Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03117-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

A study on compressibility and permeability of tailings with different

particle sizes under high pressure
Changkun Ma1,2 · Ruixin Li3 · Chao Zhang1 · Xiaogang Guo1 · Xueting Li1

Received: 21 August 2022 / Accepted: 13 February 2023

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
Mine tailings are stored in tailings storage facilities (TSF), normally in the form of tailings dams. High-stacked tailings dams
(HTD) are failure-prone for several reasons, such as overtopping, seepage failure, and strength deterioration. The investiga-
tion of compressibility and permeability of tailings material with different particle sizes under high pressure is essential for
safety stability. By self-developed high-pressure consolidation permeability apparatus (HCPA), the laboratory conjoined
consolidation permeability tests are carried out on tailings with different particle sizes at the maximum consolidation pres-
sure (σ’v) of 5 MPa. For compressibility of tailings in the high-pressure stage (σ’ v > 2 MPa), the void ratio e of tailings with
different particle sizes has a new linear relationship with σ’v. Coarse-grained tailings have a “secondary- compression-like
property” due to particle breakage under high pressure. The hydraulic conductivity of tailings under high pressure presents
a piecewise linear k-σ’v relationship. With the decrease in particle size and the increase of σ’v, the seepage pattern of tail-
ings changes from channel seepage to micropore seepage. σ’v = 2 MPa is regarded as the critical value for high-pressure
compression of tailing, and the corresponding microscopic critical value of the average particle spacing is 1.2–1.8 nm. This
research explored useful information on the compressibility and permeability of tailings with different particle sizes under
high pressure that can provide a reference for improving the stabilization of HTD.

Keywords Tailings · High pressure · Compressibility · Permeability · Microscopic critical value

Introduction size at different positions of the tailings dam varies greatly.

Tailings are the residues after ore extraction and beneficia-
tion, and tailings dams are places where tailings are stored
(Islam and Shang 2019; Ma et al. 2021; Fourie et al. 2022).
Tailings dams are hydraulic sedimentary structures. The
slurry flows laterally while depositing vertically during
discharging, forming a sedimentary structure with coarse-
grained tailings in the front area and fine-grained tailings in
the reservoir (Küpper 1991). This indicates that the particle
* Chao Zhang
ckma1027@163.com
1
State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, Hubei, China
2
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049,
China
3
State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower
Engineering Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071,
Hubei, China
Similarly, the height of tailings dams is increasing. With the
advancement of beneficiation technology and the limitation
of land resources, high-stacked tailings dams (HTD) have to
be built more. Studies of HTD show they are more danger-
ous than tailings dams with normal height. The Wanniangou
tailings dam of Panzhihua Iron Mine is the highest in the
world with a height of 325 m, which was reported that the
ancient landslide in the reservoir area, seepage, and other
safety hazards occurred during the operation (Xia and Li
2015). The Caren tailings dam in central Chile has a maxi-
mum dam height of 108 m, and its in situ monitoring data
were highly related to dam height (Valenzuela 2016). The
maximum height of the Bahuerachi tailings dam in Mexico
is 100 m, and the increasing trend of the number of HTD was
proposed (Chandler and Tosatti 1995). There is currently no
clear definition of HTD. Various scholars have expressed
different views on HTD in the literature. The height of dams
over 30 m (Liu et al. 2012), 60 m (Guo 2010), and 100 m
(Bellendir et al. 2019; Yin et al. 2018) are both identified as
high tailings dams. For tailings dams with a height of more

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 106 Page 2 of 16 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106

