Unit 1

1
 Introduction
How breakdown of insulator takes place?
On the basis of flow of current all the substances may be placed in one of the
two categories.
1) Insulator
2) Conductor
An insulator is a substance in which it is practically impossible to cause any
current to flow. In this all the negative charges i.e. electrons are firmly attached
to their corresponding atoms. Due to this there is no net flow of charges in the
insulator.
A conductor on the other hand is the substance in which certain number of
electrons can be easily made free from their associated atoms & made to move
under the influence of the electrical potential difference.
In electrical equipment, materials are used as dielectrics, insulators and
coolants. In this unit we will discuss about the breakdown phenomena in
gaseous dielectric materials. Before taking up the breakdown phenomena, let
us see the major difference between a dielectric material and an insulating
material. 2
 Difference Between Dielectrics & Insulators
Difference between dielectrics and insulators:
➢ Dielectric materials can store electrostatic energy by means of
polarization taking place in them and also offer better insulation.
➢ Almost all dielectrics are good insulators but all insulators are not
good dielectrics.
➢ Insulating materials offer good insulation but cannot store electrical
energy.

3
 Ionization Mechanism
Dielectric polarization occurs when a dipole moment is formed in an insulating
material because of an externally applied electric field.
Depending upon the nature of the dielectric materials (whether polar or non-
polar ) the polarization mechanisms are classified as :
1) Electronic polarization
2) Ionic polarization
3) Orientational polarization and
4) Space charge polarization
Higher the quantum of polarization, the capacitance and hence the
dielectric constant of the dielectric material increase enabling more
electrostatic energy storing capacity ( ½ CV2 ).

4
 Ionization Mechanism
Electronic polarization refers to the separation of center of positive charge
and the center of negative charge in a material. The separation can be caused
by a sufficiently high-electric field. Figure a shows the​ charge distribution of an
atom in absence of electric field while figure b show the charge distribution in
presence of external electrical field.

Ionic polarization occurred only in those dielectric material in which

atoms contain ionic bonds. When such a material is placed in an external
electric field then the cations and anions get displaced in opposite directions
giving rise to a net dipole moment. When elements like NaCl and KCl
contribute to the relative permittivity, ionic polarization occurs.

5
 Ionization Mechanism
Orientational polarization arises when there is a permanent dipole moment
in the material. Materials such as HCl and H2O will have a net permanent
dipole moment because the charge distributions of these molecules are
skewed.

Space charge polarization occurs when there is an accumulation of charge at

an interface between two materials or between two regions within a material
because of an external field. This can occur when there is a compound
dielectric, or when there are two electrodes connected to a dielectric material.

6
 Dielectric Parameters
Dielectric materials are characterized by the following parameters:
1. Relative permittivity ( Dielectric constant )
2. Dielectric strength ( Breakdown strength )
3. Dielectric loss ( Loss factor / Dissipation factor )
Relative Permittivity or Dielectric constant is a measure of how well the
insulating material will act as a dielectric capacitor. This constant is defined as
the capacitance of the material compared (by ratio) with the capacitance of a
vacuum. A high dielectric constant indicates that the material is highly
insulating.
𝜺𝒔
𝜺𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝑲 =
𝜺𝟎

7
 Dielectric Parameters
Dielectric strength or Breakdown strength is the voltage that an insulating
material can withstand before breakdown occurs and is expressed in terms of
Volts per unit thickness. It usually depends on the thickness of the material
and on the method and conditions of the test.
Dielectric loss or Dissipation factor of a material measures the tendency of
the material to dissipate internally generated thermal energy (i.e., heat)
resulting from an applied alternating electric field.
A good dielectric material should have higher dielectric strength, higher
dielectric constant and lower dielectric loss.

8
 Gases as Dielectric Material
• The simplest and the most commonly found dielectrics are gases. Most of
the electrical apparatus use air as the insulating medium, and in a few cases
other gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, freon and Sulphur
hexafluoride are also used.
• Various phenomena occur in gaseous dielectrics when a voltage is applied.
When the applied voltage is low, small currents flow between the
electrodes and the insulation retains its electrical properties.
• On the other hand, if the applied voltages are large, the current flowing
through the insulation increases very sharply, and an electrical breakdown
occurs.
• A strongly conducting spark formed during breakdown practically
produces a short circuit between the electrodes.
• The maximum voltage applied to the insulation at the moment of
breakdown is called the breakdown voltage.

