Class notes:

https://imgur.com/a/tcPBWja

Orbitals:

S-orbital can hold only 2 electrons.  Metals.

P-orbital can hold 6 electons.  Non-metals, a few metals, and non-metals.
D-orbital can hold 10 electrons.  Transition Metals
F-orbital can hold 14 electrons.  Inner transition metals.
G-orbital can hold __ electrons(unknown).

We will use only SPDF orbitals.

S and P are "representative elements".

Modern Periodic Law:

"The properties of the elements are a
periodic function of their atomic numbers."
Periodicity: "The repetition of elements with similar
properties after certain regular intervals, when
these elements are arranged in order of atomic
number."

Periods and Groups:

18 groups and 7 periods.
 2 groups in the S block, 6 in the P block, 10 in the D block.
There are 2 elements in the first period, 8 in the 2nd and 3rd
elements, 18 in the 4th and 5th, and 32 elemtns in the 6th and 7th
periods.

Cause of Periodicity:
Periodicity is due to the repitition of electronic configuration in the
valence shell of the elements in the same group leads to similar
chemical characterics which slowwly changes across time.
The valence shell in a group of a normal element(Group 1, 2, 13 to 17
have the same number of electrons in their outermost shells(valence
shells).

Electron Organization:
Electrons enter into different orbitals based on their energy(in their
increase in order of energy) according to the image below

It is written as n(Orbital)^number of electrons in the orbital.

For example, in hydrogen, the electronic configuration is 1s^1, where 1
is the shell, S is the shell, and 1 is the number of electrons in the
orbital.
Shells:

Shells are the units within where electrons reside in their orbitals.
It fills in from the inside-outwards.
The energy of a shell is determined by 2n^2, where n is the integer of the
shell, with the innermost being 1. They are also called K, L, M, N and so on.

Electronic Config of First 20 elements

according to orbital form:
H 1s^1
He ⟶ 1s^2
Li ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2
Be ⟶ 1s^22s^2
B 1s^2 2s^2 2p^1
C 1s^2 2s^2 2p^2
N 1s^2 2s^2 2p^3
O 1s^2 2s^2 2p^4
F 1s^2 2s^2 2p^5
Ne ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6
Na ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1
Mg ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2
Al ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^1
Si⟶1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^2
P 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^3
S 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^4
Cl ⟶1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^5
Ar ⟶1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6
K 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^1
Ca ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2

Variable valencies occur since a fully filled or higher number of electrons in

the final orbital is more stable, hence, the penultimate shell can have a non-
fully filled orbital.
provides examples.

In case of D-block elements, we will need to correct the penultimate orbital

and transfer an electron to the other orbital.

Reactions

S-bloock + P-block has an electrovalent bond.

P-block + P-bloc has a covalent bond.
D-block + P-bloc has a coordination bond.
F-block + P-block has an electrovalent bond.

Pi-Bond:
Orbital Overlap along the axis makes a pi-bond.

How does periodicity relate to electronic

configuration:
The periodicity is related to the similarity of electronic configuration, and in
a group, the final orbital is the same.
 Hydrogen has no definite place on the periodic table, as it has a dual
nature of both alkali metals and halogens.

The representative elements are elements where the s and p orbitals are
filling.
They are also called main group elements.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Kentucky/UK%3A_Genera
l_Chemistry/18%3A_Representative_Metals_Metalloids_and_Nonmetals/18.0
1%3A_Periodicity#:~:text=The%20representative%20elements%20are%20el
ements,the%20f%20orbitals%20are%20filling.

Group 1  Alkali Metals

Group 2  Alkali Earth Metals
Group 3 to 12  Transition Elements
Group 16  Chalcogens(Ore-related)
Group 17  Halogens

Structures of Orbitals

 Spherical
 Dumbell
Periodic trends
 Atomic Radii
 Electron Enthalpy [Also known as Electron Affinity]
 Electronegetivity
 Ionization Enthalpy [I. E
 Metallic and Non-Metallic Character
https://ptable.com/#Properties

General factors:

The two main conditions regarding all periodic properties are:

Atomic Radius
Number of Shells
Nuclear Charge

Atomic Radius:

Definition: The atomic radius is the distance between the centre of the
nucleus and the valence shell/outermost electron.

Types of atomic radius:

Definition of ionic radii - Distance between nuclear and outermost
electron upto where the nucleus has the influence on the valence electron.

Example:

NaCl
Na will reduce in size due to the formation of a cation, because of the
loss of an electron from the valence shell.
Cl will increase in size due to the formation of an anion, because of
the gain of an electron to the valence shell.

Covalent Radius - One half of the distance between the nuclei of two
atoms.
 For metals - Covalent radius is known as metallic radius.

Metallic radius is applicable in a matallic lattice/crystal, and it is one half of

the distance between the nucleus of two metallic atoms or ions.

Therefore, covalent radius is for non-metals, and metallic radius for metals.

