IDENTITY AND SOCIAL FORMATION

SOCIETY

Society may be defined as the largest group to which all humans belong; in addition society is
also used to refer to people who share common historical background, culture and interests –
an example of this is the Caribbean society.

CULTURE

Culture is often seen as the values, beliefs and practices that members of a society hold in
common; therefore it is learned, shared and transmitted from one generation to the next,
through verbal and non-verbal methods.

It is important to know that culture often evolves over time and is also continuous. Caribbean
culture is considered to be the way of living/lifestyle that is common to people in or from the
region. It is learnt behaviours that are fostered by continuous interaction between and among
members of the Caribbean society.

RACE AND ETHNICITY

A race may be defined as a human population that is believed to be distinct in some way from
other human beings, based on real or imagined physical differences, such as skin colour or
facial characteristics.

An ethnic group is a human population that shares certain cultural traits, such as nationality,
religion, language and culture.

TYPES OF CULTURE

1. Material culture – this is culture that is concrete and tangible, that are produced and
used by the society, such as food, clothing and craft etc
2. Non-material culture – refers to all intangible components of a society, such a
languages, beliefs, ideas and values. Material culture is expressed in consistent actions.
3. High culture – this type of culture usually relates to the dominant group in the society
who has the most power and or status. This type of culture refers to the cultural
creations and expressions of the dominant group and it may influence public policy
related to variety of issues.
4. Folk culture – this term is usually used in reference to the culture of the
ordinary/common man. This type of culture is usually expressed in oral traditions such
as folk songs and stories that are passed on from one generation to the next.

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 5. Mass culture –this type of culture relates to concepts and expressions that are accepted,
understood and used by the masses, such as texting.
6. Popular culture – this is sometimes used as a synonym for mass culture; however, when
we speak of popular culture in the Caribbean music or football usually comes to mind.
7. Subculture – this term refers to groups of people in the society that have something in
common with each other that distinguishes them in a significant way from other groups
in the society, such as the Rastafarians.
8. Ideal culture – this refers to the values and standards of behavior that people in the
society holds in high esteem even if the majority of the population is not practicing it,
such as abstaining from sex until marriage.
9. Real culture – this refers to the values and standards that people follow in a society,
such as divorcing or pre-marriage pregnancy especially among teens.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY

The phrase 'Cultural Diversity' means a range of different societies or peoples with different
origins, religions and traditions all living and interacting together. Also, culture is very diverse,
because we may all have the same culture but we experience it differently. Additionally, the
way individuals in a society view culture is/maybe different from the way an outsider may view
their culture; therefore perception of the culture adds to its diversity.

Culture can be very diverse even within a particular society because there may be differences in
terms of ethnicity. Ethnicity refers to ties that bind people who see themselves as similar in
some way and who regularly interact. However, ethnic categories can overlap and even
contradict, for instance: individuals can be of the same race [negroid], but have different
cultural practices and beliefs. Cultural diversity in terms of race is known as ‘social race’, this is
because scientifically/biologically all races are the same, but they are distinguished only by
outside physical characteristics

CULTURAL PLURALISM

This refers to two or more ethnic groups who share the same space, but do not mix to a
significant degree.

• For instance the East Indians and the people of African descent
• Also, the Bush Negros and the rest of the population of Suriname

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POSITIVE EFFECTS OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY

1. Provides opportunity to enjoy variety of food, music and other cultural expressions
2. Even if a group decides to not participate in cultural expressions, the fact that it is within
the culture, it presents citizens with a variety of alternatives and experiences.
3. Create opportunity for national dialogue, as it allows the society to reflect on the norms
and values of others; for instance when certain schools would want to refuse
Rastafarian students unless their hair is cut or wrapped or refuse a Muslim student
wearing a hijab.
4. Cultural diversity helps to develop unity within a society, because with different groups
it helps the society to realize that everyone is important and there should be equality
and balance among all the ethnicities.
5. Creates opportunity for cultural mixing, so new forms can emerge, especially as it
relates to language, art and music etc.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY

1. Prejudices can emerge against a group[s], and this is perpetuated through socialization
within the family among friends and the wider society.
2. Differences between groups can sometimes appear so profound that myths and
misconceptions of the other race or ethnic group may be perceived as facts.
3. Ethnic hate may arise out of a feeling of ethnic superiority
4. Ethnic biases may be seen in political policies, the workplace, promotions and other
opportunities.
5. In a cultural diverse area there may be continued or perceived feelings of discrimination
or exploitation among one group by another group in the same society; this may lead to
social unrest.
6. Cultural diversity creates opportunity for the perpetuation of the ‘us and them’
syndrome, with one group believing that they belong and another group is an outsider;
this is especially if the group that think they belong are of the perception that they are
not getting a fair share of the ‘national pie’.

THE ‘US’ AND ‘THEM’ SYNDROME

A look at the history of the Caribbean will show the development of this syndrome:

(i) On the plantations European white planters did not mix with the Africans and the
Europeans stuck to their culture
(ii) The Africans were diverse in terms of tribes and also in terms of creole vs. African
born

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 (iii) After emancipation the Africans were hostile to immigrants; as the presence of
immigrants created competition for jobs and allowed for the lowering of wages
(iv) Eventually all groups wanted to ‘own’ or ‘belong’ to the society and thus create
‘identity’ that would boost their ‘status’ and ‘claim’ to the Caribbean.

Activity

1. How does socialization facilitate ‘the us and them syndrome’?

2. In the Caribbean who do you think is the ‘us’ and who do you think is ‘them’?

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

This is the ranking of social groups according to criteria deemed important in the society.
Therefore people in the society will be ranked based on if they have more or less [money,
power, prestige and religion etc.] of the criteria deemed important by the society. The criteria
are used to reflect levels of inferiority or superiority in society. Therefore status is an
individual’s rank/position in the social hierarchy.

During plantation society race and colour determined a person’s status. In contemporary
Caribbean society only certain groups participate in some religions [Shango or Pocamania],
read certain newspapers [The Star] or patronise certain activities [Jazz and Blues Festival].

TYPES OF STRATIFICATION

There are two types of stratification in societies; these are closed and open stratifications. In a
closed stratification society, there are clear demarcation boundaries, social status is strictly
defined and determines access to opportunities. In these types of societies social position is
ascribed from birth and there is no opportunity for social mobility.

For example the caste system in India expects people to interact and intermarry within their
caste. This system in effect distinguishes the social stratas in the society. Therefore in a caste
system ‘ascribed criteria’ determines your caste; thus you are born into it and cannot change.
During plantation society in the West Indies, status was based on a system of ‘institutionalized
racism’. Race and colour were the determining factors for everything; during plantation society,
you could look at someone and know what their station in life was and will continue to be.

In an open stratification society social position and status are achieved through one’s own
efforts and people can move up or down the social ladder based on improved or declining
economic standing. In an open stratification society membership to a particular class depends
to a certain extent on characteristics that the individual has control over.

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SOCIAL INEQUALITY

Social stratification is a form of institutionalized inequality and people of a certain race or

colour or with money, education, prestige and power act as gatekeepers…their role is to keep
other people from moving upward in society.

SOCIAL CLASS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

In the Caribbean social class is determined by achievements; that is the person’s ability to earn
what society values [wealth, status, and prestige]. Within the society inequalities persists as
there are unequal chances of achieving these rewards

Sociological Views

Karl Marx saw three social groups in society:

1. Bourgeoisie/capitalist: they owned the means of production. Their goal is to

make as much profit as possible at the expense of exploiting the workers
2. Proletariat: workers who sold their labour for minimum wages. Their salary is
nothing compared to the profits being made
3. Petite bourgeoisie: mainly farmers and small business owners

Max Weber disagrees with Marx; he thinks social class is based on power, prestige and class. He
explains that you can be poor and become a lawyer and thus gain access to wealth, or be a
politician and gain access to power. Weber does not accept Marx view of the proletariat; he
sees instead a middle class with different levels [upper and lower]. Weber also sees a new group
who had the benefit of higher education; he refers to them as the intelligentsia. According to
Weber, these groups may not own property, but they are not being exploited neither are they
powerless.