than 100 m, the bottom pressure can reach 2 MPa (take the particle size distribution. This is because the tailings parti-
average weight of 20 kN/m3 as an example). The following cles are machine grinding, not subjected to long-time natu-
research shows that 2 MPa is regarded as the high-pressure ral weathering and water erosion. Compared with coarse-
criticality of tailings material, and its corresponding micro- grained tailings, the particle properties, strength parameters,
scopic average particle spacing is analyzed at the same time. and permeability of fine-grained tailings are significantly
There are no less than 26 HTDs with a dam height of more different (Valenzuela 2016). Since Bolt 1965 proposed the
than 100 m on earth, and no less than 10 HTDs with a stor- diffusion double layer (DDL) theory, the peculiarity of the
age capacity of more than 100 million ­m3. The strength compressibility of fine-grained soil is widely explained
parameters of high tailings dams are attenuated (Zhang using DDL theory. However, when the particles are smaller
et al. 2019). Compared with regular tailings dams, HTDs than the critical value under high-pressure compression, the
are failure-prone and more dangerous. There are mechanical DDL repulsion will increase sharply (Rhaem et al. 1987;
experiments of tailings material under MPa-level pressure Marcial et al. 2002). A study on the compression proper-
have been reported (Li et al. 2018; Hu et al. 2017a, b; Zhang ties of fine-grained tailings under high pressure is helpful
et al. 2019; Solans et al. 2019), and most of these studies to improve the stability of HTD.
focus on the deterioration of strength parameters of tailings In this paper, using the self-developed “High-pressure
under high pressure (Zhang et al. 2019). The permeability Consolidation Permeability Apparatus (HCPA),” the high-
and compressibility of tailings materials under high pressure pressure permeability and consolidation tests of sandy tail-
are rarely reported. ings (SDT), silty tailing (STT), silty-clayey tailings (SCT),
The statistical causes of tailings dam failure accidents and clayey tailings (CLT) were carried out. The results
are shown in Fig. 1. From 1965, 91.7% of tailings dam fail- show the nonlinear law of compressibility and permeability
ures are water-related directly (Azam and Li 2010). These of tailings materials with different particle sizes. Models
major tailings dam failure modes are related to the com- for compressibility and permeability of tailings with differ-
pressibility and permeability of the tailings material. The ent particle sizes under high pressure are proposed. Finally,
compressibility and permeability of tailings with different the crushing degree of coarse-grained tailings and the DDL
particle sizes in HTD are different, and the existing filtra- repulsion of fine-grained tailings under high pressure are
tion theory of consolidation that can be applied in HTD is discussed from the view of particles.
unclear. The permeability and compressibility of tailings
materials under high pressure are rarely reported (Solans
et al. 2019; Hu et al. 2017a, b). They correlated the void Material and methods
ratio at high-pressure compression with strength, whereas
hydraulic conductivity, a parameter directly affected by the Tailings preparation
void ratio, has not been shown to correlate with the void
ratio under high pressure. The tailings materials used in this research were sourced
As a special artificial soil, tailings material has weaker from the No. 4 tailings dam of Dexing Copper Mine in
viscosity and lower fabric than natural soils with the same Jiangxi province of China. The designed dam height is
208 m which is a typical high tailings dam. The remod-
eled tailings samples with different particle sizes were
60 48.8% used to research the compressibility and permeability of
50
tailings under high pressure. Tailings from the dry beach
The number of tailings dams failure

50 at different distances from the sub-dam were taken out as

40
shown in Fig. 2(1). The four realistic diameter thresholds
were selected for research: 2 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.075 mm, and
Proportion (%)

40
28.9%
30 0.035 mm, corresponding to the maximum diameter, the
30 59 median diameter, the limit diameter for fine-grained tailings,
20 and the limit diameter for ultrafine-grained tailings, respec-
20
35 tively. The four samples belong to sandy tailings (SDT), silty
9.9%
8.3% 10
tailings (STT), silty-clayey tailings (SCT), and clayey tail-
10
12
4.1% ings (CLT) respectively according to the code for design
10
5 of tailings facilities (GB50863 2013), which are shown in
0 0
failur
e
topp
ing uefa
ction atic li
ne
rs Fig. 2(2). Due to the particles of CLT being ultra-fine (diam-
eepa
ge
Over ic liq phre othe
S Se is m High eter < 35 µm accounts for ≥ 90%), the air classifier was used
to prepare CLT. SDT, STT, SCT, and CLT were subjected
Fig. 1  Particle gradation curves to consolidation tests under the pressure of 0–5 MPa. As

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106
Fig. 2  Sample preparation procedures. (1) Tailings at different locations are obtained. (2) Tailings are sieved. (3) Samples are shaved. (4) Sam-
ples are compacted. (5) Samples are treated by vacuum saturation. (6) Samples are fixed in HCPA. (7) Water is filled in HCPA
different sample preparation methods (wet, dry, or slurry) for
the compression tests have an effect on the sample structure
(Payan et al. 2016). The slurry method is commonly used in
model tests and in-site tests. It is difficult to obtain an ideal
sample of laboratory test by the slurry method because of
its small size and fixed dry density. It was figured out that
the wet tamping technique (i.e., under-compaction) works
better than the dry tamping technique, since in this method
the uniformity of the specimens is maintained rightfully
(Amin et al. 2018). All samples were prepared in the same
procedure using the wet method. The samples were made
into a cutting ring with a diameter of 63.5 mm, and a height
of 20 mm. The samples were put into a sampler, shaved,
and compacted as shown in Fig. 2(3) and (4). The dry den-
sity of the samples is set to 1.6 g/cm3. The prepared cutting
ring samples were water saturated by vacuum saturation as
shown in Fig. 2(5). The samples were placed between the
cover, side ring, and pedestal of HCPA as shown in Fig. 2(6).
HCPA is filled with water by a water inlet hole and air vent
hole, and samples were loaded by the movable rod as shown
in Fig. 2(7). Sample preparation is shown in Fig. 2. The
particle gradation curves of the samples are shown in Fig. 3.
The basic properties of tailings samples, including the
major minerals present, are shown in Table 1. The specific
gravity (G s) of tailings was determined using a helium
pycnometer (ASTM D5550 2014). Gs decrease with the
decreasing diameter of the samples, indicating that the
Page 3 of 16 106
proportion of minerals with different particle sizes is dif-
ferent. The initial void ratio of the saturated samples is
calculated by Eq. (1).
𝜌𝜔 Gs (1 + 0.01w0 )
e0 = (1)
𝜌0
Where ρω is the density of water, w0 is the initial water
content, and ρ0 is the initial density of samples. The liquid
limit and plastic limit of the samples were determined, and
the plastic index was determined by subtracting the plastic
limit from the liquid limit of the material (ASTM D698-12).
Compared with SCT, CLT produce a higher water-holding
capacity. The coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of
curvature are calculated by Eqs. (2) and (3) to reflect the
gradation of the samples.
Cu = d60 ∕d10 (2)
Cc = (d30 )2 ∕(d10 × d60 ) (3)
where d10, d30, and d60 are the particle sizes of which the
mass of tailings not exceeding the particle size accounts for
10%, 30%, and 60%, respectively. X-ray diffraction (XRD;
Panakot Aeris, the Netherlands) analyses on the dry pulver-
ized samples are carried out with 40 kV and 135 mA (CoKa
radiation). The range of 5–80° (2θ) was scanned at a step
interval of 0.01° and a scanning rate of 5°/min.
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Fig. 3  Grain size accumulation