Two molecules placed adjecent to each other will exhibit Wan Der
Waal's bond, and the Wan Der Waal's radius is half the distance between
two adjecent atoms belonging to the two nearest neighbouring molecules
of the same substances.
See Supplement - CFAL Chem 1 for more detail.

Analysis of variation in atomic size:

 Down the group:
H 1s^1
Li ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2
Na ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1
K 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^1

Atomic Radius Increases - Due to the fact that electrons are added to
new shells/orbitals, causing an increase in the radius,
Therefore, distance increases, so although the nuclear charge
increases, the Z(eff)[Effective Nuclear Charge] decreases, causing an
increase down a group.

Across a period:

 Number of Shells: The number of shells does not increase, hence does
not affect the atomic radii across a period.
 Nuclear Charge: An increase in nuclear charge causes a decrease in
the atomic radii, as increased attraction of the valence electrons
causes a reduction in the atomic radii of the atom.
Exception - Group 18 elements do not follow this periodicity, because
they have a fully filled outer valence shell, hence, the repulsion of the
shell from the penultimate shell causes an expansion, hence, they
have a larger atomic radii.

Electrons are added from the lowest energy orbital to the highest energy
orbitals.

Screening effect/shielding effect is a blocking effect from the nucleus to

the electron. It is the lessening of the interaction of the outer electrons with
the nucleus due to the electrons within.
This provides something known as the effective nuclear charge, calculated
by Z S, where S is the screening effect, and Z is the atomic number.
Therefore, the reduction in size across a period happens due to the
increase of Z(eff).

Screening effect is maximum for S-block, and least for F-block, in the order
SPDF.

Calculating Z(eff):

Take the atomic number and subtract it by the number of shielding

electrons(the electrons before the electron in consideration)

Extra detail.
Any hydroxide and most oxides will be a base.

Two acid-base theories:

Arrenhius Theory- Any compound, when dissolved in water, which

produces H, is an acid, and any which produces OH, is a base.
Lowry-Bronsted: A compound that donates H is an acid, and the one
that receives H is a base.
Lewis: The one which donates electrons is the base and the one
which receives is the acid.
Lux-flood theory: Base donates oxygen and acid gains oxygen.

Study of the Groups:

S-block:

Group 1

Basic
Soft
Metallic
Good conductors
Known as alkali earth metals.

Group 2

Oxides are observed in the earth's crust.

It is commonly known as alkali earth metals.
Axial overlap between two S-blocks forms a sigma bond. This occurs when
two atoms interact in order to form a bond. The shells intersect end-to-end
to form a sigma bond. Occurs in Px and S systems.

Pi-bond is between the Py alignment, where they overlap sideways

producing a Pi-Bond. Sigma bond is stronger. Pz also applies in this case.

Ionization Energy(Enthalpy or Potential):

Minimum amount of energy required to remove valence electrons from
an isolated gaseous atom.

Ionization energy, and first ionization energy, are interchangable.

Second ionization energy is the amount of energy to remove the
penultimate electron.
 This is because Z(eff) increases and size decreases.

Variation of Ionization Energy in the Periodic Table:

Down the group:

Size increases.
Electrons are added to different shells.
Z(eff) decreases.
Therefore, Ionization potential decreases.
Along the period:
Size decreases.
Electrons are added to same shells.
Z(eff) increases.
Ionizational potential increases.

Case Study:
Comparision of IE between Be and B  Along the period.
According to the general statement, Boron should have a higher IE
compared to Beryllium.
Be ⟶ 4 1s^2 2s^2
B 5 1s^2 2s^2 2p^1

However, IE of B is less than that of Be.

This is due to:

Outer P e- in Boron is perfectly shielded by S e-.

In B Removal of P-electron (which is easy with respect to that of
S.
Be ⟶ Removal of electron from completely filled orbital is difficult.

Comparision between Nitrogen and Oxygen - Along the Period.

According to GS, Oxygen should have higher IE, however, in reality, N has a
higher IE.
This is due to the fact that N has a half-filled P electron, which provides
difficulty in removing the electron from the shell.

N 7 1s^2 2s^2 2p^3.

O 8 1s^2 2s^2 2p^4.

Manganese IE
Mn ⟶ 25 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2 3d^5
1st IE High(since the outermost is a fully filled S-shell(4s)).
2nd IE Less ⟶ e- from 4s shell.
3rd IE High ⟶ Due to the half-filled D orbital.
4th IE Low
7th ⟶ High

Zinc IE
Zn ⟶ 30
1 Oxidation - High
2  Low
3  High
4  Low

Exceptions:
Noble Gases:
Have high IE due to the main driver for reaction being not present, and
having filled P orbitals.

Electronegativity
It is the capacity of an atom to attract pairs of e-s towards itself.

Variation of EN in Periodic Table

Down the Group:

Size increases.
Electrons are added to different energy levels.
Electronegativity decreases.
Along the period:
Size decreases.
Electrons are added to the same energy levels.
Electronegativity increases.

Fluorine is the most electronegative element(due to the smallest size.)

