u p i e db y t h e o r a n g el i g h ti n t h e V I B G Y OsRp e c t ; u ma, p p e a r sa s a d a r kr e g i o n .
T h i sr e s u l t a nst p e c t r u mw h i c hi s m a d eu p o f a b r i g h t l yc o l o u r e db r i g h tb a c k g r o u n dw,i t h a d a r k
b a n di n i t , i s c a l l e da n A B S O R P T I O N
SpECTRUM.

An AbsorptionSpectrumfor sodium

T h i si s t h e r e g i o nw h e r eO R A N GsEh o u l d
h a v eb e e n

205
 OF MAfiER
NATURE
THEWAVE-PARTICLE

e f f e c t i, t i s p o s s i b l teh a t
s i n c ew a v e se x h i b i tp a r t i c l ep r o p e r t i eas ss e e ni n t h e P h o t o e l e c t r i c
t a v ep r o p e r t i e s '
p a r t i c l essh o u l de x h i b i w

e x p e r i m e n tosn E L E C T R O N
E v i d e n coef t h i sW A V EN A T U R Eo f m a t t e rw a s p r o v i d e db y
DIFFRACTION.

f i l m o f g r a p h i t ei,t w a sf o u n dt h a t a
w h e n a b e a mo f h i g hs p e e de l e c t r o n iss d i r e c t e da t a t h i n
g r a p h i t ef i l m '
r i n g sw a sp r o d u c e do n a s c r e e np o s i t i o n e bd e h i n dt h e
s e r i e so f d i f f r a c t i o n

Electron
beam

ring
Diffraction
pattern
film
Graphite

and by
meansthat they haveWAVEproperties,
Thefact that electronscanundergodiffraction,
t a v ep r o p e r t i e s '
e x t e n s i o na,l l m a t t e rs h o u l de x h i b i w

OnNd t h e s et w o
dD I F F R A C T I a
a cn E
E l e c t r o m a g n e rt iacd i a t i o n( e . g .l i g h t )e x h i b i tI N T E R F E R E N
w h i l et h e
phenomena i n d i c a t et h a t e l e c t r o m a g n e triacd i a t i o nh a v ea W A V EN A T U R E ,
NATURE of electromagnetic radiation'
photoelectric effectindicatesa PARTIcuLATE

r t c a nb e d e d u c e dt h e n ,t h a t t h e r ei s a w A V E - p A R T l c d
LuEa l i t yo f m a t t e r .

p, the wavelengthassociated
DEBrogliesuggestedthat for eachmasshavinga momentum
with its momentumis givenbY:
h
1- -
p
V , t l - , , ,h- e= P l a n c k 'cso n s i a n t .

206
 TUTORIAL
SHEET

(1) An electronis accelerated

througha potentialdifferenceof 2000Vin a vacuum.
Determinethe speedof the electronand its corresponding wavelength.(themassof
t h e e l e c t r o ni s 9 . 1 x 1 0 - 3 1 kagn d i t s c h a r g ei s 1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 e c )
( A n s: 2 . 6 5x 1 0 7 m s - 12;J 5 x L 0 - 1 1 m )

(2) A protonis accelerated

througha potentialdifferenceV and acquiresa speedthat
allowsit to havea wavelengthof 8.7 x 10-13
m.
The massof the protonis 1..67x Lo-27kgand its chargeis 1.6x l_0-1ec.
Determinet h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c teh a t c a u s e dt h e p r o t o n ' sa c c e l e r a t i o n :
(Ans:1087V)

(3) A particlehavinga chargeq is accelerated

througha potentialdifferenceof 2500Vso
that its speedallowsit to havea wavelength of 4.9! x !O-12m.
lf the massof the
particleis 4.55.xL0-30kg,determineits chargeq.
(Ans8 x 10-1eC)

207
 SOLUTIONS

- g . 1x 1 0 - 3 r k g
( I ) q = ! . 6 x 1 . 0 - r s C; p . d . : 2 0 0 0 V ; m a s s

done onthe charge is gtue:nby

When a cltarge q f"saccelerated"through ap.d.V,the work
of the charge.
W - q V .T h i sw o r k d o n ei s e q u a lt o t h e i n c r e a s ien K i n e t i ce n e r g y

h e n c e W- q' zV : 1 * u '

1 . 6x L 0 - 1 ex 2 0 0 0- 1 * 9 . 1 . x 1 0 - 3 x1 v 2
2
2 x 1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 ex 2 0 0 0:
2.65 x 1'07ms-r
9 . 1 ,x 1 0 - 3 1

lL
(ti")Thewavelength ts f ound f rom the DeBrogltef ormulatr p
TI
wher t , p - m o m e n t u m ; P:mv ; h e n c e1 - -
mu
6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4
)- 2.75 x I0-11m
9 . 1 , x 1 0 - 3 1x 2 . 6 5 x 1 0 7

lt ILh
- :-
tr
(2) ustngthe DeBroglteequatton, "
p mv' mA

6 . 6 3x L 0 - 3 4
Hencev : - 4 . 5 6x L 0 s m s - 1
tSZx!0-27x8.7x10-13

s n i n c r e a s ien i t s
s u e s t i o nt ,h e w o r k d o n ei n a c c e l e r a t i nt hge p r o t o nc a u s e a
A si n t h e p r e v i o u q
K i n e t i cE n e r g Y .
t
- qv
t^u'
1? 1,
1 . 6 7 x 1 . 0 - 2 7x ( 4 . 5 6 x 1 0 s ) 2
V_
zmu- 2x 1,087V
1 . . 6x L 0 - 1 e

6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4
: 2.97 x L07ms-I
(3)1 --
+ s s r i o - 3 0x 4 . 9 !x 1 ' o - 1 2

1 0 - 3 0x ( z . o l x 1 , 0 7 ) 2
: B x 1,0-1eC

208
 ATOMICSTRUCTURE

E a r l yT h e o r i e o
s n A t o m . iS
c tructure:

( 1 ) T h o m s o nM o d e l :C a l l e d
t h e p l u m - p u d d i nmgo d e l

T h i sm o d e lp r o p o s e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i v ec h a r g eo f t h e a t o mw a ss p r e a do v e r t h ee n t i r e
v o l u m eo f t h e s p h e r eo f t h e a t o m a n dt h e e l e c t r o nw s e r ed i s p e r s erda n d o m l yl i k ep l u m s
w i t h i nt h i ss p h e r e .T h ee l e c t r o nw
s e r et h o u g h t o b e i n c o n s t a nvt i b r a t i o na b o u tt h e i r
f i x e dp o s i t i o n s .

electron
O O'O
OO
S p h e r eo f p o s i t i v e
charge

(2) The Rutherford-Bohr model:

T h ee l e c t r o n os r b i tt h e p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dn u c l e u sl i k ep l a n e t sa r o u n dt h e s u n .

209
 The Geiger-MarsdenExPeriment:

T h i se x p e r i m e nits k n o w na st h e A L P H AS C A T T E R I e
NxGp e r i m e n t .

ln an evacuatedmetalbox,a streamof alphaparticles was directedto strikea thin sheetof

g o l df o i l . T h ea l p h ap a r t i c l ew s e r ed e t e c t e db y z i n cs u l p h i d es c r e e nw h i c hw a s m o u n t e da t t h e
e n d o f a m i c r o s c o p eW. h e na n a l p h ap a r t i c l es t r i k e st h e z i n cs u l p h i d e s c r e e na t i n y f l a s ho f l i g h t
r f t h e k i n e t i ce n e r g yo f t h e a l p h a
. h i sf l a s hi s d u et o t h e t r a n s f e o
c a l l e da s c i n t i l l a t i oi ns s e e n T
p a r t i c l et o a n e l e c t r o ni n t h e z i n cs u l p h i d ew, h i c hc a u s e a a n dt h e
s n e n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o n
emissionof a photonof light. Gotd foil
P l a nv i e w

screen
Z i n cs u l o h i d e
Metal box
with alpha
source
P i p et o v a c u u mp u m p

Theobservations revealedthat whilemostof the alphaparticlespassedstraightthroughwith

littleor no deflection, a few were deflectedin the rangefrom 5" to approximately 90'andeven
fewer were deflectedat anglesgreaterthan 90".
increased.
T h en u m b e rt h a t w a sd e f l e c t e dd, e c r e a s eadst h e a n g l eo f d e f l e c t i o n

2r0
T h e r e s u l t so f t h e e x p e r i m e ni tn d i c a t et h a t :
( 1 ) T h ea t o m c o n t a i n e d a p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dn u c l e u w
s h i c hw a sr e s p o n s i b fl e
or deflection
of
t h e p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e da l p h ap a r t i c l e .

( 2 ) T h i sp o s i t i v ec h a r g ew a s c o n t a i n e di n a v e r y t i n y v o l u m eo f t h e a t o m , w h i c hw a s t h e
r e a s o nw h y o n l yf e w a l p h ap a r t i c l e e s x p e r i e n c eadn y d e f l e c t i o n . ( t h ew r ea s o n l y a s m a l l
p r o b a b i l i toy f t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l ec o m i n gc l o s et o t h i s p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dn u c l e u s . )

( 3 ) M o s t o f t h e m a s so f t h e a t o m w a sc o n t a i n e di n t h e n u c l e u s i n c ei f t h e m a s sw a ss p r e a d
o u t o v e r t h e e n t i r ea t o m a s p r o p o s e db y T h o m s o nm , o s t o f t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l e w
s ould
h a v es t r u c kt h i s m a s sa n dw o u l dn o t h a v eb e e na b l et o p a s st h r o u g ht h e a t o m .

USEFUL
TERMSIN ATOMICPHYSICS:
(1) Nucleon-
T h ew o r d n u c l e o ni s a c o l l e c t i vtee r m f o r b o t h p r o t o n sa n d n e u t r o n sA. n u c l e o ni s a
particle inthe NUCLEUS.

(2) Atomicnumber-
T h i si s t h e n u m b e ro f p r o t o n si n t h e n u c l e u sa, n d i s r e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o l Z .

( 3 ) N e u t r o nn u m b e r-
T h i si s t h e n u m b e ro f n e u t r o n si n t h e n u c l e u a
s n d i s r e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o N
l .

( 4 ) N u c l e o nn u m b e r -
T h i si st h e t o t a ln u m b e ro f N U C L E O Nl NST H EN U C L E UlSt i.s a l s oc a l l e dt h e M A S S
n u m b e ra n d i s r e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o A l .
T h ef o l l o w i n gr e l a t i o ni s u s e f u l t or e m e m b e rA: - Z + N
i.e.Nucleonnllmber - Number of Protons * Number of Neutrons-

(5) Nuclide-
T h i si s a n a t o m c h a r a c t e r i z ebdy t h e n u m b e ro f p r o t o n sa n d n e u t r o n si n t h e n u c l e u s .
T h i st e r m i s u s e di n p r e f e r e n cteo t h e w o r d " a t o m "s i n c et h e t e r m a t o m i n c l u d etsh e
o r b i t a le l e c t r o n as n df o r n u c l e a P
r h y s i c st h, e o r b i t a le l e c t r o nds o n o t c o m ei n t o p l a y .

(6) lsotope-
A n u c l i d eh a sd i f f e r e n its o t o p e isf i t c a nh a v ed i f f e r e n m
t a s sn u m b e r sw h i l eh a v i n g t h e
s a r n ea t o m i cn u m b e rT . h ed i f f e r e n c ien t h e m a s sn u m b e ri s d u et o t h e n u c l i d eh a v i n g
d i f f e r e nn t r i u t r o nn u m b e r sE. . g .
t t c ; ' Z C ; t Z C a r ei s o t o p eos f c a r b o na n d
l H ; ? n ; I U a r ei s o t o p eosf h y d r o g e n .

