Christ Academy

Hullahalli, Begur Koppa Road, Sakkelwara post, Bangalore-83

PROJECT REPORT

PHYSICS

Submitted for the

CBSE XII Practical Examination 2023-24

By …………………………………………………………………..

XII CBSE ROLL NO.

 CERTIFIED THAT THIS IS A BONAFIDE RECORD OF WORK DONE
AS PROJECT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS BY

_____________________________________

in Christ Academy, Bangalore

Roll No:
Date:

Teacher-in-charge Head of Dept Examiner

 INDEX

Serial No. Contents Page

number
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

On the completion of my investigatory project on the verification of Logic gates, I would

like to thank my teacher, Ms. Sreeja Vijay, for her consent, guidance, and constant
motivation for the completion of this project.

I would also like to thank Ms. Betsy Denzil, our coordinator for her valuable help and
advice. I would also like to extend my gratitude towards my parents and friends whose
constructive criticism and encouragement helped in the project’s completion.

Lastly, I would like to thank the Principal, Rv. Dr. Fr. Joice, Vice Principal, Rv. Fr. Lebin
Davis and Central Board for Secondary Education for giving me this opportunity to conduct
this experiment
 INTRODUCTION

LOGIC GATES:
A logic gate is a simple switching circuit that determines whether an input pulse can
pass through to the output in digital circuits.
The building blocks of a digital circuit are logic gates, which execute numerous logical
operations that are required by any digital circuit. These can take two or more inputs but only
produce one output.
The mix of inputs applied across a logic gate determines its output. Logic gates use
Boolean algebra to execute logical processes. Logic gates are found in nearly every digital
gadget we use on a regular basis. Logic gates are used in the architecture of our telephones,
laptops, tablets, and memory devices.

TRUTH TABLE:
A truth table is a tabular representation of all the combinations of values for inputs and their
corresponding outputs. It is a mathematical table that shows all possible outcomes that would
occur from all possible scenarios that are considered factual, hence the name. Truth tables are
usually used for logic problems as in Boolean algebra and electronic circuits.
A truth table shows the results of a logical expression, with individual columns for each
involved variable, and a column for their corresponding outcomes. All variations of the
inputs or arguments are listed to the left, while the output is usually placed in the last
columns to the right.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:
Boolean algebra is a division of mathematics that deals with operations on logical values
and incorporates binary variables. Boolean algebra traces its origins to an 1854 book by
mathematician George Boole.

The distinguishing factor of Boolean algebra is that it deals only with the study of binary
variables. Most commonly Boolean variables are presented with the possible values of 1
("true") or 0 ("false"). Variables can also have more complex interpretations, such as in set
theory. Boolean algebra is also known as binary algebra.

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS:
They are logical statements followed by logical gates. A Boolean expression always produces a Boolean
value. A Boolean expression is composed of a combination of the Boolean constants (True or False),
Boolean variables and logical connectives. Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean function.

UNDERSTANDING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:

Boolean algebra is different from elementary algebra as the latter deals with numerical
operations and the former deals with logical operations. Elementary algebra is expressed
using basic mathematical functions, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, whereas Boolean algebra deals with conjunction, disjunction, and negation.

The concept of Boolean algebra was first introduced by George Boole in his book "The
Mathematical Analysis of Logic," and further expanded upon in his book "An Investigation
of the Laws of Thought." Since its concept has been detailed, Boolean algebra's primary use
has been in computer programming languages. Its mathematical purposes are used in set
theory and statistics.

BOOLEAN VARIABLE:
A Boolean variable is defined as a variable or a symbol defined as a variable or a symbol,
generally an alphabet that represents the logical quantities such as 0 or 1.

LITERAL & COMPLEMENT: A literal may be a variable or a

complement of a variable. The complement is defined as the inverse of a variable,
represented by a bar over the variable.
 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
Any Boolean operation can be associated with the input and output, which represents the
statement of Boolean algebra. Although these circuits maybe complex it can be constructed
from three basic devices:

1.P-N Junction Diode

2.RESISTOR

3.N-P-N TRANSISTOR
 LOGIC STATEMENTS

1 0

HIGH LOW

CONDUCTING NON-CONDUCTING

TRUE FALSE

RIGHT LEFT

CLOSE OPEN

YES NO

ON OFF

POSITIVE NEGATIVE

BASIC LOGIC GATES

OR AND NOT
 THE OR GATE

AIM:
To design and simulate the OR circuit
COMPONENTS:

PRINCIPLE:
The OR gates work on the simple fundamental logic of addition. If both the input
given are high then the output is high, else if both are low the input is low. If
either one of the inputs is high the result will be high.

THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:

An OR gate can be realised by electronic circuit making use of two diodes D1 and D2

Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds to 0 level, and the
positive terminal of the battery corresponds to level
1.The output Y is voltage at C with respect to earth.
The following conclusion can be drawn from the above circuit:
• If the switch A and B are kept open (A=1, B=0), then bulb
does not glow, hence Y=0
• If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0),
then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
• If switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1),
then bulb does not glow hence Y=0
• If switch A and B both are kept closed (A=1, B=1), then bulb
glows, hence Y=1

TRUTH TABLE:

Input A Input B Output

 THE AND GATE

AIM:
To design and simulate an AND gate
COMPONENTS:

PRINCIPLE:
AND gate works on the fundamental principle of multiplication. It gives the output as high
only if both the input given are high and the output is low in all the other cases.

THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:

An AND gate can be realized by the electronic circuit, making use of two diodes D1 and D2.
The resistance R is connected to the positive terminal of 5V battery permanently.

Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds to the 0 level, and the
positive terminal of the battery corresponds to the level 1. The output Y is the voltage at C
with respect to earth.
The following conclusion can be easily drawn from the working of this circuit:
• If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0), then bulb
does not glow, hence Y=0.
• If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0),
then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.
• If switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1),
then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.
• If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1), then bulb
glows, hence Y=1.
TRUTH TABLE:

Input A Input B Output

 THE NOT GATE

AIM:
To design and simulate the not gate circuit.
COMPONENTS:

PRINCIPLE:
It is a complementary gate. It reverses the input, i.e., produces high output I input is low and
produces low output if input is high.
THEROY AND CONSTRUCTION:
A NOT gate cannot be realised by using diodes. However, an electronic circuit of NOT gate
can be realized by making a n-p-n transistor.
The base of the transistor is connected to input A through a resistance Rb and the emitter is
earthed. The collector is connected to a 5V battery. The output Y is voltage at C with respect
to earth.

The following inference can be easily drawn from the working of circuit:
• If the switch A is kept open (A=0) then bulb glows, hence
Y=1
• If the switch A is kept closed (A=1) then bulb does not glow,
hence Y=0
TRUTH TABLE:

Input A Input B Output

 THE NOR GATE

AIM:
To design and stimulate the nor gate circuit.
COMPONENT:

PRINCIPLE:
The NOR gate works in the reverse way of OR gate. So, if the all the inputs given are high
then the output will be low, if either of the input is low then the output will be low and else if
both the inputs will be low then the output produced will be high.
THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:
If we connect the output Y’ of OR gate to the input of a NOT gate, then the gate obtained is
the NOR gate. The output Y is voltage at C with respect to earth.

In Boolean expression, the NOR gate is such

The following inference can be easily drawn from the working electrical circuit:
• If the switch A and B is kept open (A=0, B=0) then bulb glows, hence Y=1.
• If the switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0) then the bulb glows,
Hence Y=0.
• If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1) then the bulb does not
glow, hence Y=0.
• If the both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1) then bulb does not glow, hence
Y=0.
TRUTH TABLE:

Input A Input B Output

 THE NAND GATE

AIM:
To design and stimulate the NAND gate circuit.
COMPONENTS:

PRINCIPLE:
It works in the reverse way of that of AND gate, i.e., it produces high output when both the
inputs given are low, it produces low output when both the output given are high and if either
of the output is low the output is high.
THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:
If we connect the output Y’ of the AND gate to the input of a NOT gate then the gate
obtained is the NAND gate. The output Y is voltage at C with respect to earth.
In Boolean expression, the NAND gate is expressed as:

The following inference can be easily drawn from the working of circuit:

• If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=0, B=)) then bulb
glows, hence Y=1.
• If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1),
then bulb glows, hence Y=1
• If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0),
then bulb glows, hence Y=1
• If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1) then bulb
does not glow, hence Y=0.