curves

Apparatus (SEM; FEI Company, Quanta 250, USA). The samples

By self-developed HCPA, the laboratory permeability tests
of tailings with different particle sizes at the maximum con-
solidation pressure (σ’v) of 5 MPa were carried out. The
illustration of the apparatus and the principle of the structure
are shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Compared with other apparatus
of the same type, the biggest advantage of this one is that the
permeability tests can be carried out while maintaining the
consolidation pressure, and the maximum vertical pressure
can reach 15.8 MPa.
The microstructure of the samples after high-pressure
compressing was scanned by scanning electron microscope
were wrapped with epoxy resin, electroplated, and freeze-
dried. The freeze-dried samples were sublimated by plac-
ing them in a vacuum drying cabinet for 24 h to obviate
any fabric change by pore shrinkage as a result of air and
oven drying. Scanning electron images of 200- and 800-
times magnification were used to study the seepage path
of tailings with different particle sizes, carried out under
a working distance of about 8.5 mm and an acceleration
voltage of 15 kV.
Experimental procedures
Two experiments were carried out in this paper.

Table 1  Basic properties of tailings samples

Properties SDT STT SCT CLT

Specific gravity Gs ( −) 2.87 2.85 2.82 2.78

Void ratio e0 ( −) 0.794 0.781 0.763 0.738
Liquid limit wl (%) 28.8 40.4
Plastic limit wp (%) 16.9 20.1
Plastic index Ip (%) 11.9 20.3
Coefficient of uniformity Cu ( −) 7.522 10.111 5.833 4.333
Coefficient of curvature Cc ( −) 2.174 1.496 0.805 1.641
%Fine(< 35 μm) (%) 11.89 30.16 59.79 92.39
Dominant minerals
Quartz (%) 66 52 41 30
Illite (%) 24 35 46 56
Chlorite (%) 4 5 6 7
Albite (%) 4 4 4 5
Fig. 4  Photograph of HCPA

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106
Fig. 5  Schematic diagram of HCPA
High‑pressure conjoined consolidation permeability tests The
samples were pre-saturated and back pressure saturated in the
apparatus, and the pressure difference ∆p = σ’v = p1 – p2 was
kept constant. p1, p2 and p3 represent axial pressure, back pres-
sure and base pressure respectively. p2 was slightly larger than
p3 to ensure small effective pressure in the soil to prevent the
soil from swelling. The samples were considered saturated
when the increment of the bottom pore pressure ∆u reached
95% of the back pressure increment ∆p2. The consolidation
pressures were set to 0.05 MPa, 0.1 MPa, 0.2 MPa, 0.4 MPa,
0.8 MPa, 1.2 MPa, 2 MPa, 3 MPa, 4 MPa, and 5 MPa. The
load increment rate (LIR = ∆σ’v /σ’v) was designed to be 1
when the consolidation pressure is less than 1 MPa. When the
consolidation pressure is greater than 1 MPa, the soil structure
will be easily damaged if the load increment rate of 1 con-
tinues to be loaded. To get more data points and protect the
samples’ structure during the high-pressure stage, the loading
increment was set to 1 MPa. The duration of each loading
step was 24 h. When the consolidation process of each load-
ing was completed, the effective pressure in the sample was
equal to the consolidation pressure. To measure the hydraulic
conductivities at each level of consolidation pressure, back
pressure p2 and base pressure p3 were set for constant head
permeability tests while p1 was kept constant. The duration
of the permeability tests was 1 h.
Non‑Darcy permeability tests for CLT Under each level of
consolidation pressure, 9 groups of permeability tests with a
constant head difference were set, marked as NCLT. The head
difference ∆p is set to 2 kPa → 4 kPa → 6 kPa → 8 kPa → 10
Page 5 of 16 106
kPa → 15 kPa → 20 kPa → 25 kPa → 30 kPa. This test was to
study whether the seepage of clayey tailings and tailings under
high-pressure conditions obeys Darcy’s law.
Results
Compressibility
Void ratio e
The curves of the void ratio with the vertical pressure are
shown in Fig. 6. The curves are linear when σ’v < 2 MPa
and newly linear with similar slopes when σ’v ≥ 2 MPa. The
e-σ’v compression curves are piecewise linear, and the e-σ’v
compression curves of tailings with different particle sizes
in the high-pressure stage (σ’v ≥ 2 MPa) are almost parallel.
The compressibility of coarse-grained tailings is weakened
in the high-pressure stage, and the compressibility of fine-
grained tailings is relatively enhanced in the high-pressure
stage as inferred.
The SEM images of SDT and CLT after consolidation
pressure of 5 MPa are shown in Fig. 7. The structure of
different samples is different but the compressibility is
similar when σ’v ≥ 2 MPa, which means the change in the
compressibility of tailings with different particle sizes in
the high-pressure stage is not only because of the change in
particle sizes. Coarse-grained tailings are more compress-
ible at high pressure than at normal pressure due to particle
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Table 2  Cc and the correlation coefficient R2 at the end of the curves
Samples e − lgσ’v
Cc ­(MPa−1) R2 ( −)