211,
 OFCHARGE
THEQUANTIZATION

T h e m e a s u r e m e notf t h e e l e m e n t a rcyh a r g e ( 1 .x61 0 - 1 s C t i l l i k a ni n 1 9 1 0

w)a sd o n eb y R o b e r M
a n dt h e e x p e r i m e ni st n o w c a l l e dt h e M i l l i k a no i l d r o pe x p e r i m e n t .

T h ea r r a n g e m e notf t h e a p p a r a t ufso r t h e e x p e r i m e ni ts g i v e nb e l o w :
O i ld r o p l e t s

ee
e
€€ A t o m i s e re . g .p e r f u m e
€ s p r a yb o t t l e

P o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dm e t a l
plate
X raysfor
i o n i z i n tgh e a i r
N e g a t i v e l yc h a r g e dm e t a l
mtcroscooe
plate

L i g h ts o u r c ef o r
illuminating
droplets

T h ee x p e r i m e ni ts d o n ei n t w o p a r t s T . h ef i r s tp a r ti n v o l v etsh e d e t e r m i n a t i oonf t h e t e r m i n a l
s p e e do f a n o i l d r o p ,w h i c ht h e n a l l o w st h e R A D I UoSf t h e d r o pt o b e d e t e r m i n e d .
T h ec i r c u i ti s l e f t O P E Ni n i t i a l l ys o t h a t t h e m e t a l p l a t e sa r e u n c h a r g eadn dw h e nt h e a t o m i z e r
s p r a y sd r o p l e t si n t ot h e e m p t ys p a c e , t h ed r o p l e t sf a l ld u e t o t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a f ol r c ea c t i n go n
them
S o m eo f t h e d r o p l e t sp a s st h r o u g ht h e o p e n i n gi n t h e u p p e rp l a t ea n dt h e i rm o t i o ni s t i m e d
w h e nt h e yf a l lt h r o u g ha d i s t a n c e "d".
T h et e r m i n a sl p e e dc a nt h e n b e f o u n df r o m 1 ) .:t #
T h ev i s c o u fso r c ea c t i n go n t h e d r o p i s g i v e nb y F - 6 r c n r uw h e r eq i s a c o n s t a nat n d i s t h e
v i s c o s i toy f a i r ,r i s t h e r a d i u so f t h e d r o pa n dv = t e r r n i n asl p e e dw h i c hw a sp r e v i o u s l y
determined.
T h e r a d i u so f t h e d r o p h a st o b e f o u n da sf o l l o w s .
W h e nt h e d r o pf a l l si n a i r i t s w e i g h ti s e q u a lt o t h e v i s c o u fso r c ea c t i n gu p w a r d sh, e n c e
nng - 6n4re 1. or mg = kvr where k is a constant.

212
 T h ed r o pi s s p h e r i c aaln d i t sv o l u m ei s V - , a n d m a s s =V o l u m ex d e n s i t y =
t"f p.
tnrt

H e n c ef r o m t h e e q u a t i c j *n
t o r = p g = 6 n 4 r v t ,h e n c er c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d .

l n t h e s e c o n dp a r to f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t hpeo w e rs u p p l yi s s w i t c h e do n
a n dt h e p l a t e sb e c o m e
charged.The potentialdifferencebetweenthe platesis about
O n ep a r t i c u l adr r o p l e ti s s e l e c t e da n dt h e p . d .b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s a d j u s t e ds o t h a t t h e
t e r m i n a vl e l o c i t yo f t h e d r o p l e td e c r e a s etso a v a l u €v z . T h ev i s c o u fso r c e
n o w a c t i n go n t h e
d r o pi s k v 2
T h et o t a l u p w a r df o r c ei s E q+ k v zw h i l et h e d o w n w a r df o r c ei s m g .

HenceEq - mg - kur; butmg : kur; HenceEq _ k(v, _ v)

By varyihBE,a seriesof corresponding valuesof (v1- vz)are obtainedand a graphof E versus

(vt - v2)givesa straightline with a gradientof I fror which q
q
can be determined.Thisgraph
is only to be usedfor a particulardroplet,sinceeachdifferentmass
will haveits own
particularset of valuesof (v1- vz).
A seriesof graphscan be drawn and the valuesof q can be compared.
In all casesq will be
found to be an integralmultipleof 1.Gx 10-1s C.

H o wd i d t h e d r o p l e t a s c q u i r ea c h a r g e ?
A n s w e rS : o m eo f t h e d r o p l e t sw e r ea b l et o g e t a c h a r g ew h e nt h e y m o v e d
t h r o u g ht h e a i r ,
k n o c k e de l e c t r o n o
s u t o f s o m eo f t h e a i r m o l e c u l easn dt h e s ef r e ee l e c t r o nw s e r et h e n , U i " i o '
a d h e r et o s o m eo f t h e o i l d r o p l e t s .
H o w e v e irn o r d e rt o i n c r e a steh e n u m b e ro f c h a r g e os n t h e d r o p l e t sa n d
t o f a c i l i t a t em o r e
d r o p l e t sb e i n gc h a r g e dt ,h e a i r i n t h e v e s s esl h o u i db e l o N l S E Db y X - r a v s
o r b y u s i n ga
radioactivesourceto ionizethe air.

lmportant: The air will causethe drop to experience an upthrust,howeverthe magnitudeof

t h i s i s s m a l la n d c a nb e A S S U M E tDo b e n e g l i g i b l e .

(vr- vr)

213
 SHEET
TUTORIAL

( 1 ) ( i )C a l c u l a tteh e r a d i u so f a d r o po f o i l o f d e n s i t y8 7 0 k g m -itf i t f a l l sw i t h a t e r m i n a l
velocityof 2.88mms-t in air wherethe viscosity is 1'.7gx l-O-s Nsm-2'
( i i ) l ft h e d r o p h a s2 0 e l e c t r o n os n i t a n dt h e p l a t es e p a r a t i oins 4 m m ,c a l c u l a tteh e
p . d .t h a t m u s tb e a p p l i e db e t w e e nt h e t w o p l a t e si f t h e d r o pi s t o b e h e l ds t a t i o n a r y .
( A n s :5 . 2 x 1 0 - 6 m6; 2 6 8 V )

s x p e r i m e na
( 2 ) l nt h e M i l l i k a n ' e y h e n i t a c q u i r efso u r e l e c t r o n s
t , d r o p i s h e l ds t a t i o n a rw
a n dt h e v o l t a g ea c r o s st h e p l a t e si s 2 2 5 0 V .

(i) W h a t i s t h e p l a t es e p a r a t i oinf t h e r a d i u so f t h e d r o p i s 1 . 7 5x 1 0 - 6 ma n dt h e
densitY o f o i l i s9 2 0 k g m - ' .
(ii) w h a t m u s tb e t h e r a d i u so f a n o t h e rd r o pi f i t i s t o b e h e l ds t a t i o n a ruy n d e r
t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o nas sa b o v ei f i t h a s8 e l e c t r o nas t t a c h e dt o i t ?
( A n s7 . L m m ; 2 . 2 P m )

. a l c u l a tteh e
( 3 ) E l e c t r o nasr ea c c e l e r a t ei dn a n X r a yt u b et h r o u g ha p . d .o f 8 0 0 0 V C
wavelengthassociafed the motionof the electrons.(mass of electrorl= 9.1 x L0-31kg,
charge=l-.6x10-1sC)
11m)
( A n s: L . 3 7x 1 0

h f 3 . 6x L 0 - 1m
(4) A n X r a y p h o t o nh a sa w a v e l e n g t o , a s sa n d
0 . C a l c u l a tteh e m o m e n t u mm
energyof the X raYPhoton.
1;6.14 5 . 5x 1o-16J;
x 1 0 - 3 3 k; g
A n s . (1 , . 8 4 x1 0 - 2 a k g m s

( 5 ) T h e K o Xr a y sh a v ea w a v e l e n g t oh f 6 . 8 8x L O - 1 0 m . l c u l a tteh e m i n i m u mp o t e n t i a l
Ca
differenceacrossan X raytube that will producetheseX rays'
W h a t i s t h e e n e r g yo f t h e X r a y p h o t o n si n e V ?
(Ans:1,807V; 1807eV)

s e a ta t
( 6 ) A n X - r a y t u b e i s o p e r a t e do n a d . cp o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e ' o3f8 0 0 0 Va, n d p r o d u c e h
a rate of 660w. lf only 0.4%of the energyof the incidentelectronsis convertedto X
r a y s c, a l c u l a t e :
(i) T h e r a t ea t w h i c he l e c t r o n s t r i k et h e t a r g e t '
(ii) T h es p e e do f t h e i n c i d e net l e c t r o n s
( A n s : 1 . 0x91 0 1 e s e r s e c o n d; 1 . 1 8x l - 0 8 m s - 1 )
7 l e c t r o np

(7) An x ray tube operatesat a potentialdifferenceof 55000V,and heat is generatedin the

target at a rrte of 85OW.Determine what percentage of the energyof the electronsis
converted t o X r a y si f t h e c u r r e n ti n t h e X r a y t u b ei s 0 . 0 1 8 A(. A n st 4 % )

214
 SOLUTIONS

(1) At Termtnalveloci,ty,theviscousForce - wetght of drop

VtscousForceF - 6rnrv,the drop ts a spherei"tsmass- vol x densi.ty.
V o l u m eo f s p h e r e- ! o r = ,

' 3 -!nr=
Hence 6m7rv pg

, IBrTv 1 8 x 1 . 7 9x 1 0 - sx 0 . 0 0 2 8 8
l - a l - 5.2 x 1,0-6m
+pg 4 x 8 7 0x 9 . 8 1
(ti")lf the drop i"sheld stati,on&ry,then the electrf.cf orce acttng upward"s,
would be equal to the wei"ght
Hence mg = Eq where E f"sthe Electric f teld strength
. Vq mqd
E_V ms-7; v -; 7;
V_ 1"" psd ! r c 6 . 2 x 1 0 - 6 ) 3x 8 7 0x 9 . 8 1x 0 . 0 0 4:
6268V
20x1,.6x10-1e

(2) When the drop f"sstattonary,wei.gltt(acti.ngdown) - Electri"c orce(acting up)

f

h e n c e m g : E qo r m g - r y t
u

- 2250x6'4x\o-Ie -7.Lx!o-3m
d-Y-
m +
" LAa //^
x 1 0 - 6 ) 3x 9 2 0 x 9 . 8 1
2ftQ.75
( i " i ) C h a r g e- B x 1. 6 x ! } - l e , p l a t e s e p a r a t i o n : 7 . t x L 0 - 3 m i p . d . 2250V

Vq 4 Vq
mg g
d ' 1 o ' =P d'

2 2 5 0x B x 1 , . 6 xL 0 - 1 ex 3
: 2.2 x L0-6 m
4 x 7 . 1 x 1 0 - 3x n x 9 2 0 x 9 . 8 1

215
 (3)Work done on electron - Increase tn i,tsKE

1, 2 x I . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 8 0 0 0
h e n c eq V : ;v - : 5,3 x 107ms-I
r*u, 9 . 1x l - 0 - 3 1
6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4
mornentumP: mv and 1- : L.37 x't0-11m
mv 9 . 1 x, 1 0 - 3 1x 5 . 3 x 1 0 7

h 6.63 x 1,0-34
(4) 1- mv * - 1 . 8x ! 0 - 2 a k g m s - 1
mv 3 . 6x 1 0 - 1 0

momentum
Momentum - mass x speed, hence ma"ss-
speed(of ltght)
1 . 8x ! 0 - 2 4 -
(ir)mass - 6 . 1 4x 1 0 - 3 3 k g
3x 108
hc 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 - 3 a x 3 x 1 0 B
(iii)Energy of a photon - : 5.5 x 1,0-16J
1 3 . 6x 1 0 - 1 0

(S)TheEnergy of the X - rays would have come fromthe work d"onei"naccelerattng

the electrons that produce them.
Itc
The energy of an X ray photon U :
T
' The work done tn accelerattna the electron - q V
Itc hc 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4x 3 x L O B
henceqV:;i ' V: : 1807V
1 ":
qA 1 . 6 x 1 - 0 - 1 xe 6 . 8 8x L 0 - 1 0

T h ec h a r g eo f a n e l e c t r o ni s e a n dt h e p . d .a c r o s si t i s 1 8 0 7 Vh, e n c et h e e n e r g ys u p p l i e d
to the
electronis 1807eV.

