A

1. Ancien Régime
Refers to the social and political system in France before the French Revolution, characterized
by absolute monarchy, feudal privileges, and social inequality.

- Example
The Ancien Régime was marked by the dominance of the aristocracy and clergy over the
common people.

2. Abolition
The act of officially ending or putting an end to something, often used in the context of
abolishing institutions or practices.

- Example
The abolition of feudal privileges was a key demand of the revolutionaries during the French
Revolution.

3. Alps
The Alps refer to a significant mountain range in Europe, spanning several countries including
France, Switzerland, and Italy. The rugged terrain and high peaks of the Alps have historically
posed challenges to travelers and armies due to the difficult terrain.

- Example
During the French Revolution, the Alps served as a natural barrier that both hindered and
facilitated military campaigns.

4. Absolutism
Absolutism refers to a system of government in which a single ruler, typically a monarch, holds
absolute power and authority over the state and its subjects. In absolutist regimes, the ruler's
authority is not bound by laws, constitutions, or representative bodies, and they exercise
unchecked control over all aspects of governance.

- Example
Prior to the French Revolution, France was governed under an absolutist monarchy, where King
Louis XVI held supreme power and authority. His rule was characterized by centralized control,
divine right ideology, and limited political freedoms.

5. American Revolution
The American Revolution was a colonial revolt against British rule in the thirteen American
colonies, which culminated in the establishment of the United States of America as an
independent nation.

- Example
One significant event during the American Revolution was the signing of the Declaration of
Independence on July 4, 1776. This document, drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the
Continental Congress, declared the colonies' independence from British rule and articulated
principles of liberty, equality, and self-determination.

5. Abbe Sieyes
Abbe Sieyes, also known as Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes, was a prominent clergyman, political
theorist, and revolutionary figure during the French Revolution. He played a significant role in
shaping revolutionary ideology and advocating for radical change in French society.

- Example
In this pamphlet, Sieyes argued that the Third Estate, representing the common people of
France, was the true driving force of the nation and should have political power equal to that of
the clergy and nobility.

1. Bourgeoisie
The middle class, typically associated with merchants, professionals, and business owners, who
played a significant role in the French Revolution.

- Example
The bourgeoisie played a crucial role in funding and supporting the revolutionary cause against
the monarchy.

2. Bastille
A fortress and prison in Paris that became a symbol of the tyranny of the Bourbon monarchy. Its
storming on July 14, 1789, marked the beginning of the French Revolution.

- Example
The storming of the Bastille by the revolutionaries was a pivotal moment in the French
Revolution, signaling the people's uprising against the monarchy.

3. Bourgeois
The term "bourgeois" refers to the middle class, typically consisting of merchants, professionals,
and business owners, who are economically independent and hold moderate wealth and social
status.

- Example
During the French Revolution, the bourgeois played a significant role in challenging the
aristocratic privilege and demanding political representation.

4. Bay of Biscay
The Bay of Biscay is a broad inlet of the Atlantic Ocean along the western coast of France and
the northern coast of Spain, known for its unpredictable weather and rough seas.

- Example
The Bay of Biscay served as a strategic maritime location during the French Revolutionary Wars
and the Napoleonic Wars.

5. Bologna
Bologna is a city in northern Italy, historically known for its cultural, educational, and political
significance.

- Example
During the French Revolutionary Wars, Bologna became a battleground as French revolutionary
forces clashed with Austrian and other coalition forces.

6. Battle of Ulm
The Battle of Ulm was a significant military engagement during the War of the Third Coalition,
fought between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces under General
Karl Mack von Leiberich.

- Example
The Battle of Ulm took place in October 1805, as part of Napoleon's campaign against the Third
Coalition, which included Austria, Russia, and other European powers.

7. Battle of Austerlitz
The Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was a pivotal
engagement during the War of the Third Coalition, fought between the French Empire under
Napoleon Bonaparte and the Russian Empire and Austrian Empire.

- Example
The Battle of Austerlitz took place on December 2, 1805, near the town of Austerlitz in the
Austrian Empire (present-day Czech Republic).

8. Battle of Jena
The Battle of Jena was a significant military confrontation during the War of the Fourth Coalition,
fought between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Prussian forces under Duke of
Brunswick.

- Example
The Battle of Jena occurred on October 14, 1806, near the town of Jena in modern-day
Germany. Napoleon's innovative tactics and superior maneuvering led to a decisive victory over
the Prussian army.