9
 Gases as Dielectric Material
• In order to understand the breakdown phenomenon in gases, a study of the
electrical properties of gases and the processes by which high currents are
produced in gases is essential.
• The electrical discharges in gases are of two types, i.e. (i) non-sustaining
discharges, and (ii) self-sustaining types.
• At present two types of theories, viz. (i) Townsend theory, and (ii) Streamer
theory are known which explain the mechanism for breakdown under
different conditions.
• The various physical conditions of gases namely pressure, temperature,
electrode field configuration, nature of electrode surfaces, and the
availability of initial conducting particles are known to govern the
ionization processes.

10
 Electric Field Stress
The force experience by the unit charge placed in a uniform electric field is
called as electric field stress (E).
Consider a uniform electric field (E), a unit +ve charge is placed in the field.
The force experienced by this charge will have certain magnitude and direction
is +ve.
Similarly the force experience by the –ve charge placed in the same field will
have the same magnitude as experienced by the +ve charge but having
opposite direction. The amount of work done in moving the +ve charge to the –
ve charge is equal to the potential difference applied between the two charges.
V=∫-Edx
Where E is the electric field stress &
dx is the distance between two charges

11
 Electric Field Stress
The electric field stress is given by differentiating the above equation
−𝐝𝐕 𝐤𝐕
𝐄=
𝐝𝐱 𝐜𝐦
The ratio dV/dx is called as voltage gradient and its unit is kV/cm.
In order to produce the strong uniform electric field we use parallel plate
electrodes.

12
Classification of Insulating Materials

13
 Collision Mechanism
Gaseous dielectrics follow Newton's laws of motion. When they are subjected
to electric stress, the collision processes between the atoms and the
molecules start.
The collisions may be elastic or inelastic. During elastic collision the
colliding particle returns with same energy after collision. Whereas in the
inelastic collision the colliding particle returns with lesser energy after
collision giving part of its energy to the collided particle. Inelastic collision
results in excitation and ionization of the molecules as shown in the figure
next slide.
MEAN FREE PATH OF GAS MOLICULES:
Mean free path of gas molecules is defined as the average distance traveled
between each collision.

14
 Ionization Process
• A gas in its normal state is almost a perfect insulator. However, when a
high voltage is applied between the two electrodes immersed in a gaseous
medium, the gas becomes a conductor and an electrical breakdown
occurs.
• The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown of a gas
are ionization by collision, photo-ionization, and the secondary ionization
processes.
• In insulating gases (also called electron-attaching gases) the process of
electron attachment also plays an important role.
• The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with the
simultaneous production of a positive ion is called ionization.

15
 Ionization by collision
• In the process of ionization by collision, a free electron collides with a
neutral gas molecule and gives rise to a new electron and a positive ion.
• If we consider a low pressure gas column in which an electric field E is
applied across two plane parallel electrodes, as shown in figure.
• Electron starting at the cathode will be accelerated more and more
between collisions with other gas molecules during its travel towards the
anode.

• If the energy (E) gained during this travel between collisions exceeds the
ionization potential, Vi, which is the energy required to remove an
electron from its atomic shell, then ionization takes place. This process can
be represented as
16
 Ionization by collision

• A few of the electrons produced at the cathode by some external means,

say by ultra-violet light falling on the cathode, ionise neutral gas particles
producing positive ions and additional electrons.

• The additional electrons themselves make 'ionising collisions' and thus

the process repeats itself.

• Since the number of electrons reaching the anode per unit time is greater
than those liberated at the cathode. This represents an increase in the
electron current.

• The positive ions also reach the cathode and on bombardment on the
cathode give rise to secondary electrons.

17
 Photo-ionisation
• The phenomena associated with ionisation by radiation, or photo-
ionisation, involves the interaction of radiation with matter.

• Photo-ionisation occurs when the amount of radiation energy absorbed by

an atom or molecule exceeds its ionisation potential.