σ’v < 2 MPa SDT 0.069 0.998

STT 0.162 0.95
SCT 0.086 0.901
CLT 0.077 0.87
σ’v ≥ 2 MPa SDT 0.355 0.889
STT 0.265 0.931
SCT 0.311 0.856
CLT 0.324 0.863

show similar compressibility at high pressure. This is because

Fig. 6  Piecewise linearity curves of tailings e − lg σ’v compression model
breakage (Zhang et al. 2019), while fine-grained tailings are
less compressible at high pressure than at normal pressure
due to DDL repulsion, explained in “Fine-grained particle
compression under high pressure.”
the particle breakage of coarse-grained tailings seriously
increases its compressibility, and the increase of the repulsive
force of DDL water film of fine-grained tailings decreases its
compressibility (see “Qualitative tailings particle breakage
analysis”). At lower pressure, the Cc values of the tailings
samples are different cause of their PSD and composition
of minerals.

Coefficient of secondary consolidation Ca

Compression index Cc
The compression index Cc is the slope close to a straight
line at the end of the curve, which is used to quantitatively
describe the compressibility of the soil (Leroueil et al. 1985;
Burland et al., 1990; Chai et al. 2004). The Cc value of each
sample after segmentation is shown in Table 2.
Comparing the correlation coefficient R2, the applicabil-
ity of the compression model e − lgσ’v was deficient when
σ’v ≥ 2 MPa. The specimens with larger Cc values in the high-
pressure stage have smaller Cc values in the low-pressure
stage and vice versa. It shows when σ’v ≥ 2 MPa, the value
of Cc is in the similar range, meaning all the samples will
a) b)
Fig. 7  SEM images of SDT and CLT after consolidation pressure of 5 MPa
The secondary consolidation is generally a unique phenome-
non in the compression of clayey tailings (Kumar and Wood
1999; Horpibulsuk et al. 2011). Secondary consolidation is a
process in which soil volume still decreases with time after
the completion of primary consolidation. SDT was found to
have similar secondary consolidation due to particle break-
age under high pressure.
The relationship between the deformation and the loga-
rithm of time is linear in the secondary consolidation, and
the coefficient of secondary consolidation Ca is expressed
as follows:
Ca = −Δe∕lg(t2 ∕t1 ) (4)
where ∆e is the void ratio difference at the time t1 and t2 of
the corresponding secondary consolidation stage. The Cas
are shown in Fig. 8.
The Ca of tailings increases with the increase of con-
solidation pressure, which is consistent with the secondary
consolidation of tailings under normal pressure (Maio et al.
2004; Hu et al. 2017a, b). The Ca tended to be stable when
the pressure reaches a threshold. This phenomenon also
exists in common soft clays (Schiffman et al. 1966), which
is related to the composition of minerals in viscous tailings.
For SDT (non-cohesive soil) and CLT (ultrafine-grained
soil), the threshold value of the the coefficient of secondary
consolidation is higher.

