13.

1: Carbohydrates they are molecules

containing carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.
They are
present in our foods, and their most abundant
forms are
sugars, fibres, and starches

PHOTO SYNTHESIS carbon combination

RESPIRATION
cycle:the of
a respiration where
energy from the sun is used to
combine the photosynthesis in the body, glucose is oxidized in

stored
carbon atoms from carbon dioxide (CO2) and energy from the sun is in respiration. CO2 and M20 are

the hydrogen b ocygen atoms of water (H20) plants by photosynthesis B is produced and returned to the
atmosphere

into carbohydrate glucose made available to us when carbohydrates

in our bodies are metabolized.

X b

andwecoHi2On
glucose
6CO2 + 6H20 +
energy I +602

CARBOHY DRATES

monosaccharides or
disaccharide
polysaccharides

MONOS ACCHARIDES

contains a chain of 3-7carbons thathave hydroxyl groups, Ban

aldehyde or before I
hydrocyl I

group
2 2

ALDOSE:IS known polyhydroxy aldehyde where the first carbon the chain is an
aldehyde
3
as in
4 4

KETOSE:IS known as
polyhydroxy before where the second carbon in the chain is a ketone

PREFIT - SUFFIL

those: "In," meaning 3 carbon chain

retrose:"fetr" meaning 4 carbon chain

aldo: monosaccharide
Ifthe contains an
aldehyde >
Keto :if the monosaccharide contains a ketone
pentose:"pent" meaning 5 carbon chain

neccose: "he"meaning 6 Carbon chain

- tose:"hep" meaning 7
c arbon chain
13.2:Chiral Molecules

superimposed:when mirror
images are completely matched with the object. they have a line of symmetry

matched object,
Nonsupermosable:when with
the don'thave line
symmetry
mirror images are not
completely a of

line

I
no of
e
symmetr

Chiral:objects with nonsuperimposable mirror

unages
Achival:objects with superimposed unages has line of
symmetry

i
mirror

chiral carbons:1 carbon is

that bonded

to 4 differentatoms that create

nonsuper imposable mirror

unages. Though, depending
on the 4 differentbonded atoms, they may

bome superimposable

Stereo/somers:when two or more chiral molecules

have the same molecular formula the

but

atoms are arrangeddifferently.

Enantiomers:when stereoisomers be
cant

superimposed
FISCHER PROTECTIONS Scarbonyl group

chiral carbon
->

athorizontal
always
always
->
at bottom

L-isomer: OH group drawn to

the lefto fChiral C is chiral carbon four bonds
the centre carbon with
-

is

1-Isomer:On drawn to the ii) att he top

group rightof Chiral C carbonyl group is
always
ii) CH2OH always atthe bottom

iv) -OH BH
always atthe horizontal lines. OH
13. 3: Fischer projections of Monosaccharides

· CH20H
1) Number the carbons

ii) locate the C furthestfrom the top

2 ⑧
ii) check to see the
position of
H 3
OH
L D The -OH
group
H "OH
iv) Name the projection:D-Ribulose
SCH2OH

IMPORTANT
SOME MOWOSACCHARIDES

H0 H ⑧
F c- CH2OH

H OH H OH c0
=

HO H HO H HO H
H OH HO H H OH

It OH H ⑧H H OH

CH2OH CH2OH CH20H

D-Glucose D-Galactose D-Fructose

13.4: Haworth's structures of

Drawing Haworth Structures

Monosaccharid* 13.4 Haworth Structures of Monosaccharides 477

To convert a Fischer projection to a Haworth structure, turn the Fischer projection clock-
wise by 90°. The ¬ H and ¬ OH groups on the right of the vertical carbon chain are now
below the horizontal carbon chain. Those on the left of the open chain are now above the
horizontal carbon chain.
is turn the fischer projection 900 clockwise
Turn clockwise by 90°
H O side a below, left sidesabove
right<determine
if the isomer is Dor (here]
C
1
H OH
ii) convertthe
diagram to hexagon. The 2 Carbons
a

O carbonyl groupbecome the base.