• An excited atom emits radiation when the electron returns to the lower
state or to the ground state, the reverse process takes place when an atom
absorbs radiation.

• hv + A A+ + e-

• Ionisation occurs when :

18
 Photo-ionisation
Where h is the Planck's constant, c is the velocity of light, is the
wavelength of the incident radiation and Vi is the ionisation energy (eV) of the
atom.
• The higher the ionization energy, the shorter will be the wavelength of the
radiation capable of causing ionization.

• It was observed experimentally that a radiation having a wavelength of

1250 A° is capable of causing photo-ionization of almost all gases.

19
 Secondary Ionisation Processes
1. Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact:

• Positive ions are formed due to ionization by collision or by photo-

ionization, and being positively charged, they travel towards the cathode.

• A positive ion approaching a metallic cathode can cause emission of

electrons from the cathode by giving up its kinetic energy on impact.

• If the (total energy of the positive ion = kinetic energy + ionization energy)
is greater than twice the work function of the metal, then one electron will
be ejected and a second electron will neutralize the ion.

• The probability of this process is measured as γ which is called the

Townsend's secondary ionisation coefficient

20
 Secondary Ionisation Processes
2. Electron Emission due to Photons:

• To cause the electron to escape from metal, it should be given enough

energy to overcome the surface potential barrier.

• The energy can supplied in the form of a photon of ultraviolet light of

suitable frequency.

• Electron emission from a metal surface occurs at the condition of :

hv  

• The frequency (v) is given by the relationship: v =
v is the threshold frequency h

• If the incident radiation has a greater frequency than the threshold

frequency, the excess energy goes partly as the kinetic energy of the
emitted electron and partly to heat the surface of the electrode
21
 TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
• Assume that n0 electrons are emitted from the cathode. When one electron
collides with a neutral particle, a positive ion and an electron are formed.
This is called an ionizing collision.

Cathode Anode

x dx

X =0 d X=d
n = n0 n =n

• At any distance x from the cathode, let the number of electrons be n.

22
 TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
• The variation of current as a function of voltage was studied by Townsend.
He found that the current at first increased proportionally as the voltage is
increased and then remains constant.

• At still higher voltages, the current increases exponentially.

• The exponential increase in current is due to ionization of gas by electron

collision.

23
 TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
• The variation of current as a function of voltage was studied by Townsend.
He found that the current at first increased proportionally as the voltage is
increased and then remains constant.

• As the voltage increases V/d increases and hence the electrons are
accelerated more and more and between collisions these acquire higher
kinetic energy and, therefore, knock out more and more electrons.

• To explain the exponential rise in current, Townsend introduced a

coefficient α known as Townsend’s first ionization coefficient

• α = the number of electrons produced by an electron per unit length of path

in the direction of field.

24
 TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
• Assume that n0 electrons are emitted from the cathode. When one electron
collides with a neutral particle, a positive ion and an electron are formed.
This is called an ionizing collision.
• Let n0 be the number of electrons leaving cathode & when these electrons moves
through the distance of x from cathode the number of electrons becomes n.
• Now when this n number of electrons moves through a distance dx produces dn
additional electrons due to collision. The number of electrons is given by

d n =  n  dx
dn
 n
=    dx

ln n =   x + A

25
 TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
• At x =0, n = n0

ln n 0 = 0 + A
 A = ln n 0
 ln n =   x + ln n 0
ln n − ln n 0 =   x
n
= e x
n0
 x
n = n0e
• No of electron reaching the anode x=d will be
n = n e d
0

26
 TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
• Average current in the gap is equal to no of electron travelling per second:
 d
• I = I0e ………………………………………..( 1)

I0 = Initial current at cathode

ed = electron avalanche
• It represents no of electron produced by the one electron travelling from
cathode to anode.

• Equation 1 is called Townsends current growth equation due to primary

ionization coefficient α.

27
 TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION

Numerical 1:
A steady current of 600µA flows through the parallel plate electrode separated by a distance
of 0.5cm when a voltage of 10KV is applied. Determine the Townsend’s first ionization
coefficient if the current of 60µA flows when the distance of separation is reduced to 0.1cm
and field is kept constant at previous value.