2r6
 (6) 4o/oconverted"to X ray meqns that 99.6%Power conv'erted.to heat

.Hence 660W - 99.60/o

of totat power suppti.ed"
:
Totalpowersuppli"ed - 66ZrSW
ffi
Totalpower - (number of electrons per second) x (Energy of 1,electron)

6625W - number of electrons per second x qV

662.65
number of electrons per second : : 1 . 0 9x 1 0 1 7
I . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 3 8 0 0 0

2qv 2 x 1 . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 3 8 0 0 0
( i i , )q v - ) ^ u ' ;v - - 1 . 1 5x L 0 8 m s - 1
m 9 . 1x 1 - 0 - 3 1

( 7 ) P o w e r s u p p l t e dP - V I - 5 5 0 0 0 x 0 . 0 1 8- 9 9 0 W

Power lost to heattng : 850W,

Hence Power avai"lablef or Xray production - 990W - BS\W _ 'J.40W

Percentage of power used"f or Xray prod"ucti.on- Y x I00o/o- L4o/o

990

217
 AND BINDINGENERGY
VIASSDEFECT

theorvof Relativity
Einstein,s ble,i.e.Masscanbe
showsthat massand energyare interchangea
convertedinto energy,and energycan be convertedinto mass'

a decreasein massAm,this decrease

When particlesexperlence by a releaseof
is accompanied
an amountof energyAE.

The equationrelatingmassand Energyis

AE = Amcz

WhereE is the energyin Joules,M is the massin kg and C = 3x 108ms-1

with 1
aswell asthe Energyassociated
Thiseouationallowsthe massof a Jouleto be calculated
kg to be calculated.

E.g(1) Findthe massof l loule:

L e t A E= l J o u l e ; L = A m c 2 .

,' = 1 . 1 1x L o - l 7 k s
H e n c e/ m : ; =
.,;|ry

with the changein massof 1kg.

2) Findthe energyassociated

' A E= 1 x c 2= 1 x ( 3 x 1 0 8 ) ' z9=x 1 0 1 6 J .

THEATOMICMASSUNIT:

r h y s i ciss t h e U n i f i e dA t o m i cM a s sU n i t ,
l n i t o f m a s sa n d e n e r g yi n N u c l e aP
A v e r yu s e f u u
'u'.
which is alsocalledthe atomicmassunit and abbreviated

'ZC.
T h ea t o m i cm a s su n i t i s d e f i n e da s o n et w e l f t ho f t h e m a s so f t h e c a r b o na t o m

I n a m o l eo f c a r b o nt,h e r ea r e 6 . 0 2x 1 0 2 3a t o m sa n dt h e m a s so f 1 m o l ei s L 2 9 .
Hencethemassof1carbonatom''ffie=ffikg_12u;Hence

12
Lu: - L.66 xl0-27kg.
ffikg

S i n c e1 l < g= 9 x l - 0 1 6 ia, n d 1 M e V = l - ' 6 x L 0 - 1 3 J

1 ' 6 6 x L O - 2 7x 9 x 1 0 1 6
t- l'L - -93LMev
r-6x10-13

21.8
 R e c a l:l
T h ep r o t o n sa n d n e u t r o n si n t h e n u c l e u sa r ec o l l e c t i v e l y
r e f e r r e dt o a s n u c l e o n s
T h ee n e r g y t h a m t u s tb e s u p p l i e dt o t h e n u c l e u tso c o m p l e t e l y
s e p a r a t teh e nvuvc'lsevuJsi n t o i t s
i n d i v i d u anlu c l e o n si ,s c a l l e dt h e B I N D I N G "'l'|
E N E R Goyf t h e n u c l e u s .

A c c o r d i ntgo E i n s t e i n 'm
s a s s -e n e r g yr e l a t i o n s h i p
i f ,e n e r g yi s s u p p l i e dt o t h e n u c l e u st ,h e n
w h e nt h e i n d i v i d u anl u c l e o n as r es e p a r a t e dt h, e t o t a l
m a s sw o u l di n c r e a s ei ..e i f e n e r g yi s
added,then this energyis convertedinto extramass.
T h i sm e a n st h a t t h e s u mo f t h e m a s s e o s f t h e i n d i vei vdvu' a'In'lvu c l e o niss g r e a t e tr h a nt h e
the nucleus.
m a s so f

T h eB I N D I N G E N E R GcYa nt h e r e f o r e a l s obe definedasthe ToTALenergythat is reteased

t h e i n d i v i d u anl u c t e o ncso r n et o g e t h e rt o f o r m t h e when
nucleus.

T h ed i f f e r e n c ien m a s sb e t w e e nt h e s u mo f t h e m a s s e s
o f t h e i n d i v i d u anl u c l e o n as n d t h e m a s s
o f t h e n u c l e u si s c a i l e dt h e M A S SD E F E C T .

= (sum of massesof Nucleons (Mass

MAss DEFECT
)- of Nucleus)
T h eb i n d i n ge n e r g yi s t h e e n e r g ya s s o c i a t ewith
d the massdefect,hence
Binding Energ! : mqss def ect x (3 x 108)2

Example:

C a l c u l a tteh e b i n d i n ge n e r g ya n dt h e m a s sd e f e c tf o r
t h e h e l i u mn u c l e u s .

s y m b o fl o r h e l i u mn u c l e su i s
l H e ; t h e n u c l e o n u m b e ri s 4 a n dt h e p r o t o nn u m b e ri s 2 . H e n c e
i t h a s2 p r o t o n sa n d 2 n e u t r o n s .

T h em a s so f a p r o t o ni s 1 ' 0 0 7 3 ua n dt h e m a s so f a n e u t r o n
is1.00g7u.

T h et o t a l m a s so f t h e i n d i v i d u anl u c l e o n iss e q u a l t o(
m a s so f 2 p r o t o n s+) ( m a s so f 2 n e u t r o n s )

T o t a lm a s s= ( 2 x 1 . 0 0 7 3 u+) ( Z x 1 . 0 O g 7 u=)4 . 0 3 2 0 u

T h eh e l i u mn u c l e u si s f o u n dt o h a v ea m a s so f 4 . 0 0 1 5 u .

T h eM A S SD E F E Ci sTt h e r e f o r e4 . 0 3 2 0u - 4 . 0 0 1 5 u= 0 . 0 3 0 5 u .

R e c a ltih a t L u h a sd F €
: Q u i v a l e netn e r g yo f 9 3 1 M e V ,h e n c eo . 0 3 0 5 uw i l l
h a v ea n e n e r g y
€eu,''.,alence of
0.0305x 931MeV= 28.4MeV.

2t9
 OFTHENUCLEUS
STABILITY

T h eS t a b i l i toyf a n u c l e u iss d e t e r m i n e bd y i t s B I N D I N E GN E R GpYe r N U C L E O T Nh. eg r e a t etrh e

d sf o l l o w s :
r i l l b e t h e s t a b i l i t yT. h i sc a nb e e x p l a i n e a
b i n d i n ge n e r g yp e r n u c l e o nt,h e g r e a t e w

In natureb , o d i e st h a t h a v et h e l o w e s te n e r g i ew s i l l h a v et h e g r e a t e sst t a b i l i t ya, n d b o d i e st e n d

t o l o s ee n e r g yi n o r d e rt o i n c r e a steh e i rs t a b i l i t y .
formed
l n t h e a t o m ,t h e n u c l e o n cs o n g r e g a tteo f o r m t h e n u c l e u sa n d i n d o i n gs o ,t h e n u c l e u s
g i v e su p s o m ee n e r g yt o a t t a i ns o m es t a b i l i t yT. h en u c l e ti h a t g i v eu p t h e m o s te n e r g y ,a r et h e
m o s ts t a b l eo n e s .
H e n c et h e e l e m e n t st h a t h a v et h e g r e a t e sbt i n d i n ge n e r g yp e r n u c l e o nw i l l h a v et h e m o s t
s t a b l en u c l e i .

t a s sn u m b e r t, h e f o l l o w i n g
W h e na g r a p ho f B i n d i n gE n e i g yp e r n u c l e o ni s p l o t t e da g a i n sm
s h a p ei s o b t a i n e d :

B i n d i n ge n e r g y
p e rn u c l e o n

238 M a s sn u m b e r
56

T h eg r a p hs h o w st h a t t h e e l e m e n F t eh a st h e h i g h e sbt i n d i n ge n e r g yp e r n u c l e o na n di s
t h e r e f o r et h e m o s ts t a b l e .
that
L i g h t eer l e m e n t s u c ha s H y d r o g e nh, e l i u m , A,l L i , e t c .a l l h a v em a s sn u m b e r sl o w e r t h a n
p e r T h e yc an
o f F e ,a n d a c c o r d i ntgo t h e g r a p h t, h e yw i l l h a v el o w e rb i n d i n ge n e r g i e s n u c l e o n .
i n c r e a steh e i rb i n d i n ge n e r g i epse r n u c l e o nb y i n c r e a s i nt hg e i rm a s sn u m b e rc l o s etro 5 6 ,a n d
f o r t h i st o h a p p e nt,h e ym u s tu n d e r g oF U S I O N '

220
 Elements with massnumbersgreaterthan 56 for exampleUranium,havebindingenergiesper
nucleonlessthan that of Fe,and in orderfor elementssuchastheseto becomgmorestable(by
increasingtheir bindingenergyper nucleon), they mustdecrease
their massnumberto a varue
closerto 56.Thiscanhappenif the elementundergoes FISSION.

In FUsloN,two lightnucleiarefusedto form a heavierone with the releaseof bindingenergy.

In FlssloN,a heavynucleusis splitinto two fragmentsof approximately

equalmass,with the
releaseof bindingenergy.

In the both FISSIONand FUSIONas well as all other nuclearprocessesthere is conservationof

AtL of the following quantities:
NUCLEONNUMBER,PROTONNUMBER, ENERGY-MASS and CHARGE.

Example:
Findthe energyreleasedwhen a Poloniumnuclideemitsan alphaparticle.

tt|po -+ 23tpb+
lHe + E
T h em a s s eos f t h e v a r i o u sn u c l i d easr eg i v e na sf o l l o w s :

L e a d' | u r p a- 2 0 5 . 9 6 9 u ; q p a r t i c l e | H e - 4 . 0 0 4 u , p o l o n t u m z [ o n p-o z 0 g . 9 8 2 u

T h eT o t a lm a s so n t h e l e f t s i d eo f t h e e q u a t i o ni s 2 0 9 . 9 g 2 u
Thetotal masson the rightsideis (205.969+ 4.004)u= 209.973u

Thereis a massdefecton the rightsideof (209.982- 209.973)u

= 0.009u

A n E N E R GTYE R Mm u s tb e i n c l u d e od n t h e r i g h ts i d es o t h a t i t s m a s se q u i v a l e n cweh e na d d e d
t o t h e o t h e rm a s s e o
s n t h e r i g h ts i d eo f t h e e q u a t i o nw, i l l b e e q u a lt o t h e m a s so n t h e l e f ts i d e
of theequation

Q u e s t i o n:

W h e na n a l p h ap a r t i c l es t r i k e sa n i t r o g e nn u c l e u st ,h e f o l l o w i n gN U C L E ArR
e a c t i o no c c u r s :
l u e + ' \ w - , 1 $ o+ \ n
B yc o n s i d e r i ntgh e r e s tm a s s e o s f t h e p a r t i c l egs i v e nb e l o w ,d e t e r m i n et h e K Ea n ds p e e dt h a t
t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l em u s th a v ei n o r d e rt o e f f e c t h e r e a c t i o n .