2
H H OH H after the
HO 3 H 6
5 4 3 2 1
= HOCH2 C
H 4 OH ii) Switch-OH with CHIOH so-OH is close to Carbon 1
OH OH H OH H carbon, before CH2OH.
this occurs on the second last
H 5 OH
CH2OH
iv) connect the -ogrp to carbon 1(check dag. 1B2)
6
d-Glucose (open chain)

ENGAGE
With carbons 2 and 3 as the base of a hexagon, move the remaining carbons upward.
Why is an ¬ OH group drawn
Rotate the groups on carbon 5 so that the ¬ OH group is close to carbon 1. To complete
on carbon 1 in the Haworth
the Haworth structure, draw a bond from the oxygen of the ¬ OH group on carbon 5 to
&

structure of an aldohexose?
carbon 1. In the line-angle structures, the carbon atoms in the ring are drawn as corners.

H CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

6
OH b Isomer
6CH2OH W O O
5 5
H O H O H ~H H OH
-

OH H H H
-

4 C 4 C 1 or 1 above plane
OH H OH H
- - - - - -

1 1 OH H OH H below plane
HO H HO ⑧
H HO 0
OH HO H
a Isomer
=>

3 2 3 2
H OH H OH H OH H OH
Rotation of groups on carbon 5 Carbon-5 oxygen bonds to carbon 1 a-d-Glucose b-d-Glucose

Because the ¬ OH group on the new chiral carbon (1) can be drawn above or below the
plane of the Haworth structure, there are two isomers of d-glucose. In the a (alpha) isomer,
the ¬ OH group is drawn below the plane of the ring. In the b (beta) isomer, the ¬ OH
group is drawn above the plane of the ring. The carbon atoms in the ring are drawn as
corners.

Mutarotation of A@ and B-d-Glucose

In an aqueous solution, the Haworth structure of a-d-glucose opens to give the open chain
of d-glucose, which has an aldehyde group. At any given time, there is only a trace amount
of the open chain because it closes quickly to form a stable cyclic structure. However, when
the open chain closes again it can form b-d-glucose. In this process called mutarotation,
&

each isomer converts to the open chain and back again. As the ring opens and closes, the the chain
opens
to switch

¬ OH group on carbon 1 can form either the a or b isomer. An aqueous glucose solution from a isomer to isomer
contains a mixture of 36% a-d-glucose and 64% b-d-glucose. X

CH2OH CH2OH H Open chain with CH2OH

aldehyde group b Isomer
O H O O OH
H H O H
H H H
OH C OH C OH C
H H H
HO HO H HO
OH H
a Isomer
H OH H OH H OH
a-d-Glucose d-Glucose b-d-Glucose
(36%) open chain (trace) (64%)
478 CHAPTER 13 Carbohydrates

Haworth Structures of Galactose

.
&. =

Galactose is an aldohexose that differs from glucose only in the arrangement of the
¬ OH group on carbon 4. Thus, its Haworth structure is similar to glucose, except that
the ¬ OH group on carbon 4 is drawn above the ring. Galactose also exists as a and
b isomers.

H O CH2OH
6 H
C 5 O
1
HO O
H OH H
2
4
C1
HO 3 H OH H H
HO H H
4 3 2
D
H 5 OH H OH
CH2OH Open chain of d-galactose
6
d-Galactose

CH2OH
6
CH2OH
6
5 O 5 O B
HO H HO OH
H H
4 1 4 1
OH H OH H
H OH H H
3 2 Q 3 2
H OH H OH
a-d-Galactose b-d-Galactose

Haworth Structures of Fructose

In contrast to glucose and galactose, fructose is a ketohexose. The Haworth structure for
fructose is a five-atom ring with carbon 2 at the right corner of the ring. The cyclic structure
forms when the ¬ OH group on carbon 5 bonds to carbon 2 in the carbonyl group. The new
¬ OH group on carbon 2 gives the a and b isomers of fructose.

CH2OH H
1 CH2OH CH2OH
6 O 1
C
2
O C2
5
HO 3 H H OH O
H OH H
4 4 3
D
H 5 OH OH H
CH2OH Open chain of d-fructose
6
d-Fructose

O O
HOCH2 CH2OH HOCH2 OH B
6 1 6
5 2 5 2
H OH H OH
H OH H CH2OH
4 3 a 4 3 1

OH H OH H
a-d-Fructose b-d-Fructose
 13.4 Haworth Structures of Monosaccharides 479

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.5 Drawing Haworth Structures for Sugars

TRY IT FIRST
d-Mannose, a carbohydrate found in immunoglobulins, has the following Fischer projec-
tion. Draw the Haworth structure for b-d-mannose.
H O
C H
CHOH CH20N