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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106
Fig. 8  The relationship between Ca and σ’v
Relationship between fine content and compression parameters
To display the relationship intuitively between compres-
sion parameters (void ratio e, compressibility index Cc,
and secondary consolidation coefficient Ca) and particle
size, the relationship of e, C c, and Ca with fine content
(%Fine) is shown in Fig. 9. From Fig. 9a, STT is the most
compressible than that of SDT, SCT, and CLT when
(a)
Fig. 9  The relationship between compression parameters and fine content
Page 7 of 16 106
σ’v < 2 MPa. The main factor affecting the compressibil-
ity of tailings is particle gradation. When σ’v ≥ 2 MPa, the
compressibility of tailings with different particle sizes is
almost the same. From Fig. 9b, when σ’v ≥ 2 MPa, both
Cc and Ca are opposite to the stage when σ’v < 2 MPa. A
total of 2 MPa is defined as the critical pressure value for
high-pressure consolidation of tailings with different par-
ticle sizes (explained deeply in the “Discussion” section).
Permeability
Hydraulic conductivity k
The relationship of hydraulic conductivity k of tailings
with void ratio e is shown in Fig. 10. The hydraulic con-
ductivity of tailings samples shows piecewise linearity.
Moreover, the consolidation pressure corresponding to the
inflection point in Fig. 10a is 2 MPa. Combined with the
compression curve (Fig. 6), it can be seen that void ratio
e and the hydraulic conductivity k show a new linear rela-
tionship when the consolidation pressure is greater than
2 MPa (the four points at the bottom of each curve repre-
sent the consolidation pressure of 2–5 MPa).
Permeability mode
When the tailings particle size was large, the coarse parti-
cles were in contact with each other, and the permeability
(b)
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106 Page 8 of 16
Fig. 10  The relationship of hydraulic conductivity k of tailings with
void ratio e
channel was unchanged. This mode is called channel perme-
ability. When the particle size was small, the high consolida-
tion pressure closed the channel of large pores. This mode is
called micropore permeability. The channel permeability is
dominated by large pores, while the micropore permeability
is dominated by multiple small pores.
The binarized SEM images of the high-pressure conjoined
consolidation permeability tests at the maximum pressure of
5 MPa are shown in Fig. 11, where the white area represents
solid particles, the black area represents pores, V represents
the vertical section, and H represents the horizontal section.
The SEM images of sandy tailings SDT and silty tailings
Fig. 11  SEM images of tailing
after high-pressure consolidation
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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106
STT are shown at 200 × magnification. The SEM images of
silty-clayey tailings SCT and clayey tailings CLT are shown
at 800 × magnification. From Fig. 11, the pores of SDT and
STT on the vertical section are obvious dictionary, the chan-
nel permeability is obvious (red solid line), and the pores
on the corresponding horizontal section are holes-like (red
circle). The channel of SCT is found on the 800-times mag-
nified picture. The tailings permeability mode under high
consolidation pressure changed from channel seepage to
micropore seepage with decreasing particle size.
Non‑Darcy permeability analysis
The permeability that deviates from the linear relationship
between the velocity v and the hydraulic gradient i is called
non-Darcy permeability (Huang 1983). The hydraulic gradi-
ent i was calculated by Eq. (5).
Δp
i= (5)
𝛾w h
where h is the length of the seepage path under the current
consolidation pressure (the height of the sample under the
current consolidation pressure level). The flow velocity v is
calculated by Eq. (6).
q Q
v= = (6)
a At
where q is the flow rate through the sample per unit time;
Q is the total flow rate through the sample; A is the cross-
sectional area of the sample; and t is the permeability time.
The relationship between v and i is shown in Fig. 12.
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106 Page 9 of 16 106

From Fig. 12, when the consolidation pressure is

small, the curves were arc-shaped, and the linear fitting
effect of the curves was higher as the consolidation pres-
sure increases. The seepage flow of clayey tailings NCLT
changes from obeying non-Darcy law to obeying Darcy law
with the increase of consolidation pressure.

Discussion

The consolidation pressure of 2 MPa seems to be the inflec-

tion point for tailings compressibility and permeability. The
reasons why the compressibility and permeability of tailings
under high pressure are different from that under normal
pressure from the perspective of microscopic particles are
analyzed in this section. Coarse-grained tailings are mainly
affected by particle breakage. The particle breakage of dif-
Fig. 13  Particle grading curves after 5 MPa compression test
ferent particle sizes was analyzed qualitatively and quantita-
tively. The particle breakage rate considering full gradation
was used to measure the crushing degree of tailings particles
with different particle sizes under high pressure. The whole are shown in Fig. 13. SDTL, STTL, SCTL, and CLTL are
process of fine-grained tailings under high-pressure com- the particle gradation curves of samples SDT, STT, SCT,
pression was analyzed. Introducing the concepts of particle and CLT after the 5 MPa compression test, respectively.
breakage and effective void ratio, the modified high-pressure The sandy tailings SDT was obviously particle crushed,
permeability formula was proposed. and the clayey tailings CLT was hardly particle crushed.
The characteristic particle sizes of the particles before and
Coarse‑grained particle breakage after the consolidation test are shown in Table 3. The tailings
particles were crushed under high-pressure consolidation to
Qualitative tailings particle breakage analysis fine particles. Compared with the change of characteristic
particle size, the particle size of fine particles varies greatly,
The tailings particle gradation curves after the conjoined indicating that the crushing of tailings particles under high
consolidation permeability tests at a maximum of 5 MPa pressure is mainly to produce fine particles by grinding.