M a s s o f H e = 4 . 0 0 2 : t 0mua; s s o f N = 1 4 . 0 0 3 0 7 u ; m a s s o f H = 1 . 0 0 7 8 3 u ; m a s s o f O = 1 6 . 9 9 9 1 3 u
. of Alphaparticle= 4 x 1.66xtO 27kg;
\''l-,:ts
( A n s: 1 , . 9 2
x L O - 1 ;37J. 6 x l - 0 6 m s - 1 )

221,
 RADIOACTIVITY

R a d i o a c t i v iitsya S P O N T A N E OaUnSd R A N D O M process.

I t i s S p o n t a n e o ubse c a u s teh e r ea r e n o i n d i c a t o rasst o w h e n a n u c l e u w s i l ld i s i n t e g r a t e
t h i c hp a r t i c u l aar t o m sw i l l u n d e r g or a d i o a c t i v e
I t i s R a n d o mb e c a u s iet i s i m p o s s i b lteo p r e d i c w
decay.

Therearetwo factorsthat affectnuclearstability:

p e r n u c l e o nt,h e
(i) T h e b i n d i n ge n e r g yP e r n u c l e o n -T h e g r e a t e rt h e b i n d i n ge n e r g y
g r e a t e ri s t h e s t a b i l i t Y .
(ii) T h en e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i o .F o rl i g h tS T A B LnEu c l e suchi as 12uC and t[O tfre ratio is ]-.
F o rh e a v yn u c l e it,h e r a t i oi n c r e a s et so w a r d sl - ' 6 '

Unstable a t o m i cn u c l ewi i l l s p o n t a n e o u sdl ye c o m p o steo f o r m n u c l e w i i t h a h i g h e rs t a b i l i t yT' h e

. ee n e r g ya n d p a r t i c l ew
d e c o m p o s i t i opnr o c e s iss c a l l e dr a d i o a c t i v i tTy h s h i c ha r e r e l e a s e d
d u r i n gt h e d e c o m p o s i t i opn[ o c e s sa r ec a l l e dr a d i a t i o nW . h e nu n s t a b l en u c l e di e c o m p o s ien
n a t u r et,h e p r o c e s iss r e f e r r e dt o a s n a t u r a rl a d i o a c t i v i tWy .h e nt h e u n s t a b l en u c l e ai r e
p r e p a r e di n t h e l a b o r a t o r yt h, e d e c o m p o s i t i oi snc a l l e di n d u c e dr a d i o a c t i v i t y .

'.
T h e r ea r et h r e em a j o rt y p e so f n a t u r a rl a d i a t i o n

1. nlpha Radiation
A l p h ar a d i a t i o nc o n s i s tos f a s t r e a mo f p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dp a r t i c l e sc,a l l e da l p h a
p a r t i c l e sw, h i c hh a v ea n a t o m i cm a s so f 4 a n da c h a r g eo f + 2 ( a h e l i u mn u c l e u s ) .
W h e na n a l p h ap a r t i c l e i s e j e c t e df r o m a n u c l e u st h, e m a s sn u m b e r o ft h e n u c l e u s
d e c r e a s ebsy f o u r u n i t sa n dt h e a t o m i cn u m b e rd e c r e a s ebsy t w o u n i t s .F o r
example:
, 3 3 U- z l f t fn ; T h e h e l i u mn u c l e u si s t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l e .
|lle +
A l p h ap a r t i c l ee m i s s i o no c c u r sw h e nt h e n u c l e u sh a st o o m u c hp r o t o n sw , h i c hw o u l dc a u s e
causes
p a r t i c l ee m i s s i o n
t h e n e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i ot o b e t o o s m a l fl o r h e a v yn u c l e iT. h ea l p h a
d e c r e a sbev 2 '
t h e p r o t o nn u m b e r t od e c r e a sbey 2 a n da l s o t h en e u t r o nn u m b e r t o
2 3 r l Ut s ' f f - 1'587
F r o mt h e a b o v ee x a m p l et,h e n e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i o no f
2l[rn tt'# - r ' 6 , h e n c et h e a l p h ad e c a yc a u s e dt h e
T h en e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i oo r
n e u t r o n- p r o t o nr a t i ot o i n c r e a steo w a r d sL . 6w h i c hm e a n sa n i n c r e a s ien s t a b i l i t y .

222
 (21 B e t aR a d i a t i o n, w h i c hh a st w o t y p e si . e .p a n d g * e m i s s i o n s .

(i) B e t a . ( m i n u rsa) d i a t i o ni s a s t r e a mo f e l e c t r o n sc,a l l e dp p a r t i c l e s .

W h e na
beta particleis ejected,a neutronin the nucleusis converted
to a proton,so
t h e m a s sn u m b e ro f t h e n u c l e u si s u n c h a n g e db,u t t h e a t o m i c
number
, n c r e a s ebsy o n e u n i t .F o re x a m p l e :
, 2llra;The
33rn - -?e + e r e c t r o ni s t h e b e t a ( m i n u sp)a r t i c r e .
T h i so c c u r sw h e nt h e n u c l e u sh a st o o m a n yn e u t r o n sf o r s t a b i l i t y
a n dt h e n e u t r o n -
protonratio is decreased by F-emission
( i i ) 9 * e m i s s i o nw h e r e t h ep * p a r t i c l ei s c a l l e da p o s l T R o N
w h i c hi s e f f e c t i v e l y a
p o s i t i v ee l e c t r o nI.n t h i s p r o c e s sa, p r o t o nc h a n g e isn t o
a neutron.
T h i sp r o c e s o s c c u r sw h e nt h e n u c l e u si s d e f i c i e nitn n e u t r o n s .
tu -[n+le
I t i s s o m e t i m e cs o n v e n i e nt to a s s u m et h a t a n e u t r o ni s m a d e
u p o f a p r o t o na n d a n
electroncombinedtogether,and when p-emissionoccurs,
it is the electronfrom
t h e n e u t r o nt h a t i s e j e c t e dl,e a v i n gb e h i n da p r o t o n .H o w e v e r t h i s
a s s u m p t i oins
incorrect.
l n i t i a l l yi t w a sp r o p o s e d t h a t t h e n e u t r o ni s r e a l l ym a d eu p o f s i xe l e c t r o nas r r a n g e d
s o t h a t t h e i re l e c t r i cf i e l d sc a n c eel a c ho t h e r ,w h i l ea p r o t o n
a l s oh a sa s i m i l a r
a r r a n g e m e notf t h e s i xe l e c t r o n b s u t w i t h a p o s i t r o na t t h e c e n t r eo f t h e
a r r a n g e m e nH t . o w e v e trh e d i s c o v e royf t h e s u b - a t o m ipc a r t i c t e
c a l l e dt h e q u a r k
h a sl e dt o t h e d o w n f a lol f t h i se a r l i e rp r o p o s a T l . h en e u t r o ni s n o w t h o u g h t o b e
composed o f 3 q u a r k s . E x p e r i m e ndtaatlah a ss h o w nt h a t t h e n e u t r o nh a s
a negative
chargeboth in its innercoreand its outer edgewith a positive .
chargesandwiched
i n t o m a k et h e p a r t i c r e r e c t r i c a inl ye u t r a r .

(3) GammaRadiation
Gammaraysare high-energy photonswith a veryshortwavelength(0.0005to 0.1
nm)' Theemissionof gammaradiationresultsfrom dn energv
changeof electrons
w i t h i n t h e a t o m i cn u c l e u sG
- a m m ae m i s s i o cn h a n g e ns e i t h r et h
r e a t o m i cn u m b e r
n o r t h e a t o m i cm a s sA . l p h aa n d b e t ae m i s s i o na r eo f t e na c c o m p a n i e d ' bg ya m m a
e m i s s i o na,sa n e x c i t e de l e c t r o ni n t h e n u c l e u sd,r o p s t oa l o w e r a n d
m o r es t a b l e
energystate.

A l p h a ,b e t a ,a n dg a m m ar a d i a t i o na l s oa c c o m p a niyn d u c e dr a d i o a c t i v i t y .
R a d i o a c t i vi seo t o p e s
a r e p r e p a r e di n t h e l a b u s i n gb o m b a r d m e nrte a c t i o ntso c o n v e r t
a s t a b l en u c l e u si n t oo n e
whichis radioactive. Positron(particlewith the samemassas an electron,but a charge
of +1
i n s t e a do f - 1 ) e m i s s i o n
i s n ' to b s e r v e di n n a t u r a rl a d i o a c t i v i tby u
, t i t i s a c o m m o nm o d eo f d e c a y
in inducedradioactivity. Bombardment reactions can be usedto produceveryheavyelements,
i n c l u d i nmg a n yw h i c hd o n ' to c c u ri n n a t u r e .

223
 ACTIVITY

s i l l d e c a y b, u t i f a s a m p l ec o n t a i n sN
t h e n a p a r t i c u l anr u c l e u w
I t i s i m p o s s i b lteo p r e d i c w
g i v e nb y
n u c l e it,h e n t h e r a t eo f d e c a yc a l l e dt h e A C T-IdVt I TiYs p r o p o r t i o n at ol N w h i c hi s
A= x N.
dt

t h a t a st i m e i n c r e a s etsh, e v a l u eo f
s i g nt o i n d i c a t e N
T h e r a t eo f d e c a yi s g i v e na n e g a t i v e
decreases.
I

T h ep r o p o r t i o n a l i st yi g nc a nb e r e m o v e dt o g i v et h e g e n e r ael q u a t i o n :
-dN
= iN= A
dt
Y O N S T A NoTr D I S I N T E G R A TC
W h e r e . tirs c a l l e dt h e D E C A C . a su n i t so f ( t i m e ) - '
I OONN S T A NlTt h

The Y CONSTANT is d as the probabil lar nucl will u

radioactivedecavat anv giventime.
i n a s a m p l ea f t e r
T h ee q u a t i o nc a nb e r e a r r a r l g et do d e t e r m i n et h e n u m b e ro f n u c l e ri e m a i n i n g
s o m et i m e t , a n dt h e g e n e r ael x p r e s s i ofno r t h i s i s

N - No e - A t

sinceActivitYAo(N
Similarly

A - Aos-At

l c t i v i t yo f t h e
i r e s e n (t a tt = 0 ) , a n dA o i st h e i n i t i a A
w h e r eN oi s t h e i n i t i a ln u m b e ro f n u c l e p
s am p l e .

TheActivityis alsocalledthe coUNT RATE, ORDECAY RATEand is measuredin the numberof

disintegration Pse rs e c o n d .
o n e d i s i n t e g r a t i opne r s e c o n di s c a l l e da B e c q u e r e( lB q ) .

224
 H A L FL I F E .

T h eh a l fl i f eo f a s a m p l ei s t h e t i m e t a k e nf o r b o t h t h e A c t i v i t yo f t h e s a m p l ea n dt h e n u m b e ro f
r a d i o a c t i vneu c l eti o f a l lt o h a l fo f t h e i n i t i a vl a l u e .

l e a t h a l fl i f eN s ) f a n dA s ) + .

l f t h e s er e l a t i o n a
s r e s u b s t i t u t e idn t h e p r e v i o u e
s q u a t i o ntsh e n ;
A t t = T r / r , * = T , h e n c e b y s u b s t i t u t i n g N = f i n t h e e q u a t i o n w i t h A- / N s e - t t , w e g e t :

:-u - N69-AT112
z

g ow e g e t ;
B ye l i m i n a t i n N
t -
,-ATr/z
2
T a k i n gl o g sg i v e s- l n Z - -7Ttr OR
/2
LEARN

A very usefulequation
to learnis :
TL
r1t
A _ or\z) where n is the number of half ltves

si.mi.tarlyN-
"r(;)"
No
The graphto the left represents the
v a r i a t i o no f t h e n u m b e ro f a c t i v e
n u c l ew
i i t ht i m e .