Marx saw the working class as mainly unskilled manual labourers, with no education or training
earning small wages. However Weber sees them as more than that; Weber sees the working
class/blue collar workers as more than that [skilled, semi-skilled, unskilled and unemployed]. He
points out that blue-collar workers sometimes earn even more than white collar workers, who
have a higher status. Weber acknowledges another group which he refers to as the underclass:
these are individuals on the lowest social stratum, some may be employed, but they live below
the poverty level.

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SOCIAL MOBILITY

This is the movement of individuals up or down the hierarchy; a means of advancing is through
meritocracy: however, in plantation society there was no avenue for meritocracy for the
enslaved Africans. In contemporary West Indian society there are many ways to advance one’s
self up the social ladder: [marriage, well-paying job, business, investment and inheritance].
Many contend that in today’s society education/skills training is the best way to socially
mobilize one’s self. This is because education helps you to get a good career and therefore your
occupation determines your social status. Though it appears that education is the key to social
mobility; most people of African descent are at the bottom; and more people of European of
mixed descent are at the top

Activity

1. Do you think the ‘meritocracy playing field’ is level?

2. Rank the following in terms of which you think will help you move up the social ladder
faster: education - well paid job - business - investment – inheritance – scamming.

HYBRIDISATION

This is the processes of cultural and ethnic mixing to produce new or ‘creole forms’. However,
hybridization in the Caribbean allows Caribbean people to equate colour to
superiority/inferiority. In this sense colour would supercede economic status; typically the
lighter toned group is at the top of the social ladder; this is referred to as pigmentocracy.
Pigmentocracy is a situation where persons of fairer complexion have more prestige and power
in society than others.

Some countries such as Jamaica have two majority races to create their hybrid [people of
African and those of European or American descent]. Other Caribbean societies have more
races to create their hybrid: African, European, East Indian, Amerindian, Chinese etc. … these
make varieties and combinations innumerable. Miscegenation refers to sexual unions between
persons of different races, resulting in a mixed race.

Examples of racial hybrids

1. Mestizos: this is the mix of Europeans and Amerindians [among Europeans all
mixed Caribbean groups are called ‘mestizos’. For instance Euro-Amerindian
mestizo, Afro-European mestizo etc. maroons helped to create the Afro-
Ameridian mestizo ]
2. Mulattoes: mix of enslaved Africans and Europeans
3. Dougla: East Indian and African

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 4. Sambo: mix of mulatto and person of African descent
5. Quadroon: mix of mulatto and person of European descent
6. Octoroon: mix of a quadroon and a person of European descent

Activity

1. Do you think in today’s society, colour is an important factor in determining life

choices/chances [marriage or job etc] or friendships; or even access to certain places

CULTURAL HYBRIDISATION

This is the development of cultural forms out of existing ones, through a period of contact and
interaction. If this cultural hybridization occurs in the context of European colonization of the
Caribbean, it is known as creolisation. Therefore in the Caribbean context creolisation and
cultural hybridization are the same things.

Examples of Religious Hybrids in the Caribbean

The religious hybrids may sometimes have more of one religion than the other:

• Myal: this is a syncretism/hybridization of Christian elements and the blending of

African world views; this religion is present in Jamaica
• Shooter Baptist: this is a syncretism/hybridization of Baptists from the U.S.A and
African belief systems; this religion is present in Trinidad
• These religious hybrids in the Caribbean use a lot of drumming, chanting,
shouting and dancing; music is very essential to these hybrids
• There are other hybrids /religious syncretism in the Caribbean, for instance:
(i) Winti of Suriname
(ii) Orisha of Trinidad
(iii) Vodun of Haiti
(iv) Santeria in Cuba: hybridization of Yoruba and the Catholic faiths

Language Hybridisation

Caribbean language hybrids are known as creole/patois; the base/lexicon of these is derived
from colonizers. For instance the base/lexicon of Jamaica’s patois is English and the
base/lexicon for St. Lucia is French. Haitian creole has more African [Ewe] in it than other
former or current French colonies; this is because they got their independence earlier.