"
1
HO 2 H
H H OH OH H
d H + ·

HO H H

CH2OH
I
3 2 -
= 5 4 OH OH ZO
H OH & OH OnO
4 I f I
or I OH
H H 0
5 OH OH ON H
I H
H
CH2OH
6
X
d-Mannose
CH20N CH20N
SOLUTION GUIDE
Turn the Fischer projection clockwise by 90°.
to ot I O
STEP 1 H H H
X

H H OH OH O OH E OH OH
6
f I
or I
5 4 3 2 1 H
OH
HOCH2 C OH

H H
OH OH H H H H

B-isomer d-isomer
STEP 2 Fold the horizontal carbon chain into a hexagon, rotate the groups on
carbon 5, and bond the O on carbon 5 to carbon 1.
CH2OH H
6
5 O
H O
H
OH C1
4
OH
HO H
3 2
H H
STEP 3 Draw the new ¬OH group on carbon 1 above the ring to give the b isomer.
CH2OH
6
5 O
H OH
4
H 1
OH OH
HO H
3 2
H H

STUDY CHECK 13.5

Draw the Haworth structure for a-d-mannose.
ANSWER
CH2OH
O
H H
H
OH OH
HO OH TEST
Try Practice Problems 13.31
H H to 13.36
13.5: chemical Properties of Monosaccharides
0x A 1 N
T

1 D 0

H
0 HO 0

c c
H OH H OH
+ CUr0(s)
HO H 2Cu2t
+ 22g HO H
(brick red)
H OH (blue) H OH

H OH H OH

CH2OH CH2OH
D) -Glucose D-Gluconic acid

H
CH2OH 0
=
P
c

2 c 0,Rearrangements
=

H OH
2

HOs H HO
3
H

H OH OH
x H4
H =

OH H5 OH

-CHz0H -CHzOH
D-Fructose D-Glucose

R E DU c T 10 N

H ⑧
--
CH2OH
H OH H OH

HO H HO H
+
H2 Ptg
H OH H OH

H OH H OH

CH20H CH20H
D-Glucose
D-Glucito (
⑰
13.6 Disaccharides 483

13.39 Draw the Fischer projection for the oxidation and the reduc- 13.40 Draw the Fischer projection for the oxidation and the reduc-
tion products of d-arabinose. What are the names of the sugar tion products of d-ribose. What are the names of the sugar
acid and the sugar alcohol produced? acid and the sugar alcohol produced?

H O H O
C C
HO H H OH
H OH H OH
H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
d-Arabinose d-Ribose

13.6 Disaccharides
LEARNING GOAL Describe the monosaccharide units and linkages in disaccharides.

A disaccharide is composed of two monosaccharides linked together. The most common

disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. When two monosaccharides combine in
a dehydration reaction, the product is a disaccharide. The reaction occurs between the
hydroxyl group on carbon 1 and one of the hydroxyl groups on a second monosaccharide.

Glucose + glucose
Maltose synthase > maltose + H2O ENGAGE
Glucose + galactose
Lactose synthase > lactose + H2O Which disaccharide contains
Sucrose synthase > only glucose?
Glucose + fructose sucrose + H2O
Maltose, or malt sugar, is obtained from starch and is found in germinating grains.
When maltose in barley and other grains is hydrolyzed by yeast enzymes, glucose is
obtained, which can undergo fermentation to give ethanol. Maltose is used in cereals, can-
dies, and the brewing of beverages.
In the Haworth structure of a disaccharide, a glycosidic bond connects two monosac-
charides. In maltose, a glycosidic bond forms between the ¬ OH groups of carbons 1 and
4 of two a-d-glucose molecules with a loss of a water molecule. The glycosidic bond in
maltose is designated as an a(1 S 4) linkage to show that an alpha ¬ OH group on carbon 1
is joined to carbon 4 of the second glucose molecule. Because the second glucose molecule

CH2OH CH2OH
O O
H H H H
H H
1 + 4
OH H OH H
HO OH HO OH
s the loss of

H OH water molecule
H OH
a-d-Glucose a-d-Glucose

CH2OH CH2OH
O O
H H H H
H H ENGAGE
1 4 + H2O
OH H O OH H How is a@maltose different from
HO OH b@maltose?
a Isomer
H OH H OH
a(1S 4)-Glycosidic bond