I t i s a l s oa r e p r e s e n t a t i oonf t h e
v a r i a t i o no f t h e A c t i v i t yw i t h t i m e , i n
w h i c hc a s et h e N 6o f l t h e y - a x i s ,c a n
No
1 b e r e p l a c e dw i t h 4 6 .

No
4

A/o
I
a

T t^ ,/ 2 2Ttr 3Ttr
/2 /2

22s
 SOMEPROPERTIES
OF RADIOACTIVE
EMISSIONS

ALPHAPARTICLES:

( 1 ) A l p h ap a r t i c l easr eh e l i u mn u c l e i .
(2) Theyhavea chargeof +2e (2 x L.6x10-1eC1.
( 3 ) F r o ma n yp a r t i c u l asra m p l et,h e a l p h ap a r t i c l eas r ee j e c t e dw i t h a p p r o x i m a t etl hy e s a m e
velocity.
( a ) T h ee n e r g i e os f a l p h ap a r t i c l e rsa n g ef r o m 4 M e Vt o 8 M e V ,a n dt h e r a n g ei n a i r i s a b o u t
8cm.
(5) Theyare deflectedby both magneticand electricfields.
( 6 ) A l p h ap a r t i c l eas r et o t a l l ya b s o r b e db y a t h i c ks h e e to f p a p e ra sw e l l a s b y h u m a ns k i n .
( 7 ) C a u s es i g n i f i c a ni ot n i z a t i o dn u et o i t s r e l a t i v e llya r g em a s sa n ds i z e -t h e y h a v ea h i g h
p r o b a b i l i toy f c o l l i d i n g
w i t h g a sm o l e c u l easn d k n o c k i n o g f f e l e c t r o n sa,st h e i r
m o m e n t u mc a u s et h e m t o k e e po n t r a v e l l i n a g f t e ri t s f i r s tf e w c o l l i s i o n s .

Beta Particles:

(1) A beta (-) particlei, .n electron

(2) Theyare ejectedfrom a samplewith a rangeof speedsfrom about0.2 timesthe speed
o f l i g h tt o a b o u t0 . 8t i m e st h e s p e e do f l i g h t .
( 3 ) T h e ya r e m u c hm o r ep e n e t r a t i ntgh a n a l p h ap a r t i c l eas n d c a nb e s t o p p e db y a b o u t
3 m mo f a l u m i n i u m .
( a ) T h er a n g ei n a i r i s f r o m a b o u t1 0 c m t o a b o u t1 0 0 c m .
( 5 ) T h e yc a u s es i g n i f i c a n tlley s si o n i z a t i otnh a n a l p h ap a r t i c l eds u et o t h e i rs m a l lm a s s t-h e y
h a v e a m u c hs m a l l e p r r o b a b i l i toy f c o l l i d i n w
g i t h g a sm o l e c u l e s .
(6) Theyare deflectedby both electricand magneticfieldsin directionsoppositeto thoseof
a l p h ap a r t i c l e sT.h e i rm a s s e as r e a b o u t7 0 0 0t i m e sl e s st h a n t h a t o f a l p h ap a r t i c l e sa,n d
hencethey experience muchgreaterdeflections.

GammaRays:

(1) Theyare not particlesbut insteadthey are electromagnetic wavesof very highenergy.
(2) Theytravelat the speedof light.
(3) Theyare muchmore penetrating than beta particlesand canpenetratea few metresof
concrete.Theycanbe stoppedby a wall of leadthat is at least10cmthick.
( a ) T h e r a n g ei n a i r i s u p t o s e v e r ahl u n d r e dk i l o m e t e r s .
( 5 ) T h e yc a u s ev e r yl i t t l ei o n i z a t i o on f g a sm o l e c u l e s .
(6) Theyare deflectedby neitherelectricnor magneticfields.

226
 EXPERIMENT
TO DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN
THETHREE
TYPES
OF RADIATION:
sincethe 3 typesof rad.iation havedifferentpenetratingpowers,then this property
can be
incorporated in an experimentto distinguish betweeneachtype.
A n a r r a n g e m e notf t h e a p p a r a t uiss g i v e nb e l o w :

C{ A l u m in u m
88

A G e i g eM r u l l e rt u b e i s p t a c e db e h i n de a c hb a r r i e (r G M
t , G M z , G M :G , M+).
F o ra l l r a d i o a c t i vm
e e a s u r e m e n ttsh,e B A C K G R o u NcDo u N T
R A T Ei s f i r s tm e a s u r e da,n dt h i s i s
t h e n s u b t r a c t efdr o m a l l s u b s e q u e nr te a d i n g s .
l f t h e G M r g i v e so n l yt h e v a l u eo f t h e b a c k g r o u ncdo u n t
r a t e ,t h e n t h e s a m p l ew o u l dh a v eh a d
o n l ya l p h ap a r t i c l e s .

l f h o w e v e rt,h e r e a d i n go n G M 1i s g r e a t e tr h a n , t h eb a c k g r o u n d
r a t et h e n t h e r ew o u l db e
p a r t i c l eps a s s i n tgh r o u g ht h e t i s s u ew h i c hw o u l d
b e e i t h e rb e t ap a r t i c l eos r g a m m ar a y so r
b o t h 'T h er e a d i n gos n G M za n d G M : w i l l a l l o wt h e o b s e r v e r
t o d e t e r m i n et h e n a t u r eo f t h e
e m i s s i o ntsh a t a r e n o t a l p h a .

227
 from
T h ed e f l e c t i o nisn e l e c t r i ca n d m a g n e t i fci e l d sa l s oa l l o wt h e e m i s s i o ntso b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
o n ea n o t h e r :

Alpha, Beta,and Gamma

Historically,,the productsof radioactivitlzwere called alpha,beta,and gammawhen it was found
thatthey couldbL analyzedinto threedistinctspeciesby eithera magneticfield or an electric
field.
XXXX XXXI
fie1r1
+
tx x
Y
X
1"1;:r1rrtti':
XXX
I +
ij1,,;i3U f t-r:rTft
',,"igr,',r;:1- I +
X X XX
I +
I +
X
- +
FX
:;riflt trlE
FiArlir:r;:r.:ti.',"E
.
i n I *id trlirr::l::

228
 EXPERIMENT
TO DETERMINE
THEHALFLIFEOFA RADIOACTIVE
ISOTOPE
WITHA SHORTHALFLIFE:
T h eh a l fl i f ec a nb e m e a s u r e d by monitoring t h e i o n i z a t i o cnu r r e n tp r o d u c e db y t h e s a m p l eo f
r a d i o a c t i vm
e aterial.
A t y p i c a sl a m p l et h a t i s u s e di n t h e l a b o r a t o riys R a d o ng a s .

Centra I e l e c t r o d e

valves

1-2Vbattery

m i c r o am m e t e r

d . c .a m p l i f i e r
Polythene
bottle
R= 1011e
w i t h r a d o ng a s

T h ev a l v e sa r es e tt o t h e o p e np o s i t i o na n dt h e p o l y t h e n eb o t t l e
i s s q u e e z etdo f o r c es o m e
r a d o ng a si n t ot h e i o n i z a t i o cnh a m b e rm ( e t a lc a n ), a n dt h e v a l v e sa r et h e n c l o s e d .
T h ec u r r e n to n t h e a m m e t e ri s r e c o r d e da n d a s t o p w a t c hi s
started.
R e a d i n gosf c u r r e n ta r e r e c o r d e da t e v e r y1 0 s e c o n dfso r a p e r i o d
o f a b o u t5 m i n u t e s .

229
A graphof currentversus timeis plottedanda smoothcurveis drawnthroughthe points.
T h ev a l u eos f I o ; 2 , ? t a n df r o mt h et h r e el a t t e rv a l u e st,h e h a l fl i f ec a nb e f o u n di n e a c h
f,
c a s ea, n dt h ea v e r a gvea l u et h e nc a l c u l a t e d .

16

! ------'l
2

r!
I
4 I
I
rI 0 ---t-
I
B I
.l

Trr 2Ttr 3Ttr

/2
/2 /2

230
 SAFETYPRECAUTIONS
FOR HANDLINGAND DISPOSALOF RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL

S i n c ea l p h aa n d b e t ap a r t i c l e ds o n o t p e n e t r a t et h e s k i nt h e y a r e u n l i k e l yt o b e h a r m f u fl r o m E X T E R N A L
S O U R C Ei .Se .f r o m s o u r c e so u t s i d eo f t h e h u m a nb o d y .
T h e yw i l l h o w e v e rp o s ea s e r i o u st h r e a ti f t h e y a r e i n g e s t e do r i n h a l e d .
Personh s a n d l i n gr a d i o a c t i vm
e a t e r i a l sm u s tn o t e a t s m o k eo r d r i n ki n t h e v i c i n i t yo f t h e r a d i o a c t i v e
s a m p l e sM ' a s k sa s w e l l a s d i s p o s a b lgel o v e sa n d p r o t e c t i v ec l o t h i n gs h o u l db e w o r n .

I n t h e c a s eo f X r a y sa n d g a m m ar a y s ,p e r s o n sm u s tb e s h i e l d e dt,h e r em u s tb e a l a r g ed i s t a n c eb e t w e e n
t h e p e r s o na n d t h e s o u r c ea, n d e x p o s u r et i m e sm u s tb e a s s h o r ta s p o s s i b l e .
P e r s o nw s o r k i n gi n r a d i o a c t i vaer e a ss h o u l dw e a r a F I L MB A D G Ew h i c hd a r k e n sa s i t i s e x p o s e dt o
r a d i a t i o nT. h e d a r k n e s os f t h e f i l m g i v e sa n i n d i c a t i o n
o f t h e e x p o s u r et i m e .
l n t h e c a s eo f r a d i o t h e r a payn d d i a g n o s i st h, e i s o t o p et h a t i s c h o s e nm u s t h a v ea s h o r th a l f l i f ea sw e l l a s
i t m u s tp a s st h r o u g ht h e b o d ya n d b e e x c r e t e do u t i n a v e r ys h o r tt i m e .

W o r k e r sm a y a l s oh a n d l er a d i o a c t i vm
e a t e r i a l sb y u s i n gr e m o t ec o n t r o l l e dt o o l s .

RADIOACTIVE WASTE
RadioactiveWaste Description

R a d i o a c t i vwea s t ec a nv a r y! r e a t l y i n i t s p h y s i c aal n d c h e m i c aflo r m . l t c a nb e a s o l i d ,l i q u i d ,g a s ,o r e v e n

s o m e t h i n gi n b e t w e e n s, u c ha s s l u d g eA. n y g i v e nr a d i o a c t i vw e a s t ec a nb e p r i m a r i l yw a t e r ,s o i l ,p a p e r ,
p l a s t i cm , e t a l ,a s h ,g l a s sc, e r a m i co, r a m i x t u r eo f m a n yd i f f e r e n tp h y s i c af lo r m s .T h ec h e m i c a l
form of
r a d i o a c t i vwe a s t ec a nv a r ya s w e l l .R a d i o a c t i vwea s t ec a nc o n t a i nr a d i o n u c l i d eosf . v e r yl i g h te l e m e n t s ,
s u c ha s r a d i o a c t i v he y d r o g e n( t r i t i u m ) o, r o f v e r y h e a v ye l e m e n t ss, u c h ' a su r a n i u m R
. a d i o a c t i vwea s t ei s
c l a s s i f i eads h i g h ,i n t e r m e d i a t eo,r l o w l e v e l .D e p e n d i n og n t h e r a d i o n u c l i d ecso n t a i n e di n i t , a w a s t ec a n
r e m a i nr a d i o a c t i vfer o m s e c o n d st o m i n u t e so, r e v e nf o r m i l l i o n so f y e a r s .