9. Battle of Friedland
The Battle of Friedland was a major engagement during the War of the Fourth Coalition, fought
between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Russian forces under General Levin
August von Bennigsen.

- Example
The Battle of Friedland took place on June 14, 1807, near the town of Friedland in modern-day
Russia. Napoleon's strategic brilliance and superior tactics resulted in a decisive victory over the
Russian army, leading to the Treaty of Tilsit and the establishment of French dominance over
Eastern Europe.

10. Battle of Trafalgar

The Battle of Trafalgar was a naval engagement fought between the British Royal Navy under
Admiral Horatio Nelson and the combined fleets of France and Spain during the Napoleonic
Wars.

- Example
The Battle of Trafalgar occurred on October 21, 1805, off the coast of Cape Trafalgar in
southwestern Spain. Admiral Nelson's innovative tactics and decisive leadership resulted in a
resounding victory for the British fleet, despite being outnumbered.

1. Committee of Public Safety

A governing body during the Reign of Terror, led by Robespierre, responsible for consolidating
the revolution and defending it from internal and external threats.

- Example
The Committee of Public Safety wielded immense power during the Reign of Terror,
orchestrating mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution.

2. Constitution
A set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other
organization is governed.

- Example
The National Assembly drafted the first French Constitution in 1791, which established a
constitutional monarchy and laid the groundwork for modern French government.

3. Clergy
The clergy refers to the body of religious officials or leaders within a particular religious
organization or tradition, such as priests, ministers, rabbis, or imams.

- Example
The clergy played a significant role in French society before and during the Revolution. They
were part of the First Estate, one of the three traditional social classes, and held considerable
wealth, power, and influence.

4. Commoners
Commoners refer to individuals who are not part of the aristocracy or nobility and do not hold
hereditary titles or privileges. They typically include workers, peasants, artisans, merchants, and
other members of the lower classes within society.

- Example
Commoners constituted the majority of the French population and were deeply affected by the
social, economic, and political upheaval of the Revolution. They were part of the Third Estate,
which encompassed the vast majority of French society and bore the burden of heavy taxation,
feudal obligations, and social inequality.

5. Conservative
Conservative refers to a political ideology or orientation that advocates for preserving traditional
social institutions, values, and practices, and resisting rapid or radical change.

- Example
During the French Revolution, conservatives were those who opposed the revolutionary
changes and sought to maintain the existing social order, including the monarchy, aristocracy,
and privileges of the First and Second Estates.

6. Coalition
A coalition refers to a temporary alliance or partnership formed between individuals, groups, or
states with shared interests or goals, often to achieve a specific objective or address a common
threat or challenge.

- Example
Throughout the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, various coalitions emerged among
European powers to combat the revolutionary and later Napoleonic expansionist threats posed
by France.

7. Continental System
The Continental System was an economic blockade imposed by Napoleon Bonaparte against
Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to isolate Britain economically and weaken
its economy by banning British goods from continental Europe.

- Example
Napoleon implemented the Continental System in 1806 as part of his strategy to undermine
Britain's economic power and force it into submission.

D
1. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
A fundamental document of the French Revolution, proclaiming the rights of citizens to liberty,
property, security, and resistance to oppression.

- Example
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen asserted the principle of equality before
the law and inspired similar declarations worldwide.

2. Directory
The government of France following the fall of the Reign of Terror, characterized by a five-
member executive committee and faced with internal and external challenges.

- Example
The Directory period in France was marked by political instability, economic struggles, and
military conflicts, eventually leading to its overthrow by Napoleon Bonaparte.

1. Estates-General
A legislative assembly in France comprising representatives from the three estates: clergy,
nobility, and commoners, which was summoned by the king in times of crisis.

- Example
The convocation of the Estates-General in 1789 marked a significant event leading to the
French Revolution, as it provided a forum for grievances to be aired.

2. Enlightenment
An intellectual movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and
individualism, contributing to the ideological foundations of the French Revolution.

- Example
Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu influenced revolutionary
ideas about democracy, liberty, and equality.

3. Estate System
The Estate System, also known as the Old Regime or Ancien Régime, was the social and
political structure that existed in France before the French Revolution. It divided French society
into three estates or classes, each with its own privileges, rights, and responsibilities.

- Example
The Estate System was a central feature of French society and politics before the Revolution.
The division of society into distinct estates contributed to social inequality, with the First and
Second Estates enjoying significant privileges and exemptions from taxation, while the Third
Estate bore the burden of heavy taxation, feudal obligations, and limited political representation.