Numerical 2:
A steady current of 600µA flows through the parallel plate electrode separated by
a distance of 0.5cm when a voltage of 12KV is applied. Determine the Townsend’s
first ionization coefficient if the current of 30µA flows when the distance of
separation is reduced by 0.2cm and field is kept constant at previous value.

28
 TOWNSEND SECOND IONISATION COEFFICIENT

• Townsend in his earlier investigations had observed that the current in

parallel plate gap increased more rapidly with increase in voltage as
compared to the one given by the previous equation.

• Townsend suggested that a second mechanism must be affecting the

current. He postulated that the additional current must be due to the
presence of positive ions and the photons.

• The positive ions will liberate electrons by collision with gas molecules
and by bombardment against the cathode. Similarly, the photons will also
release electrons after collision with gas molecules and from the cathode
after photon impact.

29
 TOWNSEND SECOND IONISATION COEFFICIENT
• Let, n be the number of electrons released from the cathode by ultraviolet
radiation.

• n+ the number of electrons released from the cathode due to positive ion
bombardment.

• n the number of electrons reaching the anode.

• Let γ, known as Townsend second ionization co-efficient be defined as the

number of electrons released from cathode per incident positive ion.

• Then,
n = n0 e d
n = (n + n )e d
0 +

30
 TOWNSEND SECOND IONISATION COEFFICIENT
• Now total number of electrons released from the cathode is (n0 + n+)
and those reaching the anode are n.

• the number of electrons released from the gas = n–(n0 + n+), and
corresponding to each electron released from the gas there will be one
positive ion and assuming each positive ion releases γ effective electrons
from the cathode then.
𝑛+ = 𝛾[𝑛 − 𝑛0 + 𝑛+ ]
𝑛+ = 𝛾𝑛 − 𝛾𝑛0 − 𝛾𝑛+
𝑛+ + 𝛾𝑛+ = 𝛾𝑛 − 𝛾𝑛0
𝛾𝑛 − 𝛾𝑛0
𝑛+ =
1+𝛾

31
TOWNSEND SECOND IONISATION COEFFICIENT
Putting this value in above equation we get
𝛾𝑛 − 𝛾𝑛0 𝛼𝑑
𝑛 = (𝑛0 + )𝑒
1+𝛾
𝑛0 + 𝛾𝑛0 + 𝛾𝑛 − 𝛾𝑛0 𝛼𝑑
𝑛=[ ]𝑒
1+𝛾
𝑛0 + 𝛾𝑛 𝛼𝑑
𝑛=[ ]𝑒
1+𝛾
𝑛 + 𝛾𝑛 = 𝑛0 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛾𝑛𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝑛 + 𝛾𝑛 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = 𝑛0 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝑛0 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝑛=
[1 + 𝛾 1 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 ]
𝑛0 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝑛=
[1 − 𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 ]
𝐼0 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝐼=
[1 − 𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 ] 32
 TOWNSEND BREAKDOWN MECHANISM
• When voltage between the anode and cathode is increased, the current at
the anode is given by:
𝐼0 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝐼=
[1 − 𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 ]
This current becomes infinite if [1 − 𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 ]0=
1 = 𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1
𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = 1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑 >>> 1
• the current in the anode equals the current in the external circuit.
Theoretically the current becomes infinitely large under the above
mentioned condition but practically it is limited by the resistance of the
external circuit.
• The condition 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = 1 defines the condition for beginning of spark and
is known as the Townsend criterion for spark formation or Townsend
breakdown criterion.

33
 TOWNSEND BREAKDOWN MECHANISM

Using this condition following are the three possibilities:

(1) γeαd = 1
(2) 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 > 1
(3) 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 < 1

Referring to the growth of current due to positive ion bombardment on

cathode, we can see that the current growth is beyond control and
breakdown occurs when (1 − γeαd ) = 0 i.e., the criteria for sparking potential
is γeαd = 1
When 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 < 1, the discharge is non-self sustained (i.e., when the voltage
is reduced the current starts decreasing ).
When 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 > 1, the discharge is a self sustained one ( i.e., even if the voltage
is reduced the current does not decrease and maintains itself).
The non-self sustained discharge is known as Townsend’s Discharge and is
shown in fig. 34
 STREAMER MECHANISM OF SPARK
• Streamer theory postulated by Raether and Meak removes the limitations
and drawbacks of townsend’s theory.