Radioactive
Waste Management

R a d i o a c t i vwea s t em a n a g e m e ni tn c l u d e st h e p o s s e s s i o tnr,a n s p o r t a t i o nh,a n d l i n gs, t o r a g ea, n d u l t i m a t e

d i s p o s aol f w a s t e .T h e s a f em a n a g e m e not f r a d i o a c t i vw e a s t ei s n e c e s s a rtyo p r o t e c tp u b l i ch e a l t h .l f
h a n d l e di m p r o p e r l yp, o t e n t i ael x p o s u r eosf h u m a n st o h i g h - l e v er la d i o a c t i vw e a s t ec a nb e d a n g e r o u s ,
e v e nd e a d l y S . o m er a d i o a c t i vw e a s t e ss u c ha s c e r t a i nt y p e so f t r a n s u r a n i w c a s t ec a nc a u s eb i o l o g i c a l
e f f e c t si n h u m a n so n l y i f t h e r a d i o n u c l i d ecso n t a i n e di n t h e w a s t ea r e d i r e c t l yi n h a l e do r i n g e s t e dM
. ost
l o w - l e v erla d i o a c t i vw
e a s t e sc a n b e h a n d l e db y h u m a n sw i t h o u ta n y m e a s u r a b lbei o l o g i c ael f f e c t s .
'Neverthelesg s ,o o dh a n d l i n gp r a c t i c eos f a l l r a d i o a c t i vm
e ateriala s n d w a s t es h o u l db e t h e g o a lt o
p r o v i d eo p t i m u mp r o t e c t i o nt o h u m a n sa n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n tT. h e r eh a v eb e e nh i s t o r i cp r a c t i c e s
a s s o c i a t ewd i t h t h e u s eo f r a d i o a c t i vm e a t e r i aw l h e r ew o r k e r sw e r e u n a w a r eo f p o t e n t i a rl i s k sT. h e
r a d i u mw a t c hd i a lp a i n t e r so f t h e 1 9 2 0 si l l u s t r a t e t h e h e a l t he f f e c t st h a t c a nb e a s s o c i a t ew di t h
i m p r o p e rh a n d l i n gp r a c t i c e sT.h e p a i n t e r se x p e r i e n c ehdi g ho c c u r r e n c eosf c a n c e ro f t h e l a r y n xa n d
t o n g u ed u e t o i n g e s t i o n of radium.

T h et r a n s p o r t a t i ocn. r a d i o a c t i vw e a s t ec a no c c u rv i a r o a d w d va, i r c r a f ts, h i p / b a r g ea,n d r a i l .T h e

c l a s ' ; i f i c a t i oan d p h y s i c asl i z eo f r a d i o a c t i vw
e a s t ed i c t a t et h e m e t h o do f t r a n s p o r tt,h e p a c k a g i n g
i - € ( ; r : i r eadn, d t h e l a b e l i n gn e c e s s a rtyo a l l o wf o r t h e s h i p m e n o t f a s p e c i f i cw a s t e .T h e r ea r e
i n t e r n a t i o n at rl a n s p o r t a t i orne q u i r e m e n tfso r r a d i o a c t i vw e a s t e ,a sw e l l a s m o r es p e c i f i cr e g u l a t i o nisn
i n d i v i d u aclo u n t r i e s .

23r
 RADIOACTIVITYDETECTO
RS

( 1 ) T h eS p a r kC o u n t e r :

T h i sw o r k so n t h e p r i n c i p l teh a t r a d i o a c t i veem i s s i o ncsa u s ei o n i z a t i o on f t h e a i r a n d c a nc a u s e

t h e a i r t o c o n d u citn a r e g i o nw h e r ea h i g hp o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n cies a p p l i e d .
T h ea p p a r a t ucso n s i s tos f a f i n ew i r e g a u z ew h i c ha c t sa sa c a t h o d eb e i n gm o u n t e dcloseto a
m e t a lr o d w h i c ha c t sa s a n a n o d e A . h i g hv o l t a g ev a r i a b l ed . c .s o u r c e( 0 ) 5 0 0 0 V ) i s connected
a c r o s st h e a n o d ea n d c a t h o d e .

anode +

cathode€

tI
I n s u l a t i nbga s e Radium
-+
source

H i g hv o l t a g e
supply

I n i t i a l l yw, i t h n o r a d i o a c t i vseo u r c ep r e s e n tt,h e v o l t a g ei s i n c r e a s eadc r o s st h e a n o d ea n d

c a t h o d eu n t i ls p a r k sj u m p a c r o s st h e g a p .T h ev o l t a g ei s t h e n r e d u c e ds l o w l yu n t i lt h e s p a r k s
j u s tf a i lt o b e p r o d u c e d .
T h er a d i u ms o u r c ei s t h e n i n t r o d u c e cd l o s et o t h e w i r e g a u z ea, n dt h e s p a r k sr e a p p e a r .
W h e nt h e r a d i o a c t i vseo u r c ei s p r e s e n tt,h e a i r b e c o m e si o n i z e da n dt h e i o n sa n df r e ee l e c t r o n s
c a i r s et h e a i rt o c o n d u c a t n dt h i sc o n d u c t i o cna u s e tsh e p r o d u c t i o o nf sparks.

232
 ( 2 ) T h e D I F F U S I OCNL O U D
CHAMBER:

T h i si n s t r u m e nits u s e dt o m a k et h e t r a c k so f r a d i o a c t i veem i s s i o n tso b e c o m ev i s i b l e .

I t w o r k so n t h e f o l l o w i n gp r i n c i p l e :
W h e na n i o n i z i n gp a r t i c l ep a s s etsh r o u g ha g a s ,i t l e a v e sa t r a i lo f p o s i t i v e
g a si o n sa l o n gi t s
path due to electronsbeingknockedoff from the gasparticles when the radioactive particle
c o l l i d ew
s ith it.

l f t h e g a sc o n t a i n sa s a t u r a t e d
v a p o u r f o re x a m p l ea l c o h ovl a p o u r a, l c o h odl r o p l e t sw i l l
condensa e r o u n dt h e t r a i lo f p o s i t i v ei o n st o s h o wa v i s i b l et r a c k .

perspex

Saturated
vaDour

\ F e l ts o a k e dw i t h a l c o h o l

Metal base

Dry ice R a d i o a c t i vseo u r c e

sponge

T h ea p p a r a t ucso n s i s tos f a P e r s p ecxh a m b e w r i t h a s t r i po f f e l t a t t h e t o p t h a t h a sb e e n

soakedin a mixtureof alcoholand water.The.darkmetalbaseat the bottom is kept at a
temperaturo e f a b o u t- 5 0 ' Cb y d r y i c e .T h e r ei s a c o n t i n u o uds i f f u s i o no f a l c o h ovl a p o u r f r o m
' t h e t o p o f t h e c h a m b e tro t h e
bottom.

T h e r ew i l l b e a s u p e r s a t u r a t ev da p o u r a b o v e t h e c o l db a s e a , n dt h e r a d i o a c t i vseo u r c ew i l l
p r o d u c ev i s i b l et r a c k st o a n yo b s e r v elro o k i n gf r o m t h e t o p o f t h e c h a m b e r .
F o ra s o u r c ep r o d u c i n a g l p h ao n l y ,t h e r ea r es o m e t i m eds i f f e r e n lte n g t h so f t r a c k sd u e t o t h e
d i f f e r e n et n e r g i e os n e m i s s i o n .

233
 ( 3 ) T h e G E I G E R - V I u L lrrU
nBE:

l i r e A w h i c ha c t s
s t h i n c e n t r aw
T h i si n s t r u m e nits a l s or e f e r r e dt o a st h e G M t u b e .l t c o n t a i n a
a sa n a n o d ea n d i s i n s u l a t e fdr o m t h e s u r r o u n d i nMg E T A Lc y l i n d eC r w h i c ha c t sa st h e c a t h o d e .
The anodeA is kept at a potentialof about +400V relativeto the cathodewhichis earthed.

A r g o na n d
A n o d eA
Halogen

Protective
gauze To amplifier

Mica
cathode C
window

W h e na n a l p h ao r b e t ap a r t i c l ee n t e r st h e t u b e v i at h e m i c aw i n d o w ,e l e c t r o n as n d i o n sa r e
p r o d u c e dw h e nt h e i o n i z i n gp a r t i c l ek n o c k so f f e l e c t r o nfsr o m t h e g a sm o l e c u l e s .
T h i sn u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n as n d i o n sc a nb e i n c r e a s esdi g n i f i c a n tilfyt h e p o t e n t i a+l V o n t h e
a n o d e ,i s l a r g e rt h a nt h e b r e a k d o w n v o l t a g ei s t h e v o l t a g e
v o l t a g eo f t h e g a s .( t h eb r e a k d o w n
a t w h i c ht h e g a sb e g i n st o c o n d u c t .

T h ee l e c t r o n as r ea t t r a c t e dt o w a r d s t h eA N O D Ea n dt h e p o s i t i v ei o n sa r e a t t r a c t e dt o w a r d s t h e
CATH ODE.
T h e r ew o u l db e a p u l s ec u r r e n tp a s s i n tgh r o u g hR a n d h e n c et h e r ei s a p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
acrossR.
T h ep u l s ev o l t a g ei s a m p l i f i e da n d p a s s e dt o a n e l e c t r o n icco u n t e r .

234
 lmportantfeaturesof the GM tube:
( 1 ) W h y i s a r g o na n d h a l o g e nu s e d ?
T h ed i s c h a r goec c u r so n l y f o r a s h o r t t i m e ,a n d s e c o n d a reyl e c t r o nas r ee m i t t e db y t h e c a t h o d e
w h e nt h e p o s i t i v ei o n sa r r i v et h e r e .
T h i sw o u l dt h e n u p s e t h e r e c o r d i n o particles.
gf t h e i o n i z i n g
T h eg a si n t h e t u b e s h o u l dt h e r e f o r eb e a m i x t u r eo f a r g o na n d h a l o g e nw h o s em o l e c u l e s
a b s o r be n e r g yo f t h e p o s i t i v ei o n so n c o l l i s i o a
n n d h e n c et h e d i s c h a r gies q u i c k l yq u e n c h e d .

( 2 ) T h e a n o d ew i r e m u s t b e t h i n s o t h a t t h e c h a r g eo n i t c a n p r o d u c ea n e l e c t r i cf i e l d o f
v e r y h i g h I N T E N S I TaYs a l l o f t h e c h a r g ew o u l d n o w b e c o n c e n t r a t e idn a v e r y s m a l l
v o l u m eo f w i r e . l f t h e c h a r g e sw e r e d i s p e r s e d o v e r a l a r g e rv o l u m e ,t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d
i n t e n s i t ya r o u n dt h e w i r e w o u l dd e c r e a s e .
T h eh i g he l e c t r i cf i e l dw o u l dt h e n c a u s et h e e l e c t r o ni-o n p a i rt o b e a c c e l e r a t et d
o very
h i g he n e r g i e n s e a rt o t h e w i r e a n dw o u l dt h e r e f o r ec a u s et h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f m u c hm o r e
i o n p a i r sb y c o l l i s i o nws i t h g a sm o l e c u l e s

BACKGROUND
RADIATION

OF BACKGROUND
ORIGINS RADIATION:

( 1 ) T h e r ea r e i n t e r n asl o u r c e o s f r a d i o a c t i vneu c l i d e ss,u c ha s p o t a s s i u m

f l f w n i c hi s
p r e s e nitn t h e h u m a nb o d y .
( 2 ) G a m m ar a y sa n d r a d o ng a si n t h e a i r c o m ef r o m n a t u r a l l o yccurring radioactive
m a t e r i a lssu c ha s r a d i u mt,h o r i u ma n du r a n i u mi n t h e e a r t h ' sc r u s t .
( 3 ) G y p s u mw a l l se m i t r a d i a t i o n .
( 4 ) C o s m i cr a d i a t i o ni s m o s t l ya b s o r b e db y t h e a t m o s p h e r eb,u t a s m a l lp e r c e n t a gree a c h e s
t h eg r o u n d .
( 5 ) I n d u s t r i aslo u r c e s u c ha s n u c l e a p r o w e rp l a n t st e n d t o l e a ks o m er a d i a t i o ni n t ot h e
atmosphere.
( 6 ) N u c l e afra l l - o u tf r o m b o m bt e s t st e n d st o r e m a i ni n t h e a t m o s p h e rfeo r m a n yy e a r s .
( 7 ) L u m i n o ups a i n te m i t sr a d i a t i o n
( 8 ) T e l e v i s i osnc r e e n a s n d o t h e rc a t h o d er a yt u b e se m i t g a m m aa n dX r a d i a t i o n .

EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON LIVINGTISSUE:

W h e nc e l l sa b s o r br a d i a t i o ni o, n sa r ep r o d u c e w
d h i c ht h e ne i t h e rk i l l t h ec e l l so r c h a n g e
them
i n a n u n d e s i r a bw
l ea y .

W h e na l a r g ea m o u n to f c e l l sa r e d e s t r o y e dt h
, e o r g a n i s mm a yd i e .
T h e r ea r ea l s om a n yd e l a y e de f f e c t ss u c ha s c a n c e rl,e u k a e m i aa,n d h e r e d i t a rdy e f e c t sa n d
deformities.

235
 U S E F UALP P L I C A T I OO
NFSR A D I O I S O T O P E S :

(1) Tracers:
A t r a c e ri s t h e t e r m u s e df o r a p a r t i c u l acro m p o u n dt h a t c a nb e d e t e c t e da s i t m o v e s
t h r o u g ha l i v i n gb o d y
Radloisotopa e rse u s e f u al st r a c e r sb e c a u s a
e p a r tf r o m b e i n ge a s i l yd e t e c t e di n t h e
b o d y ,t h e y h a v et h e s a m ec h e m i c apl r o p e r t i eas st h e i r n o n - r a d i o a c t i vi seo t o p e s .
F o re x a m p l es,o d i u mh a sa r a d i o i s o t o poef l l N a a n dt h i si s a l s oa b l et o f o r m N a C .l
H e n c ei f a p a t i e n ti n g e s t s o m er e g u l a sr a l tt h a t h a s . as m a l la m o u n to f s o d i um - 2 4 ,a
Geiger-Mulle t ur b e c a nb e u s e do v e rt h e p a t i e n t ' sb o d yt o t r a c et h e p a t ho f t r a v e lo f t h e
s o d i u mc h l o r i d e .

( 2 ) D i a g n o s t ilcm a g i n g :
l f a p a t i e n ti n g e s t a
s c o m p o u n dt h a t c o n t a i n a
s s m a l la m o u n to f g a m m a -e m i t t i n g
r a d i o i s o t o p teh, e n w h b nt h e c o m p o u n dr e a c h e as p a r t i c u l aor r g a nf o r e x a m p l et h e l i v e r ,
t h e g a m m ar a y se m i t t e dc a nb e u s e dt o c o n s t r u cat n i m a g eo f t h e o r g a n w , i t h t h e a i do f
a g a m m ac a m e r a .

T h eg a m m ae m i t t e ri s c h o s e nb e c a u s e i t e s c a p efsr o m t h e b o d yw i t h o u tc a u s i n g
any
i o n i z a t i od
n a m a g eA. l s oa r a d i o i s o t o pwei t h a s h o r th a l fl i f ei s u s e ds o t h a t t h e i n t e n s i t y
r e a c h ea s v e r yi n s i g n i f i c a vnat l u ea f t e r2 4 h o u r s .

(3) CancerTreatment:
G a m m ar a d i a t i o ins u s e di n a h i g hi n t e n s i t by e a mt o k i l lc a n c ecr e l l s .
T h e ' g a m m raa y sh a v eh i g hp e n e t r a t i npgo w e r sa n d c a nb e u s e dt o t a r g e ta l o c a t i o n
i n s i d et h e b o d y ,u n l i k et h e c a s eo f a l p h aa n db e t ap a r t i c l ews h i c ha r es t o p p e db y t h e
s k i no f a p e r s o n .
P r e v i o u s lXy- r a y sw e r e u s e dt o k i l lc a n c e cr e l l sb u t X r a y m a c h i n eas l a r g ea n d
c u m b e r s o mteo u s e , a n dt h e y a l s or e q u i r ev e r yh i g hv o l t a g e tso o p e r a t e .

A g a m m as o u r c eo n t h e o t h e rh a n dc a nb e v e r ys m a l w
l i t h d i m e n s i oonf a f e Wc m ,a n d
d o e sn o t r e q u i r ea h i g hv o l t a g es o u r c e .

236
 TUTORIAL SHEET
( S o l u t i o nsst a r tf r o m p g 1 8 9 )

( 1 ) R a d i u m ( Rdae) c a y tso r a d o n( R n )b y t h e r e a c t i o n :
'33no--' ,|ZRn+
/He+ y
T h ea t o m i cm a s s e a s r e ;R a d i u
m 3 . 7 5 2 4x L O - 2 s kr ga ;d o n3 . 6 5 6x 1 0 - 2 s k hg e; l i u m0 . 0 6 7x
10 2skg.
P l a n c kc o n s t a n=t 6 . 6 3x 1 0 3 a i sa; n d s p e e do f l i g h ti n a v a c u u m= 3 x i - 0 8 m s - 1 .
(i) E s t i m a t teh e e n e r g yi n J o u l e sw h e na n a t o mo f 2 2 " $ ndae c a y s .
(ii) E s t i m a t teh e w a v e l e n g t oh f t h e g a m m ap h o t o ne m i t t e dd u r i n gt h i sd e c a yg, i v e n
t h a t 4 % o f t h e e n e r g yr e l e a s etdu r n st o g a m m ar a d i a t i o n .
( i i i ) w h a t h a p p e ntso t h e r e m a i n i n9g6 %o f t h e e n e r g y ?
( A n s: 2 . 6 4 6x l - 01 0 J; 1 . 9x 1 0 1 a mC ;
o n v e r t etdo K i n e t i ce n e r g yo f t h e p a r t i c l e s
a n da l s ot o h e a te n e r g y . )

( 2 ) A r a d i o a c t i vsea m p l eo f a n e l e m e n X t d e c a y st o a n o t h e re l e m e n Y t witha decay

c o n s t a not f
0 . 0 2 2h o u r s1 . .
(i) D e t e r m i nteh e h a l fl i f eo f X .
(ii) W h a tf r a c t i o no f t h e o r i g i n asl a m p l ew i l l r e m a i na f t e r4 . 5 h a l fl i v e s ?
( i i i ) W h a tf r a c t i o nw i l l r e m a i na f t e r1 _ d
4a y s ?
(Ans3 ; 1 . 5h o u r s 0; . 0 4 4 ; 6x 1 - 0 - 4 )

( 3 ) O n eo f t h e d a n g e r sa s s o c i a t ewdi t h n u c l e a pr o w e rp l a n t si s t h e l e a k a g o ef plutonium
w h i c hi s a b y - p r o d u c ti n t h e r e a c t o rl.t h a sa h a l fl i f eo f a p p r o x i m a t e 2l y. 4 x 1 - g a y e a rAs .
l e t h a dl o s eo f p l u t o n i u mi s 1 . 6 5 m g .
(i) D e t e r m i nteh e a m o u n to f p l u t o n i u m n u c l eiin a l e t h a dl o s ei f i t s r e l a t i v e
atomic
m a s si s 2 3 9 .
(ii) C a l c u l a tteh e d e c a yr a t eo f t h i sd o s e
( A n s: 4 . 1 6x 1 0 1 81;, . 2x l - 0 l 4 d i s i n t e g r a t i o
pne sry e a r )

. ( 4 ) A r a d i o a c t i vsea m p l et h a t i s u s e df o r m e d i c i n apl u r p o s e hs a st o b e p r e p a r e di n a
l a b o r a t o r yb e f o r ei t s i n t e n d e du s e .T h es a m p l eh a sa h a l fl i f eo f 9 6 . 7h o u r s .
(i) W f r a ts h o u l di t s i n i t i a a
l c t i v i t yb e i f t h e s a m p l em u s th a v ea n a c t i v i t yo f 6 . 6x
L 0 ' B q ,w h e n i t i s u s e d 3 0 h o u r sa f t e ri t h a sb e e np r e p a r e d ?
(ii) W h a tw i l l t h e a c t i v i t yo f t h e s a m p l ei n p a r t ( i ) b e 2 4 h r sa f t e ri t h a sb e e n
administered?
( A n s 8: . 1 8x 1 0 s B q5; . 5 6x t O e a q . )

237
( 5 ) A r a d i o a c t i vsea m p l ei n a l a b o r a t o r y h aas m a s so f 2 0 ga n da n a c t i v i t y o f2 . 3 5x
1 0 6 B q . T hsea m p l eh a sa r a d i o a c t i vies o t o p ew h o s en a t u r aal b u n d a n cies 2 t % a n dw h o s e
m a s sn u m b e ri s 1 4 8 . C a l c u l a t e :
(i) T h ed e c a Yc o n s t a n t
(ii) T h eh a l fl i f ei n Y e a r s
( i i i ) T h et i m e r e q u i r e df o r t h e a c t i v i t yt o f a l lt o 1 . 2x 1 0 3 B q .
16s1 I.6 x 1Osyea rs;t'75x l0eyears)
(Ans:1'.37x 10 ;

( 6 ) A t t h e s t a r to f a n e x p e r i m e n a e a t e r i a lcso n t a i n s2 0 p g o fa
t , m i x t u r eo f r a d i o a c t i vm
r a d i o i s o t o pAe w h i c hh a sa h a l fl i f eo f 9 0 s e c o n d as n d 3 2 0I E o f r a d i o i s o t o pBew h i c hh a s
a h a l fl i f eo f 3 0 s e c o n d s .
(i) A f t e rw h a t p e r i o do f t i m e w i l l t h e m i x t u r ec o n t a i ne q u a lm a s s e o sf each
isotope? W h a t i s t h e m a s so f e a c hi s o t o p ea t t h i st i m e ?
(ii) C a l c u l a tteh e r a t ea t w h i c ht h e a t o m so f i s o t o p eA a r ed e c a y i n w g h e nt h e
massesare the same,giventhat the molarmassof A 2209 = and Avogadro's
c o n s t a n=t 6 . 0 2x 1 0 " ) 4,
( A n s: 1 8 0s d c o n d ;s5 t t g; 1 . 0 5 x1 0 ' " B q )

( 7 ) At the startof an experiment, a mixtureof radioactive materialscontains160pgof a

r a d i o i s o t o pAe w h i c hh a sa h a l fl i f eo f 8 0 s e c o n d as n d 8 0 0 p go f r a d i o i s o t o pBew h i c h
h a sa h a l fl i f eo f 4 0 s e c o n d s .
( i ), A f t e rw h a t p e r i o do f t i m e w i l l t h e m i x t u r ec o n t a i ne q u a lm a s s e o
sf each
isotope? w h a t i s t h e m a s so f e a c hi s o t o p ea t t h i st i m e ?
(ii) C a l c u l a tteh e r a t ea t w h i c ht h e a t o m so f i s o t o p eA a r ed e c a y i n w g h e nt h e
m a s s ea s r et h e s a m e g , i v e nt h a t t h e m o l a rm a s so f A = L 4 0 ga n dA v o g a d r o ' s
constant=6.02x1-0")
; 32Vg;1'.rcx 101sBq)
(186seconds

w h a t i s m e a n tb y t h e h a l fl i f ea n dt h e d e c a yc o n s t a not f a r a d i o i s o t o p e .
( g ) ( a )E x p l a i n

A r a d i o a c t i veel e m e n X t h a sa h a l fl i f eo f 5 8 d a y s .l t i s u s e dm e d i c a l l iyn t h e d i a g n o s iosf

b l o o dd i s o r d e r sM. e a s u r e m e n a t sr ec o m p l i c a t ebdy t h e f a c tt h a t X i s e x c r e t e d, i . e .
r e m o v e df r o m t h e b o d ya t a r a t es u c ht h a t 8 7 d a y sa f t e ra d m i n i s t e r i nagd o s e ,h a l fo f
t h e X a t o m si n t h e d o s eh a v eb e e ne x c r e t e dT. h a ti s e q u i v a l e n t t os a y i n g t h a t Xh a sa
b i o l o g i c ahla l fl i f eo f 8 7 d a Y s .
(i) l f t h e c o u n tr a t ef r o m a b l o o ds a m p l ei s 1 4 0 0c o u n t sp e r m i n u t e ,w h a t w i l l i t b e
f r o m a s i m i l a rb l o o ds a m p l et a k e n1 7 4d a y sl a t e r ?
(ii) H o w ' o n ga f t e rt h e f i r s ts a m p l ew a st a k e nw o u l da f u r t h e rs i m i l a sr a m p l eg i v ea
couni rateof 1'2countsPerminute?
(Ans:44 countsPerminute;65 daYs.)