4. Equality
Equality is the principle or condition of being equal in rights, opportunities, treatment, or status,
regardless of factors such as race, gender, social class, or wealth. It encompasses the idea of
fairness, justice, and non-discrimination in society.

- Example
Equality was a core principle of the French Revolution, articulated in documents such as the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The revolutionaries sought to abolish the
privileges and hierarchies of the Ancien Régime and establish a society based on the equality of
all citizens before the law.

5. Emigrés
Emigrés were French nobles, clergy, and others who fled France during the French Revolution
to escape persecution or the revolutionary upheaval. They sought refuge in neighboring
countries, particularly monarchies opposed to the revolutionary ideals.

- Example
Emigrés became a significant political and military force opposing the revolutionary government.
They formed counter-revolutionary armies and plotted to overthrow the revolutionary regime. For
instance, during the War of the First Coalition, emigré forces joined foreign armies in campaigns
against revolutionary France, hoping to restore the monarchy and old order.

1. Feudalism
A social and economic system prevalent in medieval Europe, characterized by hierarchical
relationships between lords and vassals, often involving land tenure and obligations.

- Example
Feudalism was deeply entrenched in France before the Revolution, with the nobility enjoying
vast privileges and control over land.

2. Fraternité (Fraternity)
One of the three principles of the French Revolution, along with liberty and equality,
emphasizing the idea of brotherhood and solidarity among citizens.

- Example: The slogan of the Revolution, "Liberté, égalité, fraternité," symbolized the
aspirations for unity and collective action among the people.

3. Ferrara
Ferrara is a city in northern Italy, historically known for its strategic location and cultural
significance.

- Example
Ferrara, along with other regions in Italy, was affected by the political and military developments
of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars.

1. Girondins
A political faction during the French Revolution, representing moderate republicans who favored
a decentralized government and opposed the radicalism of the Jacobins.

- Example
The Girondins clashed with the Jacobins over issues such as the execution of King Louis XVI
and the extent of revolutionary reforms, leading to their downfall during the Reign of Terror.

2. Guillotine
A device used for carrying out executions by beheading, which became emblematic of the Reign
of Terror during the French Revolution.

- Example
Thousands of individuals, including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, met their fate at the
guillotine during the height of the Reign of Terror.

3. Guerrilla Warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare characterized by small, mobile units using
ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run tactics to harass and weaken a larger, conventional
enemy force.

- Example
Guerrilla warfare tactics were employed by various factions during the French Revolution,
particularly in regions where resistance to revolutionary reforms was strong.

1. Hébertists
Followers of Jacques Hébert, a radical leader during the French Revolution who advocated for
extreme measures, such as the de-Christianization of France and the execution of perceived
enemies.

- Example: The Hébertists played a significant role in promoting radical revolutionary policies
and inciting popular uprisings, particularly in Paris.
2. Human Rights
Universal rights inherent to all human beings, often cited as a central theme of the French
Revolution and enshrined in documents such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen.

- Example
The French Revolution sparked debates and advancements in the recognition of human rights,
influencing subsequent movements for equality and justice around the world.

1. Ideology
A system of ideas and beliefs that shape political, social, and economic actions, often serving as
a driving force behind revolutions and societal change.

- Example
The French Revolution was driven by competing ideologies, including liberalism, republicanism,
and socialism, which shaped the course of events and political developments.

2. Inequality
Disparities in wealth, status, and opportunity within a society, which were prevalent features of
the Ancien Régime and a major catalyst for the French Revolution.

- Example
The widening gap between the nobility and the common people fueled resentment and unrest,
ultimately contributing to the collapse of the monarchy.

3. Invasion of Russia
The Invasion of Russia refers to Napoleon Bonaparte's military campaign into Russia in 1812,
during the Napoleonic Wars. It culminated in the disastrous retreat of French forces from Russia.

- Example
Napoleon's invasion of Russia was a significant event during the Napoleonic Wars, which
followed the French Revolution. It marked the height of Napoleon's power and ambition, as well
as the beginning of his downfall.

1. Jacobins
A radical political club and faction during the French Revolution, advocating for the abolition of
the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and the Reign of Terror.

- Example
The Jacobins, led by figures such as Maximilien Robespierre, played a central role in the radical
phase of the Revolution, including the execution of King Louis XVI.