• According to the townsend’s theory, electric spark discharge is due to the

ionization of gas molecule by the collision of electron and release of
electron from cathode due to positive ion bombardment.

• But according to the streamer’s theory, It is not only ionization process

responsible for breakdown of gas but such as formation of photon and
space charge into the avalanche also are root cause of breakdown.

• Raether explains the formation of spark due to streamer mechanism in

which the secondary mechanism of photo ionization of gas molecule is
involved.

35
 STREAMER MECHANISM OF SPARK
Townsend mechanism when applied to breakdown at atmospheric
pressure was found to have certain drawbacks. Firstly, according to the
Townsend theory, current growth occurs as a result of ionization processes
only. But in practice, breakdown voltages were found to depend on the gas
pressure and the geometry of the gap. Secondly, the mechanism predicts time
lags of the order of 10-5 s, while in actual practice breakdown was observed to
occur at very short times of the order of 10-8 s. Also, while the Townsend
mechanism predicts a very diffused form of discharge, in actual practice,
discharges were found to be filamentary and irregular. The Townsend
mechanism failed to explain all these observed phenomena and as a result,
around 1940, Raether, Meek and Loeb independently proposed the Streamer
Theory of Breakdown in Gases.
Postulate principles of streamer theory:
1. Formation of electron avalanche by initiating electrons by Townsends first
ionization process.
2. Large local enhancement of electric field by ion space charge ahead of
avalanche.
3. Large amount of photoionization of gas molecules ahead of avalanche. 36
 STREAMER MECHANISM OF SPARK
An initiating electron placed in the gap will be accelerated towards the
anode and during this the ionization of gaseous molecules takes place and the
avalanche phenomenon occurs. This avalanche is shown in fig a. The electrons
are lighter and having higher mobility. The ratio of average velocity of electron
to the average velocity of positive ion is of the order 102. Hence positive ions
remains static relative to the electrons. The head of avalanche will therefore be filled
with the fast moving electrons and the positive ions will occupy the tail.

37
 STREAMER MECHANISM OF SPARK
The space charge at the head of avalanche are assumed to be concentrated
within a spherical volume with the negative charge ahead of positive charge as
shown in fig b. Due to the interaction of these charges the space charge field Er
will be created. The field behind and ahead of the avalanche is increased by the
space charge and that between the electron and positive ion sphere is reduced.
The field distortion will increase with the increase in αd. When the αd attains a
value of 18 to 20 the space charge field becomes equal to the external field i.e.
Er=E0. Due to this an intense ionization and excitation of the gas particles
Infront of avalanche head takes place. The excited atoms returns to their
normal state immediately so the photons are released in the gas ahead of
avalanche head. Which interns generates the secondary electron by
photoionization process. This secondary electron will generate further
auxiliary avalanches which is shown in fig c.
Since the photons travels with the velocity of light the process leads to the
rapid development of a conduction channel across the gap and develops a self
propagating streamer. The streamer proceeds across the gap to form a
conducting filament of highly ionized gas between the electrodes. The gap
therefore breakdown. 38
 RECOVERY OF DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
When the current through an arc is interrupted by switching of the
voltage the gas remains ionized and its temperature is high. Hence the
dielectric strength of insulating material is low. However, with the time the gas
is deionized due to the recombination of electrons and positive ions and
diffusion of charge particles from the gaseous gap. Hence, in the absence of
charge particles the gas regains its normal insulating strength. This ability to
recover the insulating property has made gases attractive to the insulation
designers. Solids cannot recover their insulating characteristics and the liquids
recovers their insulating strength after necessary purification.

39
 TIME LAG FOR BREAKDOWN

A gaseous gap cannot breakdown at the instant the gap field stress (applied
voltage) exceeds its breakdown value. Firstly an initiating electron has to
appear in the gap and the average time required for an initiating electron to
appear in the gap is known as statistical time lag (Ts). Secondly, according to
the Townsends mechanism the positive charges produced in the gap by the
initiating electrons travels towards the cathode and on bombardment against
cathode releases secondary electrons. This will require some additional time
known as formative time lag (Tf). So, the breakdown of the gaseous gap will
takes place after a time (Ts+Tf) from the instant of application of the
breakdown voltage. This time is called as time lag for breakdown.