Fig. 12  v—i curves of NCLT

under different consolidation
pressures

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Table 3  Characteristic particle size dmax

∫ (9)
Samples d10 (mm) d30 (mm) d50 (mm) d60 (mm) d90 (mm) Fc = Pc d(d)
dmin
SDT 0.023 0.093 0.141 0.173 0.370
SDTL 0.015 0.078 0.113 0.139 0.244
dmax
STT 0.009 0.035 0.076 0.091 0.166

∫ (10)
STTL 0.007 0.028 0.072 0.090 0.166 Fu = Pu d(d)
SCT 0.006 0.013 0.023 0.035 0.067 dmin
SCTL 0.005 0.011 0.019 0.029 0.064
CLT 0.003 0.008 0.011 0.013 0.028 where dmin and dmax are the minimum and the maximum par-
CLTL 0.004 0.008 0.011 0.013 0.027 ticle size, respectively. The distribution of ultimate pressure
Pu is not easy to be obtained in tests, and Pu is obtained by
inverse calculation of Fc (See Liu et al. 2012). The breakage
Quantitative tailings particle breakage analysis index Br is distributed between 0 − 1. Br = 0 indicates that the
particles were not broken, and Br = 1 indicates that all the par-
The impact mechanism of tailings compressibility under ticles were broken. The breakage index Br of SDT, STT, SCT,
high pressure is revealed by particle breakage rate. In our and CLT under 5 MPa consolidation pressure are 0.44, 0.048,
previous work, a particle size accumulation curve to express 0.043, and 0.011, respectively. The breakage of SDT is sig-
the breakage rate of tailings particles under high pressure nificant. For coarse-grained tailings, particle breakage is the
was proposed shown in Fig. 14 (Zhang et al. 2019). The cal- main factor that distinguishes the compression performance
culation of the breakage rate Br based on the entire particle in the high-pressure stage from the normal-pressure stage.
distribution curve is more reasonable than some character-
istic particle sizes. The particle size distribution before the Fine‑grained particle compression under high pressure
compression tests is defined as P0. The particle size distribu-
tion after the compression tests is defined as Pc, and the par- Calculation of double‑layer thickness
ticle size distribution after the ultimate pressure is defined
as Pu. F0, Fc, and Fu are the integrals of P0, Pc, and Pu on The difference in compressibility of fine tailings under high
the particle size, respectively. Then, the breakage index Br pressure relates to DDL. The DDL thickness Eq. (11) of
is expressed as follows: high-purity clay minerals is given by Tripathy and Schanz
(2007):
Br = (Fc − F0 )∕(Fu − F0 ) (7)
( )1∕2
2n0 E02 𝜇i2
dmax K= (11)
𝜀0 DkbT
∫ (8)
F0 = P0 d(d)
dmin where K is the DDL parameter, and its reciprocal is regarded
as the thickness of DDL; n0 is the ion concentration of the
fluid medium; for water, n0 is 6.02 × ­1022 ions/m3; E0 is the
unit charge, takes 1.602 × 10 − 19 C; µi is the exchange-
able cation valence; ε0 is the vacuum permittivity, takes
8.8542 × ­10−12 ­C2/J/m; D is the dielectric constant of the
fluid medium (D is taken as 80.4 for water); kb is the Boltz-
mann constant, which is 1.38 × 10 − 23 J/K; and T is the
kelvin temperature, which is 298 K at room temperature.
The DDL of the clayey tailing particles are in contact with
each other with the consolidation pressure σ’v increases and
the repulsive force of the DDL is equal to the value of the
externally applied pressure σ’v.

𝜎 � v = 2n0 kT(cosh m − 1) (12)

where m is the calculation parameter related to the dimen-

sionless parameter group Kd. d is half the mean soil parti-
Fig. 14  Gradation curves under different characteristic states cle spacing. Tripathy and Schanz (2007) research that the