a-Maltose, a disaccharide
484 CHAPTER 13 Carbohydrates

still has a free ¬ OH group on carbon 1, it can form an open chain, which allows maltose
to form both a and b isomers. The open chain provides an aldehyde group that can be oxi-
dized, making maltose a reducing sugar.
Lactose, milk sugar, is a disaccharide found in milk and milk products (see FIGURE 13.8).
The bond in lactose is a b(1 S 4)@glycosidic bond because the ¬ OH group on carbon 1 of
b-d-galactose forms a glycosidic bond with the ¬ OH group on carbon 4 of a d-glucose
molecule. Because d-glucose still has a free ¬ OH group on carbon 1, it can form an open
chain, which allows lactose to form both a and b isomers. The open chain provides an
aldehyde group that can be oxidized, making lactose a reducing sugar.
Lactose makes up 6 to 8% of human milk and about 4 to 5% of cow’s milk, and it is
used in products that attempt to duplicate mother’s milk. When a person does not produce
sufficient quantities of the enzyme lactase, which is needed to hydrolyze lactose, it remains
undigested when it enters the colon. Then bacteria in the colon digest the lactose in a fer-
mentation process that creates large amounts of gas including carbon dioxide and methane,
which cause bloating and abdominal cramps. In some commercial milk products, lactase
has already been added to break down lactose.

CH2OH CH2OH
O O
HO OH H H
H H
1 + 4
OH H OH H
H H ↓ HO OH
lostwater molecule
H OH H OH
b-d-Galactose a-d-Glucose

CH2OH
CH2OH O
H H - >lost water molecule

FIGURE 13.8 Lactose, a disaccharide O H

HO 4
OH + H2O
found in milk and milk products, contains O H
H
galactose and glucose. 1 OH
OH H a Isomer
Q What type of glycosidic bond links H H
galactose and glucose in lactose? H OH
H OH b(1S 4)-Glycosidic bond
a-Lactose, a disaccharide

Sucrose consists of an a-d-glucose and a b-d-fructose molecule joined by an

a,b(1 S 2)@glycosidic bond (see FIGURE 13.9). Unlike maltose and lactose, the glycosidic
is between carbons ofglucose and carbondisease
CH2OH CH2OH
O O
H H H H
H H
1 1 a,b(1S 2)-Glycosidic
OH H OH H bond
HO OH HO

H OH H OH
a-d-Glucose + O + H2O
O O
HOCH2 OH HOCH2
2 2
H OH H OH
FIGURE 13.9 Sucrose, a disaccharide H CH2OH H CH2OH
obtained from sugar beets and sugar cane,
contains glucose and fructose. OH H OH H
Q Why is sucrose a nonreducing sugar? b-d-Fructose Sucrose, a disaccharide

sucrose cantform an
open chain
B cant be audized
Benedicts
reactwith B is nota
reducing sugar
cant
reagent
 13.7 Polysaccharides 489

13.7 Polysaccharides
LEARNING GOAL Describe the structural features of amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, and
cellulose.

A polysaccharide is a polymer of many monosaccharides joined together. Four important poly-

saccharides—amylose, amylopectin, cellulose, and glycogen—are all polymers of d-glucose
that differ only in the type of glycosidic bonds and the amount of branching in the molecule.

Starch ENGAGE
Starch, a storage form of glucose in plants, is found as insoluble granules in rice, wheat, potatoes, What types of glycosidic bonds
beans, and cereals. Starch is composed of two kinds of polysaccharides, amylose and amylopectin. are present in amylose and
Amylose, which makes up about 20% of starch, consists of 250 to 4000 a-d-glucose molecules amylopectin?
connected by a(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds in a continuous chain. Sometimes called a straight-chain
polymer, polymers of amylose are actually coiled in helical fashion (see FIGURE 13.10a).

a(1 4)-Glycosidic bond

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
O O O O
H H H H H H H H
H H 1 4 H H
OH H OH H OH H OH H
O O O O O
H OH H OH H OH H OH
(a) Unbranched chain of amylose