238
(9) T h er a d i o a c t i vneu c l i d e' 3 2 U i s p r e s e n itn s o m er o c k sa n d h a sa h a l fl i f eo f 4 . 5 x
lOeyears as it
decaysinto zf;lPb(lead)according to the nuclearequation,32u- 2fl$eb +
decay products
A s a m p l eo f r o c ki s f o u n dt o c o n t a i n4 g m go f 2llu ana32mgot zflfnn.

(i) C a l c u l a tteh e n u m b e ro f U r a n i u ma t o m si n t h e s a m p l e
(ii) c a l c u l a tteh e n u m b e ro f l e a da t o m si n t h e s a m p l e
(iii) Determine t h e i n i t i an
l u m b e ro f u r a n i u ma t o m si n t h e s a m p l ea t f o r m a t i o n
a s s u m i ntgh a t t h e r ew e r e n o i n i t i a l e a da t o m sp r e s e n t .
(iv) Determine t h e a g eo f t h e r o c k .
(Ans:1,.21, xL020;9.35 x 101e; 2.1,5x L020;3.73 x 10syr)

(1 0 ) I n r a d i o a c t i vdea t i n gt,h e r a d i o i s o t oep, 2 c i s u s e da s i t h a sa longhalf life of

5 5 7 0y e a r s l. n a l l l i v i n go r g a n i s mtsh e c o n c e n t r a tni oo f L [ c t o l f C i s 1 . 1 6: l - 0 1 2W. h e n
t h e o r g a n i s md i e st h e I [ c i s n o t r e p l e n i s h eadn d d e c a y st o t Z c .
l n a n a r c h a e o l o g i csaal m p l eo f b o n e ,t h e c o n c e n t r a tni oo f r / C t o r f C w a sf o u n dt o
be
3.4: 1,014
Determine t h e a g e . o tf h e b o n e .
( A n s :2 8 , 3 5 5y r )

239
 SOLUTIONS
WORKED

( 1 ) T h ed e c r e a s ien m a s sf r o m R a d i u mt o i t s o t h e rp r o d u c t si s g i v e nb y :
L m - t 0 - 2 sG . T S Z 4- [ 3 . 6 5 6+ 0 . 0 6 7 ] ): 0 . 0 2 9 4x 1 0 - 2 s k g
-
L E : L m c z : 0 . 0 2 9 4x 1 0 - 2 5x 9 x 1 0 1 6 2 . 6 4 6 x 1 0 - 1 0 /

EnergyduetoGammaradiationon|y=0.04x2.646x]-0-10=1.06x].0-1iJ

E -\,/ . t -ry-
nsi.ns
o'osx 19-34I ? x 1oB
E 1.06rro_rr::r.9x1o-14m

The 96%ofthe Energyis convertedinto heataswell as Kineticenergyof the emitted

particles.

(2)
InZ 0.693
(i) Tr - : 3l-.Shr
2 1 0.022

Use the equatton N : No wltere nrepresents the number of half ltves

"(;)"
t
i sg i v e nb y
n f t h e o r i g i n asla m p l e
( i i ) T hfer a c t i o o ( 1 ) - : 0 . 0 4 4.
#

(iii) F i r s tf i n dt h e n u m b e ro f h a l fl i v e si n 1 ' 4d a y s .
Numberof hoursin 3,4days= 1'4x24=336hr
336
Number of half ltves tn336 hr - - - L0.67Tt
31,5 z

(3)
H ence
#:(;)"" :6x L0-4

239 g contatn 6.02 x !\z3parti"cles

6.02 x 1,023
1g contai,ns
239
6 . 0 2x 1 0 2 3
1,.65m9contatn x 1 . 6 5x 1 0 - 3- 4 . t 6 x L 0 l 8 n u c l e i "
239
InZ 0 . 6 93
(tt)Acttvtty - )"N,where7 - ; A: x 4.16 x 1018
T, Z+ x tO-
2
= '1..2x l-o1adi,s/yr

240
(4) (i)Halflife= 96.7hr.
Aftera 30 hourperiod,the numberof halflivesisequalto
30
: 0.31half li.ves
g6t
(Jsing the equati"onA - o,
(:)" ,

t - B.1B
we setAo: 1l#-- x Los
Bq
11)
(ii) 24 hrsafterit trasbeenadm,r,r,!?/O meansthata totattimeof 54 hr woutd
h a v ee l a p s eadf t e rp r e p a r a t i o n .
54tv - Y
g6i
- 0.558half ti"ves
'-
/ 1 1 0 ' s s-sB . 1 B x /l\o'sse
A- or\il lorx(;,) = 5.56xtoeBq

( 5 ) l f t h e s a m p l eh a sa m a s so f 2 O ga n dt h e r a d i o a c t i vpea r t i s c o n t a i n e d
i n 2 L % o ft h e
.sample, then the mass of the radioactive isotope is 20x0.21,= 4.2g

T h em a s sn u m b e ro f t h e r a d i o i s o t o pies L 4 g 9
1,48g contains6.02x L023particles.
4 . 2 e w i l cl o n t a i n
6.02 x 1,023
x4.2 - 1.7Ix1,\zzparti"cles
MB

(i)Usi.ngtheequationA_trN';^_#-m_]-.37x1g-16,-1
(ii) The half tif e i.sgi"venby Tr - Y
";1
0 . 6 93
= - 5 x L0lsseconds - L.6x !\Byears
T57 x 1n-r6

241
 (iii) Useeither A - Ao(J)" or A : Aoe-At

u stns A - Ao()" , si"ves (})" where n is the no.of ttalf ltves

*:

I.Z x 103 /1\n L

: (;) ; n lni : ln(s'1x 10-a); n - 10'e4
*ffir-t
HenceLO.g4halflivesare requiredfor the activityto fall to the desiredcount
rate.
-
; 10.94half lives=10.94x1.6x \0Byears
Sincet half Iife= I.6 x 1.0Byears
1.75x 10syears.

(6) (i)

A B

20 + 10 90 sec 320+ 160 30sec After 180 secondstheYwill

both have5;rg

10+ 5 180sec 160+80 60sec

80 + 40 90sec

4- 20 1-20sec

20 10 150sec

10 +$ L8Osec

(ii)22Oghas6.02x1.023particles;5pgwitln^u"ffx5x].0-6-I.37x].016
particles.
- ' # x 1 , . 3 7 x 1 0 1 6: 1 . 0 5 x 1 0 1 4 B q
t y- ) . N: ' # x N
A c t i " u tA
t

242
(7) Usethe equationN = Noe-rt
si.ncema"ssis proporti.onal to N we canwrite m: rftse-At

The bothmasses are tlte same after the ttme t so that:

m:ffte€-trrt-Tftge-lzt

Hence 160e-Art - B00e-1zt

160
-:
800 ;h! - t(Ar- Ar):r(#-'#)
et(^r^z)

-1.61 : (-8.67 x 10-3)t

'J.86
t = seconds
The ma-ssx - 160 ,(#)186 - 3zttg
(ii) 1,409has6.02xL023atoms
32Vghas1.376x1,017 atoms
A = L N = X x 1 . 37 6 x 1 0 7 7- 1 . . 1 . 9
x 1,0rsBq

(8) 174 daysrepresents 3 half livesfor process(1) and two half livesfor process(2).
H e n c ei n a l l t h e s a m p l ew o u l dh a v eg o n et h r o u g h5 h a l fl i v e s .
lf initialactivityis 1400per minute,then after5 half lives,the activitywould be

A - 1400(+)"= 44 countsper mi"nute.

\2/
(iii) T h i sp a r ti sa b i t m o r ec o m p l i c a t eadn dr e q u i r etsh a ty o uf i n dt h e E F F E C T hI V
a lEf
lifefromthe bothprocesses.
For process(1')87days gives 1,.sTrwhi.tef or proces.s B,BTdays - LTt
HenceinBT days there are z.s EFFECTIVEhaIflives.
z

1 ef f ectivehatf ti"fe i.sequaltu Y - 34.Bdays

z.J

A - o,(;)" ; 12= 44(;)",^(#)-= n("I) ; n: rB7

usins
Hence1..87half liveswere neededto reachthe desiredactivity.
T h et i m e f o r t h i s i s e q u a lt o 1 , . 9 7
x 3 4 . g= 6 5 d a y s

243
( 9 ) ( i ) 2 3 8 g o f U r a n i u mc o n t a i n6 . 0 2x 1 0 2 3p a r t i c l e s

6.02 x L023
49mg wi"Ucontain x 48 x 10-3 : 1.2! x 1-\2oparticles
Zn

(ii) 206 gof leadcontain6.02x 1023particles

6.02 x !023
32mgwtttcontatnTx32x10_3:9.35x1019parti'cles
(iii) T o t a li n i t i a ln u m b e ro f U r a n i u mp a r t i c l eas t f o r m a t i o n=
1 , . 2 Lx L 0 2 0+ 9 . 3 5 x 1 0 1 e- 2 . 1 5 x 1 , \ z o p a r t i " c l e s .

(iv) T h en u m b e ro f ur r a n i u mp arrtric lC:esS0 de:creasedfrom 2 . 1 5x 1 0 2 0t u 1 . 2 1 x L o 2 0

H e n c ef i n dt h e nr u m b e ro f Ih1aar fllive:
i v ) S la sf o l l ;
r1'. ITn ^ ^r L \ '
N_ro[z t 2L1 x 1 0 20 '
1,.2 2 . I 5 x 1 0 2 0(,r2)
;l
)'
l''L . I2L. x 1 0 2 0 L
lr,
hn t - l=: = n I n 7
\ z . L Sx 1 0 2 )0I
n - 0 . 8 |3
,y,
s = 0 . 8 3 x4 ,. 5Xx 1 O e = 3 . 7x31 0 / o tars
T o t a ln u m b . , o f V . . rS

(1 0 ) Initial amount tn samPrc: #

Final amount in SamPIe:

#

trtn 3.4 L.I6 /L\'

u stng N - tr ; :
[Z,l 1gr+ to- \Z)

t'lrr=-nm1
,n
"'" ;n-s.I
L 0 0x L . L 6 /.

Total numberof years - 5.1x 5570: 29365yr

244
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THE END

245