13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106
relationship between the two is shown in Eq. (13), where B
and C are constant.
m = B lg(Kd) + C (13)
The analysis was carried out with the compression test
data of clayey tailing CLT with a maximum consolidation
pressure of 5 MPa. According to Table 1 of the physical
properties of tailing samples, take the specific gravity of
CLT as 2.78, the specific surface area of tailings particles as
96.6 ­m2/g, and the exchangeable cation compound valence
as 2.2. K = 8.3963 × ­107 (1/m), while calculated by the pure
clay calculation Eq. (11). The thickness of the DDL of the
clayey tailing CLT is 1.191 × ­10–8 m. By Eq. (12), m is cal-
culated from σ’v, and the corresponding Kd is obtained by
looking up the table by m (Tripathy and Schanz 2007).
e = 106 G𝛾w Sd (14)
Equation (14) is to relate the clay particles spacing to the
void ratio e proposed by Bolt (1956), where G is the specific
gravity of soil particles; gw is the density of water; and S is
the specific surface area of soil particles. The theoretical
void ratio e under different consolidation pressure was calcu-
lated for pure clay Eqs. (12), (13), and (14). The calculated
and measured values of void ratio e are shown in Fig. 15a.
The calculated values of particle spacing 2d by Eqs. (12)
and (13) and 2d inversely calculated from the measured e
by Eq. (14) are shown in Fig. 15b. From Fig. 15, the equa-
tions derived based on the pure clay mineral particle cannot
be applied to the clayey tailings (artificial soil), but there is
a similarity between them. The value of K in Eq. (11) only
(a)
Fig. 15  Theoretical calculation values and the measured values of e and 2d
Page 11 of 16 106
depends on the valence µ, so the thickness of the DDL of the
clayey tailings CLT is 1/K = 1.191 × ­10−8 m.
Calculation of critical particle spacing
The relationship between the macroscopic saturated water con-
tent w and the microscopic parameters under the assumption
that the clay particles are parallel was proposed by Marcial
et al. (2002).
tp
w = SE 𝜌w × 100% (15)
2
where SE is the total specific surface area obtained by the
glycol ethyl ether method, and SE = 232 ­m2/g for clayey tail-
ings CLT; tp is the distance between adjacent particles; r w is
the density of water, take 1 × 106 g/m3. The saturated water
content of the clayey tailings CLT under different consolida-
tion pressure was calculated by the consolidation drainage,
as shown in Fig. 16. The average pore size of CLT calculated
by Eq. (15) is shown in Fig. 16. The water content of CLT
at the consolidation pressure of 2 MPa is 18.36%, and the
average particle spacing is tp = 1.583 nm.
Many studies had demonstrated the piecewise linear
compressibility of clays under high pressure, and the corre-
sponding average particle spacing tp was calculated from the
data in the literature. For Japanese Kunigel clay, tp = 1.2 nm
(Macial et al. 2002). For sodium-calcium mixed clay,
tp = 1.5 nm (Macial et al. 2002). For Romanian La Bouzule
clay, tp = 2.0 nm (Djéran et al. 1998). For eastern Chinese
clay, tp = 1.8 nm (Shang et al. 2015). The compressibility of
(b)
13
106 Page 12 of 16
Fig. 16  Changes in water content and average particle spacing during
consolidation
the clay changed abruptly when the distance between the
clay particles reached 1.2–1.8 nm.
In the field of molecular dynamics, the variation of the
diffusion coefficient of water molecules with the distance
between the mineral surfaces was studied, as presented in
Fig. 17 (Bourg and Steefel 2012; Ichikawa et al. 2001).
From Fig. 17, the diffusion coefficient of water mole-
cules decreases sharply when the surface distance is less
than 1.8 nm for both clayey minerals, and this threshold is
even smaller for non-clayey minerals (about 1.2 nm). This is
consistent with our calculation of the critical particle spac-
ing under the assumption that the particles are parallel.
Clay particle orientation
The double-layer repulsive force varies significantly under
different particle direction angles (Shang et al. 2015), which
Fig. 17  The relationship between the diffusion coefficient of water
molecules and the distance between two mineral surfaces
13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106
is reduced by at least 100% when the clay particles go from
parallel to a slight angle (3°). However, the particles are still
contacted under high pressure (Anandarajah 1997).
The four tailing samples before the compression tests are
remolded soil, which is regarded as isotropic. SEM images
of tailing samples were analyzed to count the directional-
ity of particles after the 5 MPa consolidation tests. Many
automatically captured particles were statistically analyzed
using the software Image-Pro Plus (Yang and Liu 2020).
The results of the arrangement of the long-axis direction of
particles are shown in Fig. 18.
The typical particles of the four kinds of tailings were
taken out to observe the surface morphology shown in
Fig. 19. Obvious directionality of particles was observed in
CLT. Like critical mean particle spacing, the particle repul-
sion caused by the particle orientation mainly affects the
high-pressure compression characteristics of fine particles.
Compression process of fine tailings particles
under high pressure
Through the above discussion, the factors that affect the
compressibility of tailings with different particle sizes of
high pressure are summarized.
1. Particle breakage: the main factors on the high-pressure
compression properties of coarse tailings
2. Critical average particle spacing: effect on the sudden
change of high-pressure compressibility of tailings of
any particle size, and the critical particle spacing is
1.2–1.8 nm
3. Particle orientation: the main factors on the high-pressure
compression properties of coarse tailings
Through the analysis of the state of fine clay tailings par-
ticles under high-pressure compression in the above three
processes. The force and arrangement of particles under dif-
ferent pressure levels are significantly different. A schematic
diagram of the whole process of CLT compression under
high pressure is shown in Fig. 20. A more comprehensive
understanding of the high-pressure compression process of
fine clayey tailings is helpful.
Modified high‑pressure permeability formula
A revised prediction model for the hydraulic conductivity
of tailings with different particle sizes considering effective
void ratio and high-pressure breakage rate was proposed in
this section. Due to DDL water film, part of the pores in the
tailings samples is occupied by confined water that does
not conform to Darcy’s law. The measurement of the water
content of the samples is accurate and easy, and the water
content is directly related to the average particle spacing
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106 Page 13 of 16 106