TRUTH TABLE:

Input A Input B Output

 THE EX-OR GATE

AIM:
To design and stimulate the EX-OR gate circuit.
COMPONENTS:
1) Two AND gates
2) An OR gate
3) Two NOT gate
PRINCIPLE:
The EX-OR gate produces high output when only one of the input given is high and low
output when both the outputs given are either high or low.
THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION:
The operation EX-OR checks for the exclusivity in the value of the two signals A and B. It
means if A and B are not identical, the output Y=1, and if both are identical, then output Y=0.
This operation is also called exclusive OR gate, designated EX-OR.

In Boolean expression, the EX-OR gate is expressed as:

The following inference can be easily drawn from the working of electric circuit:
 • If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0) then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0
• If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1) then bulb glows, hence
Y=1
• If the switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0) then the bulb will glow,
hence Y=1
• If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1) then bulb will not glow, hence Y=0

TRUTH TABLE:

Input A Input B Output

 THE EX-OR GATE

AIM:
To design and stimulate the EX-NOR gate circuit.
COMPONENTS:
1)Two AND gates
2)And OR gate
3)Three NOT gates
PRINCIPLE:
The EX-OR gate produces high output when both the inputs are either high or low. It
produces low output when either one of the inputs given is high and the other one is low.
THEORY AND COMPONENTS:
The operation EX-NOR checks for the exclusively in the value of two signals A and B. It
means if A and B are not identical, the output Y=0, and if both are identical, then the output
Y=1. This operation is also called exclusively NOR gate, designed EX-NOR

In Boolean expression, the EX-NOR gate is expressed as

The following inference can be easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit:
• If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0) then bulb glows, hence Y=1
• If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1) then bulb does not glow,
hence Y=0
• If the switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0) then the bulb does not
glow, hence Y=0
• If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1) then bulb will glow, hence Y=1
TRUTH TABLE:

Input A Input B Output

 DE MORGAN’S LAW

De Morgan’s Law is a collection of Boolean algebra transformation rules that are used
to connect the intersection and union of sets using complements. De Morgan’s Law states
that two conditions must be met. These conditions are typically used to simplify complex
expressions. This makes performing calculations and solving complicated Boolean
expressions easier.
FIRST THEOREM:
De Morgan’s First theorem proves that when two (or more) input variables are AND ’ed and
negated, they are equivalent to the OR of the complements of the individual variables. Thus,
the equivalent of the NAND function will be a negative-OR function, proving
that A.B = A+B. We can show this operation using the following table.

VERIFICATION:

CIRCUITS:
SECOND THEOREM:
De Morgan’s Second theorem proves that when two (or more) input variables are OR’ ed and
negated, they are equivalent to the AND of the complements of the individual variables.
Thus, the equivalent of the NOR function is a negative-AND function proving
that A+B = A.B, and again we can show operation this using the following truth table.

VERIFICATION:

CIRCUITS:
De Morgan’s Equivalent Gates
We have seen here that by using De Morgan’s Theorems we can replace all of the AND (.)
operators with an OR (+) and vice versa, and then complements each of the terms or
variables in the expression by inverting it, that is 0’s to 1’s and 1’s to 0’s before inverting the
entire function.
Thus, to obtain the De Morgan equivalent for an AND, NAND, OR or NOR gate, we simply
add inverters (NOT-gates) to all inputs and outputs and change an AND symbol to
an OR symbol or change an OR symbol to an AND symbol as shown in the following table.
Then we have seen in this tutorial about De Morgan’s Theorem that the complement of two
(or more) AND ‘ed input variables is equivalent to the OR of the complements of these
variables, and that the complement of two (or more) OR’ ed variables is equivalent to
the AND of the complements of the variables as defined by De Morgan.
 CONCLUSION

The logic gates are used to develop many IC circuits or microchips in today’s modern world.
NAND gate and NOR gate are known as universal gates because we can construct all three
basic gates using NAND and NOR gates.

1. Logic gates may be combined in a variety of ways, and a million of these

combinations are necessary to make the newest gadgets, satellites, and even robots.
2. Simple logic gate combinations can also be found in burglar alarms, buzzers,
switches, and street lights. Because these gates can make a choice to start or stop
based on logic, they are often used in a variety of sectors.
3. Logic gates are also important in data transport, calculation, and data processing.
Even transistor-transistor logic and CMOS circuitry make extensive use of logic
gates.
 BIBLIOGRPAHY

1) www.wikepdia.org
2) www.geeksforgeeks.com
3) www.tutorialpoint.com
4) Logic gates- by Arun Mahiro