Factors affecting the time lag for breakdown:

The statistical time lag depends upon the radiation producing the primary or
initiating electrons. The natural cosmic radiation provides such electrons.
This radiation is distributed statistically on the cathode so the time lag is
called statistical time lag. This time lag can be greatly reduce by artificial
radiation or by the use of sparks. The statistical time lag will also be greatly40
 TIME LAG FOR BREAKDOWN

reduced in an overvolted gap i.e. with a gap voltage greater than breakdown
voltage.
The formative time lag depends upon the mechanism of breakdown. In
Townsends mechanism this will depend on the drift velocity of the positive
ion and on the ion transit time from anode to cathode. In streamer
mechanism the formative time lag depends on the formation of streamer by
photoionization. As this is the fast process the formative time lag in this
mechanism will be smaller. This time lag increases with the gap length and
decreases with the overvolted gap.

41
 BREAKDOWN IN ELECTRONEGATIVE GASES
Electronegative Gases are those gases which are having affinity for
electrons i.e. whenever a free electron collides with neutral gas molecule a
negative ion is formed. The electron is absorbed by the neutral gas molecule.
Many compounds of chlorine, fluorine, bromine, oxygen and other
electronegative atoms having gaseous state and have the higher dielectric
strength than air. These electronegative molecules are of higher molecular
weight and absorbs the portion of energy of the striking electron. CCL4, freon
and SF6 exhibits nearly three times the dielectric strength of air at the same
pressure. These electronegative substances dissociates into fluorine, chlorine
etc. because of excitation and ionization under the action of strong electric field.
It has been recognized that one process that gives high breakdown
strength to a gas is the electron attachment in which free electrons get attached
to neutral atoms or molecules to form negative ions. Since negative ions like
positive ions are too massive to produce ionization due to collisions, attachment
presents an effective way of removing electrons which otherwise would have led
to current growth and breakdown at low voltage. The gases in which attachment
plays an active role are called Breakdown in Electronegative Gases.
42
 BREAKDOWN IN ELECTRONEGATIVE GASES
The most common attachment processes encountered in gases are (a) the
direct attachment in which an electron directly attaches to form a negative ion,
and (b) the dissociate attachment in which the gas molecules split into their
constituent atoms. These processes may be symbolically represented as:
(a)Direct attachment
SF6 + e- SF6-
(b)Dissociation attachment
SF6 + e- SF5- + F