Currently people are trying to standardize Jamaican creole and it is used in the mainstream
media etc. as part of the discourse. However, creole has different levels:

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 (i) Basilect: this is when the creole has little similarity with the standard language
(ii) Mesolect: this is when the creole is in the ‘middle ground’ and a lot of people who
speak creole are at this level
(iii) Acrolect: this level is very similar or close to the standard language

Activity: ‘Are hybrid languages inferior to the standard language in today’s Caribbean society’.
Give reason for your response.

THE CREOLE SOCIETY

In general terms the term creole means ‘something born or created in/at – [the Caribbean for
instance]. Across the Caribbean the term is sometimes used to mean different things; for
instance in Trinidad and Tobago creole is used to describe persons of African descent. However,
the term French Creole is used in the same territory to mean descendants of French settlers
who came to Trinidad in the late 18th century. Paradoxically in contemporary Trinidadian
society descendants of East Indian or Chinese migrants are not referred to as creole.

Creolisation is an evolutionary process of change and adaptation that takes place in the way of
life or culture of a particular society or region. In the Caribbean society and culture creolisation
is represented by the mixtures of languages, religious rituals, musical expressions and cuisine.
The following are terms associated with creolisation:

1. Cultural Erasure-This implies the discontinuation or decline of various cultural practices.

This concept raises the question, if it is possible for a culture to be erased considering
hybridisation’ and the concept of ‘non-material culture’. For instance the Amerindians
are completely out of Jamaica, but there culture still exists. Therefore a more accurate
definition for cultural erasure maybe the large scale neglect or minimising of cultural
practices. In contemporary Caribbean society globalization is responsible for the erasure
of aspects of the culture; in its place are the values, attitudes and lifestyles of
metropolitan cultures. Caribbean children want to play video games instead of ‘sight
and sight’ or play basketball instead of cricket.
2. Cultural Retention - These are practices that have survived even when most other forms
and symbols of a culture are no longer evident
3. Cultural Renewal - This is when a group goes through conscious rejuvenation process
and returns to some elements of its culture, which it believes have been ignored or
suppressed. For instance the influence of Garveyism, apartheid [South Africa], civil wars
for independence[Angola] and the Black Power Movement [U.S.A] on Caribbean people
of African descent; these events encourages people of African descent to salvage
aspects of the African culture that has been dormant.

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 4. Enculturation - This is the process of socialization where a person becomes part of
another’s culture. Becoming part of the other culture does not mean that you forget
your culture; your culture can still exist even in your memory, if you are not allowed to
practice it
5. Assimilation - This occurs when a dominant group encultrate another culture and make
it over in the image of the dominant group. The French are best known for doing this;
when they colonise areas, they are determined to culturally convert the people and
make them French. By doing this the other culture is ignored and suppressed
6. Transculturation - This is a process where culture changes drastically; it overcomes itself
and translates into something else. The change may be caused by a revolution; for
instance in Cuba and Haiti. In these territories, after the revolution the former enslaved
Africans were opposed to doing manual agricultural labour and they also refused to see
themselves as second class citizens. The Africans who were enslaved were force to
transculturate; they were removed from their African culture to the hybrid Caribbean
culture. Some Africans were opposed to this process and they became maroons/bush
negroes
7. Interculturation - This is the mixing of cultures and it occurs between/among groups
who share a space; this mixing could occur on a small or large scale. This process does
not require groups to give up their individual cultures; instead they are expected to
periodically participate in each other’s way of life. Even in plural societies
interculturation occurs. For instance in Trinidad, the East Indians and people of African
descent appreciate each other’s food and festivals; both groups celebrate Christmas.

EXTERNAL INFLUENCE ON CULTURE AND SOCIALISATION

In the contemporary Caribbean there seems to be a lack of identification with the Caribbean
culture especially among the young. Young people are influenced by a strong and constant flow
of cultural expressions from overseas that they lose interest in their own culture. As a result the
local culture is seen as antiquated and non-fulfilling.

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