O O
O
O
O
O

O O
O
O O

O
O

O O
O
O
O

O
O
O

O
O

O
O

O
O
O
O

O
O

O
O
O
O

Amylose
O
O

O
O

O O
O

O O
O
O

O O
O

O
O

O O

O
O

O O
O
O
O

O
O

O
O

O
O
O O O O O
O

O
O
O

O
O

O
O

O O
O

O
O

Glucose monomers
O

O O
O
O

O
O
O

O
O

O
O

O
O

O
O

O
O

O O
O
O O
O

O O
O

O
O
O
O O
O

O O
O

O
O

O
O
O

O
O
O
O

O
O

O
O
O

O
O
O O
O
O

O
Amylopectin, glycogen
O
O

O
O
O

O
O
O
O

O O O
O O
O O O O O O
O

O O O O
O O
O O O
O
O

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O
H H H H H H
H H H 1
OH H OH H OH H
O O O a(1 6)-Glycosidic
H OH H OH H OH bond to branch
a(1 4)-Glycosidic bond O
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH 6
CH2
O O O O
H H H H H H H H
H H 1 4
H H
OH H OH H OH H OH H
O O O O O
H OH H OH H OH H OH
(b) Branched chain of amylopectin
FIGURE 13.10 The structure of amylose (a) is a straight-chain polysaccharide of glucose units,
and the structure of amylopectin (b) is a branched chain of glucose.
Q What are the two types of glycosidic bonds that link glucose molecules in amylopectin?
490 CHAPTER 13 Carbohydrates

Amylopectin, which makes up as much as 80% of starch, is a branched-chain polysac-

charide. Like amylose, the glucose molecules are connected by a(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds.
However, at about every 25 glucose units, there is a branch of glucose molecules attached
by an a(1 S 6)@glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of the branch and carbon 6 in the main
chain (see Figure 13.10b).
Starches hydrolyze in water and acid to give smaller saccharides, called dextrins, which
then hydrolyze to maltose and finally glucose. In our bodies, these complex carbohydrates
are digested by the enzymes amylase (in saliva) and maltase (in the intestine). The glucose
obtained provides about 50% of our nutritional calories.

H+ or amylase H+ or amylase H+ or maltase

Amylose, amylopectin dextrins maltose many d-glucose units

Glycogen
Glycogen, or animal starch, is a polymer of glucose that is stored in the liver and muscle
of animals. It is hydrolyzed in our cells at a rate that maintains the blood level of glucose
and provides energy between meals. The structure of glycogen is very similar to that of
amylopectin found in plants, except that glycogen is more highly branched. In glycogen,
the glucose units are joined by a(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds, and branches occurring about
every 10 to 15 glucose units are attached by a(1 S 6)@glycosidic bonds.

Cellulose
Cellulose is the major structural material of wood and plants. Cotton is almost pure cel-
lulose. In cellulose, glucose molecules form a long unbranched chain similar to that of
amylose. However, the glucose units in cellulose are linked by b(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds.
The cellulose chains do not form coils like amylose but are aligned in parallel rows that
are held in place by hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl groups in adjacent chains, making
cellulose insoluble in water. This gives a rigid structure to the cell walls in wood and fiber
that is more resistant to hydrolysis than are the starches (see FIGURE 13.11).

O O
O O
O O

O O

O O
CH2OH
O O O
CH2OH H O
O O O 4 H
CH2OH H O OH H
O H 1
H
CH2OH H OH H
O O H O H H OH
Cellulose H O OH H
H H H OH
O OH H 4)-Glycosidic bond
H H OH b(1

H OH
FIGURE 13.11 The polysaccharide cellulose is composed of glucose units connected by
b(1S 4)@glycosidic bonds.
Q Why are humans unable to digest cellulose?
 13.7 Polysaccharides 491

Humans have an enzyme called a@amylase in saliva and pancreatic juices that hydrolyzes
the a(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds of starches, but not the b(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds of cellu-
lose. Thus, humans cannot digest cellulose. Animals such as horses, cows, and goats can
obtain glucose from cellulose because their digestive systems contain bacteria that provide
enzymes such as cellulase to hydrolyze b(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13.8 Structures of Polysaccharides

TRY IT FIRST
Give the name of one or more polysaccharides described by each of the following:
a. a polysaccharide that is stored in the liver and muscle tissues
b. an unbranched polysaccharide containing b(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds
c. a branched polysaccharide containing a(1 S 4)@ and a(1 S 6)@glycosidic bonds
SOLUTION

a. glycogen b. cellulose c. amylopectin, glycogen

STUDY CHECK 13.8
Cellulose and amylose are both unbranched glucose polymers. How do they differ?
ANSWER TEST
Cellulose contains glucose units connected by b(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds, whereas the glu- Try Practice Problems 13.47
cose units in amylose are connected by a(1 S 4)@glycosidic bonds. to 13.50