 Electronegativity of Noble Gases:

The electronegativity is zero.

However, we can forcefully add one more electron.

Electron Gair Enthalpy

When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom to convert it into

a negative ion, the enthalpy change accompanying the process is
called electron gain enthalpy.
Unit is KJ/mol.
It is the application of Electronegativity.
Exothermic.
Can be negative or positive.

Variation of Electron Gain Enthalpy:

Down the group:

Size increases.
Electronegativity decreases.
Electrons are added in different shells.
Electron Gain Enthalpy decreases.
Along the period:
Size decreases.
Electronegativity increases.
Electron Gain Enthalpy increases.

Chlorine has the highest Electron Gain Enthalpy(Eeg).

Fluorine has the highest electronegativity.

Values of Electron Gain Enthalpy for Halogens:

F 328 KJ/mol
Cl ⟶ -349 KJ/mol
Br ⟶ -325 KJ/mol
I 295 KJ/mol
At ⟶ -270 KJ/mol

Values of Electron Gain Enthalpy for Noble Gases:

He ⟶ 48
Ne ⟶ 116
 Ar ⟶ 96
Kr ⟶ 96
Xe ⟶ 77
Rn ⟶ 68
The noble gases show positive E(eg) because energy has to be
used(i.e. it is endothermic), in order to insert an electron into an atom.

Electropositivity and Electronegativity.

1st, 2nd and D-block show electropositivity, i.e. they donate electrons.
14, 15, 16, and 17 Group show electronegativity, i.e. they receive
electrons.
18 Group produces positive EN and Eeg, and is endothermic.
In electropositivity, electrons are released.
G1 elements ⟶ +1
G2 2
Along the period, it decreases, and down the group, it increases.

Comparision.

Metallic character decreases, non-metallic character increases, across

a period.
Metallic character increases, non-metallic character decreases, down
a group.

Reactivity
Reactivity of a metal decreases across a period.
Reactivity of a metal increase down a group.

Reactivity can be determined by the reactivity series, illustrated below.

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Melting Point
The application of energy to break intermolecular attraction and to
break the Var Der Waal's dorces between them.
Metal ⟶ High Melting Point ⟶ Ionic ⟶ Stronger
Non-metals ⟶ Low Melting Point ⟶ Covalent ⟶ Weaker

Density
Calculated based on the number of electrons.
H 1 electron ⟶ 1g (gram weight)
Fe ⟶ 26 electrons ⟶ 56g (gram weight)

Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are electrons present in the outermost shell are
called valence electrons.
Valence shell is the outermost shell of the atom.

O 8 electrons ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^4

Therefore, the valence shell is n =2.
Valence electrons are 6 in Oxygen.

Mn ⟶ 25 electrons ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2 3d^5

Therefore, the valence shell is n = 4.
Valence electrons are 2 in Manganese.

C 6 electrons ⟶ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^2

Valence shell ⟶ 2
Valence electrons ⟶ 4

Valence - Combining capacity.

G1 ns^1
ex: Na ⟶ Valency: 1; Na ⟷ Cl
 G2 ns^2
ex: Mg ⟶ Valency: 2; Mg ⟷ Cl2
From group 13 onwards, valency = 8  no. of valence electrons.
G13 np^1
ex: Boron ⟶ Valency: 5, however, practically, the valency is 3, since
there is no availability of the D-orbital.

Carbon has no lone pairs.

Nitrogen has a lone pair.
Oxygen has 3 lone pairs.

There are two pairs of electrons, the lone pair, and bond pair.
The bond pair can accept an electron, while the lone pair are already filled.
⟶ pair bonds > lone pair + bond pair > bond pair + bond pair

Transition Elements
Group 3 to 12.
Group 11 and 12, although they are not defined under d-block, they
exhibit properties similar to d-block, hence, are grouped with
transition elements.
There are 4 periods which incorporate these elements, namely 3d, 4d,
5d, and 6d.

Inner Transition Elements

The two inner transition element rows are lanthanides and actinides,
or lanthanoids and actinoids.
Actinides are also known as transuranium elements from Uranium to
Lawrencium.
They are named after their preceeding element.
Each row has 14 elements.
Lanthanoids: n =6; f =4
Actinoids: n = 7; f =5.
Lanthanoids are also known as 4f series, and Actinoids are also known
as 5f series.

Oxides
Oxides are formed by reaction with oxygen.
metal + oxygen ⟶ metallic oxide

Non-metal + oxygen ⟶ non-metallic oxide

Metalloid + oxygen ⟶ amphoteric oxides

Basic oxide: Na2O, MgO, CaO etc.

Acidic oxide: CO2, Cl2O7, HClO7

Amphoteric oxides: Al2O3, H2O, ZnO

In amphoteric oxides, they act as bases and acids dependent on
whether they are reacting with a base or an acid.

Neutral oxide: CO, NO, N2O

Metallic oxides are strongly basic.

D-block near the left are weak bases.

Most D-block elements and 13th group elements are amphoteric.

Non-metals are strongly acidic.