The Breakdown in Electronegative Gases atom forms a negative ion This

43
process represents an effective way of removing electron from the space. This
property gives rise to a high dielectric strength. The electronegative gases
possesses a good dielectric strength and has a unique property of fast
recombination after the source energizing the spark is removed.
 PASCHEN’S LAW
The Townsends criteria 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = 1 does not give any relation in the form of
electrical field stress or the breakdown voltage. In order to derive the
expression in the form of breakdown voltage Paschen express the ionization
coefficient as the function of field strength E and gas pressure P.
𝛼 𝐸
= 𝑓( )
𝑃 𝑃
𝛾 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 = 1
1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1 =
𝛾
1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = ( + 1)
𝛾
𝐸
𝑓( )𝑃𝑑 1
𝑒 𝑃 = ( + 1)
𝛾
Take natural log
44
 PASCHEN’S LAW
𝐸 1
𝑓 𝑃𝑑 = ln +1 =𝑘
𝑃 𝛾
𝐸 𝑘
𝑓 =
𝑃 𝑃𝑑
𝑉𝑏 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑉𝑏
𝐸=
𝑑
𝑉𝑏 𝑘
𝑓 =
𝑃𝑑 𝑃𝑑
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑃𝑑)
This is called as Paschen’s law. This shows that the breakdown voltage of a
uniform field gap is a unique function of the product of gas pressure and gap
length for the particular gas. In this the breakdown voltage is not proportional
to the product Pd. The curve drawn between Vb and Pd is not linear and is
called as Paschen’s curve. 45
 CORONA DISCHARGE
Theory of corona effect:
Some ionization is always present in air due to cosmic rays, ultraviolet
radiations and radioactivity. Therefore, under normal conditions, the air
around the conductors contains some ionized particles (i.e., free electrons and
+ve ions) and neutral molecules. When potential difference is applied between
the conductors, potential gradient is set up in the air which will have
maximum value at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential
gradient, the existing free electrons acquire greater velocities. The greater the
applied voltage, the greater the potential gradient and more is the velocity of
free electrons.
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per
cm (max. value), the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to
strike a neutral molecule with enough force to dislodge one or more electrons
from it. This produces another ion and one or more free electrons, which is
turn are accelerated until they collide with other neutral molecules, thus
producing other ions. Thus, the process of ionization is cumulative. The result
of this ionization is that either corona is formed or spark takes place between
the conductors. 46
 CORONA DISCHARGE
If the electric field is uniform and if the field is increased gradually
ionization begins and finally leads to complete breakdown of the gap.
However, in non-uniform fields, before the spark or breakdown of the
medium takes place, there are many indications in the form of visual and
audible discharges. These discharges are known as corona discharges. In fact
corona is defined as a self-sustained electric discharge in which the field
intensified ionization is localized only over a portion of the distance between
the electrodes.
The phenomenon is of particular importance in high voltage engineering
where most of the fields encountered are non-uniform fields. Corona is
responsible for power loss and interference of power lines with the
communication lines as corona frequency lies between 20Hz and 20KHz.
This also leads to the decay of insulation by the combined action of the
discharge ion bombarding the surface and the action of chemical compounds
that are formed by the corona discharge. When a voltage higher than the
critical disruptive voltage is applied between two parallel wires a glow is
seen. The critical disruptive voltage is defined as the voltage at which corona
formation takes place. 47
 CORONA DISCHARGE
It is given by
𝑑
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔 log 𝑒 𝐾𝑉/𝑐𝑚
𝑟
Where g-potential gradient, d-separation between conductors and r- radius of the
conductor
Visual corona appears when the applied voltage attains the value of visual critical
voltage. It is defined as that voltage at which a visual corona appears along the
length of conductor. It is given by
0.3 𝑑
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣𝑔𝛿 1 + log 𝑒 𝐾𝑉/𝑐𝑚
𝛿 𝑟
Where δ-air density correction factor and mv-irregularity factor
After operation for a short time a reddish beads are formed along the wire while
a bluish white glow appears around the surface of wire. Corona is of two types
1) Positive corona: The corona forming on positive electrode is called as positive
corona. In this a bluish white glow appears on the surface of conductor.
2) Negative corona: The corona forming on the negative electrode is called as
negative corona. In this reddish beads or spots are formed along the
conductor.
48
 CORONA DISCHARGE
Formation of corona is accomplished by energy loss which is dissipated in
the form of light, heat, sound and chemical actions. This power loss due to
corona is given by
241 𝑟
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑓 + 25 (𝑉𝑝ℎ − 𝑉𝑐)2 × 10−5 𝐾𝑊/𝐾𝑀/𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝛿 𝑑
Where f-supply frequency and Vph- phase voltage

Factors affecting corona:

1) Atmosphere
2) Conductor size
3) Spacing between two conductors(separation)
4) Line voltage

Methods of reducing corona:

1) By increasing the conductor size the voltage at which corona occurs is
raised and hence corona effect is reduced.
2) By increasing the spacing between two conductors the voltage at which
corona occurs is raised and hence reduced. 49
 CORONA DISCHARGE
Advantages of corona:
1. Due to corona the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting so
the visual diameter of conductor gets increased resulting into reduction of
electrostatic stress between conductors.
2. Corona reduces the effect of transient produced by surges.

Disadvantages of corona:
1. Corona is accomplished by loss of energy this affects the transmission
efficiency of line.
2. Ozone is produced by corona and causes corrosion of conductor due to
chemical action.
3. The current drawn by line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence the
line will cause interference with neighboring communication lines.

50