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 18  Major axis arrangement of pores after 5 MPa consolidation pressure

of the saturated samples. The compressive state of the clay The ineffective void ratio is expressed in ein. The effective
particles can be measured by the water content. The shrink- void ratio eu is the difference between the total void ratio e
age limit ws, plastic limit wp, and liquid limit wl are directly and e0.
defined by the water content, as shown in Fig. 21. For engi- eu = e − ein (16)
neering application, the following assumptions are made for
saturated tailings material: The bounded water content is calculated by Eq. (17).
maw
1. The drainage order of saturated tailings is free water, wa = = 𝛼0 𝜔i (17)
ms
film water and hydroscopic water. The process of free
water drainage corresponds to the stage of fluid drain- where maw is the mass of bound water; ms is the mass of soil
age following Darcy’s law. The process of film water particles.
drainage corresponds to the fluid non-Darcy’s law in the
high-pressure stage. The process of hydroscopic water maw = ms wa = 𝛼0 𝜌s Vs wi (18)
drainage corresponds to the stage when the water den-
where ρs is the density of soil particles; Vs is the total volume
sity oscillates during the consolidation process and the
of soil particles. The ein is equal to the following:
particles tend to be parallel.
2. Tailings particles and water are incompressible. Vaw m ∕𝜌 𝛼𝜌Vw 𝜌
3. The hydroscopic water content of tailings is between 0 ein = = aw w = 0 s s l = 𝛼0 s wl (19)
Vs Vs Vs 𝜌w 𝜌w
and α0wp, and the film water is between α0wp and α0wl,
and α0 is between 0 and 1. where Vaw is the total volume of bound water. Therefore, the
effective void ratio is equal to the following:
The total bounded water content of the tailings sample
eu = e − ein = e − 𝛼0 Gs wl (20)
is between 0 and α0wl, and the hydroscopic water content is
between 0 and α0wp. The water content at the consolidation The effective pores are obtained. Equation (20) is taken into
pressure of 2 MPa is 18.36% (shown in Fig. 15), which is the most used tailings permeability formula (Ma et al. 2021).
91.3% of the plastic limit wp of the CLT. For CLT, α0=0.913.

Fig. 19  SEM images of typical

particles

800× 800× 2000× 5000×

(a) SDT (b) STT (c) SCT (d) CLT

13
106 Page 14 of 16 Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106

Fig. 20  Major axis arrangement of pores after 5 MPa consolidation pressure

Cs (e − 𝛼0 Gs wl )n Cs (e − 𝛼0 Gs wl )n
k= (21) k = Cs (1 + Br ) (22)
1 + e − 𝛼0 Gs wl 1 + e − 𝛼0 Gs wl

where Cs and n are fitting parameters. Since the liquid limits The fitting curves of the modified permeability formula are
wl of SDT and STT are both equal to 0, the breakage rate shown in Fig. 22, and n = 3.2 and Cs = 245. From Fig. 22, the
Br is considered to modify the high-pressure permeability hydraulic conductivity of tailings with different particle sizes
formula. The essence of particle breakage is the conversion under high pressure is accurately predicted by the modified
of energy, and the particle breakage rate is related to the permeability formula.
area of the particle (Wang et al. 2011). The area and energy
have the same dimension, Br ∝ d2. Hydraulic conductivity
is considered to have a characteristic particle size, k ∝ d2
(David et al. 1962). The modified high-pressure permeabil-
ity formula for tailings material considering effective void
ratio and breakage rate is expressed as follows:

Fig. 21  Hypothetical physical state and water content Fig. 22  Modified k-e formula fitting curves

13
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:106
Conclusions
The compressibility and permeability of tailings with differ-
ent particle sizes under high pressure was studied through a
suite of compressibility and permeability tests at a maximum
pressure of 5 MPa. The following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The e-σ’v and k-σ’v results showed that the 2 MPa of
consolidation pressure is the inflection point of high-
pressure compression of tailings material. The rela-
tionship of Cc-σ’v and Ca-σ’v at high pressure stage
(σ’v ≥ 2 MPa) showed opposite trend compared with
that at normal pressure stage (σ’v < 2 MPa). The rea-
sons for the change in the high-pressure permeability
and compressibility of tailings are particle breakage for
coarse-grained tailings, critical average particle spacing,
and particle orientation for fine-grained tailings.
2. The particle breakage of tailings under high pressure
is analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. A breakage
rate formula suitable for measuring the high-pressure
crushing characteristics of tailings is introduced. SDT
and STT particles were seriously broken, while SLT and
CLT particles were inconspicuous broken.
3. 1.2–1.8 nm is regarded as the critical value for high-
pressure compression of tailings. When the distance
between particles is less than the critical value, the oscil-
lations of water molecules in the water film and parallel
repulsion of tailings particles make the samples hardly
compressed.
4. Considering the concepts of particle breakage and effec-
tive void ratio, a modified permeability formula for tail-
ings with different particle sizes under high pressure is
proposed. The hydraulic conductivity can be reasonably
predicted under a wide range of pressure, providing a
reference for dam construction and seepage analysis of
high-stacked tailings dams.
Funding The research was supported by the National Key Research
and Development Program of China (NO. 2017YFC0804601), National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51741410), and Natural
Science Foundation for Innovation Group of Hubei Province, China
(No. 2016CFA014).
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
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