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
13.7 Polysaccharides b. the storage form of carbohydrates in plants
c. contains only a(1S 4)@glycosidic bonds
LEARNING GOAL Describe the structural features of amylose,
amylopectin, glycogen, and cellulose.
d. the most highly branched polysaccharide
13.50 Give the name of one or more polysaccharides that matches
13.47 Describe the similarities and differences in the following: each of the following descriptions:
a. amylose and amylopectin a. What is the key polysaccharide storage form of carbohy-
b. amylopectin and glycogen drates in animals?
13.48 Describe the similarities and differences in the following: b. What is the only type of glycosidic bond found in amylase?
a. amylose and cellulose c. Name one polysaccharide that contains both a@1, 4@ and
b. cellulose and glycogen a@1, 6@glycosidic bonds
d. What is produced by dextrins during digestion?
Clinical Applications
13.49 Give the name of one or more polysaccharides that matches
each of the following descriptions:
a. not digestible by humans

CLINICAL UPDATE Kate’s Program for Type 2 Diabetes

At Kate’s next appoint-
ment, Paula showed
Kate how to use a
glucose meter. She
instructed Kate to mea-
sure her blood glucose
level twice a day before
and after breakfast and
dinner. Paula explains to Kate
that her pre-meal blood glucose level should be 110 mg/dL or
less, and if it increases by more than 50 mg/dL, she needs to
lower the amount of carbohydrates she consumes.
Kate and Paula proceed to plan several meals. Because a
meal should contain about 45 to 60 g of carbohydrates, they
combined fruits and vegetables that have high and low levels of
carbohydrates in the same meal to stay within the recommended
range. Kate and Paula also discuss the fact that complex carbo-
hydrates in the body take longer to break down into glucose,
and therefore raise the blood sugar level more gradually.
Kate increased her exercise to walking 30 minutes twice a
day. She began to change her diet by eating six small meals
a day consisting of more fruits and vegetables without starch
such as green beans and broccoli with small servings of whole
grains and of chicken or fish. Kate also decreased the amounts of
492 CHAPTER 13 Carbohydrates

breads and pasta because she knew carbohydrates would raise

her blood sugar.
After three months, Kate reported that she had lost 10 lb and
that her blood glucose had dropped to 146 mg/dL. Her blurry
vision had improved, and her need to urinate had decreased.
Clinical Applications
13.51 Kate’s blood volume is 3.9 L. Before treatment, if her blood
glucose was 178 mg/dL, how many grams of glucose were
in her blood?
13.52 Kate’s blood volume is 3.9 L. After three months of diet
and exercise, if her blood glucose is 146 mg/dL, how many
grams of glucose are in her blood?
13.53 For breakfast, Kate had 1 cup of orange juice (23 g
carbohydrate), 2 slices of wheat toast (24 g carbohydrate),
2 tablespoons of grape jam (26 g carbohydrate), and coffee
with sugar substitute (0 g carbohydrate).
a. Has Kate remained within the limit of 45 to 60 g of
carbohydrate?
b. Using the energy value of 4 kcal/g for carbohydrate,
calculate the total kilocalories from carbohydrates in
Kate’s breakfast, rounded to the tens place.
13.54 The next day, Kate had 1 cup of cereal (15 g carbohydrate)
with skim milk (7 g carbohydrate), 1 banana (17 g carbo-
hydrate), and 1/2 cup of orange juice (12 g carbohydrate)
for breakfast.
a. Has Kate remained within the limit of 45 to 60 g of
carbohydrate?
b. Using the energy value of 4 kcal/g for carbohydrate,
calculate the total kilocalories from carbohydrates in
Kate’s breakfast, rounded to the tens place.

CONCEPT MAP
CARBOHYDRATES
are classified as
form glycosidic
Monosaccharides bonds Disaccharides Polysaccharides

include include are polymers of

Glucose, Galactose, Reducing Maltose, Glucose

Fructose Sugars Lactose
found in plants as stored in animals as
are and
Amylose, Glycogen
Chiral Compounds Sucrose Amylopectin,
Cellulose
with

Mirror Images

drawn as

Fischer Projections

and the cyclic

Haworth Structures

CHAPTER REVIEW
13.1 Carbohydrates Aldehyde • Monosaccharides are also classified by their number of carbon
H O atoms: triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose.
LEARNING GOAL Classify a monosaccharide as an C
aldose or a ketose, and indicate the number of carbon
H C OH 13.2 Chiral Molecules H
atoms. Br Cl
H C OH LEARNING GOAL Identify chiral and achiral
• Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides carbon atoms in an organic molecule. Identify d
(simple sugars), disaccharides (two monosaccharide CH2OH
and l enantiomers. I
units), or polysaccharides (many monosaccharide units). Erythrose,
an aldose
• Monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes (aldoses)
or ketones (ketoses).