2. Joseph Guillotine
Joseph-Ignace Guillotin was a French physician and politician who proposed the use of the
guillotine as a more humane method of execution during the French Revolution.
- Example
Joseph Guillotin's advocacy for a more efficient and less painful method of execution led to the
adoption of the guillotine as the primary means of carrying out executions during the Reign of
Terror.

1. King Louis XVI

The monarch of France during the early stages of the French Revolution, whose reign was
marked by financial crises, social unrest, and ultimately his execution.

- Example
King Louis XVI's inability to address the economic and social grievances of the people
contributed to the erosion of royal authority and the outbreak of revolution.

1. Legislative Assembly
The governing body of France from 1791 to 1792, following the dissolution of the National
Constituent Assembly, responsible for enacting laws and overseeing the transition to a
constitutional monarchy.

- Example
The Legislative Assembly grappled with challenges such as war with neighboring powers,
internal divisions, and growing radicalism among the populace.

2. Liberty
One of the three principles of the French Revolution, alongside equality and fraternity,
representing the idea of individual freedom from oppression and arbitrary rule.

- Example
The French Revolution sought to establish a society based on the principles of liberty, where
individuals could enjoy civil liberties and participate in self-government.

1. Monarchy
A form of government in which supreme authority is vested in a single individual, typically a king
or queen, whose power is often inherited.

- Example
The French Revolution aimed to abolish the monarchy and replace it with a republic, reflecting a
shift towards popular sovereignty and democratic governance.
2. Marie Antoinette
The queen of France and wife of King Louis XVI, whose extravagant lifestyle and perceived
indifference to the plight of the common people made her a target of revolutionary anger.

- Example
Marie Antoinette's famous quote, "Let them eat cake," became a symbol of royal insensitivity
and contributed to her vilification by revolutionaries.

3. Moderate
In the context of the French Revolution, moderates were individuals or political factions who
advocated for gradual or moderate reforms rather than radical change. They often sought
compromise and stability to avoid extreme measures or violent upheaval.

- Example
Moderate voices were present throughout the French Revolution, particularly during the early
stages when efforts were made to reform the existing political and social order without
overthrowing it entirely.

1. National Convention
The governing body of France from 1792 to 1795, established after the abolition of the
monarchy, responsible for drafting the first French republican constitution and overseeing the
Reign of Terror.

- Example
The National Convention declared France a republic and embarked on radical reforms, including
the execution of King Louis XVI and the suppression of counter-revolutionary activities.

2. Napoleon Bonaparte
A military leader and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and later
became Emperor of the French, consolidating power and spreading revolutionary ideals across
Europe.

- Example
Napoleon Bonaparte's military campaigns and legal reforms reshaped Europe and left a lasting
impact on French and world history.

3. Nobles
Nobles were individuals belonging to the noble class, typically holding hereditary titles and
privileges, such as land ownership, political influence, and exemption from certain taxes and
obligations.

- Example
Nobles constituted the Second Estate in the pre-revolutionary French social hierarchy. They
enjoyed significant privileges and held positions of power and authority in society, often at the
expense of the common people.

4. Napoleon War
The term "Napoleon War" refers collectively to the series of conflicts and military campaigns
waged by Napoleon Bonaparte during the Napoleonic Wars, which followed the French
Revolution.

- Example
Napoleon's rise to power and subsequent military conquests reshaped Europe and defined the
era following the French Revolution.

1. Olympe de Gouges:
A French playwright, political activist, and feminist who advocated for women's rights and
equality during the French Revolution, best known for her Declaration of the Rights of Woman
and the Female Citizen.

- Example
Olympe de Gouges challenged the exclusion of women from the rights proclaimed in the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, advocating for gender equality.

2. Octroi
Octroi was a form of municipal tax or duty imposed on goods entering or leaving a city or town,
often levied at city gates or toll stations.

- Example
Octroi taxes were a source of revenue for municipal governments in France before and during
the Revolution. The collection of octroi taxes became a target of revolutionary reformers, who
sought to simplify taxation and eliminate perceived abuses and inefficiencies in the tax system.

P
1. Plebiscite
A direct vote by which the people of a country express their opinion on a particular issue, often
used by Napoleon Bonaparte to legitimize his rule and policies.

- Example
Napoleon's use of plebiscites allowed him to consolidate power and portray himself as a leader
with popular support.

2. Paris Commune
A radical socialist and revolutionary government that briefly ruled Paris from March to May 1871,
inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution and advocating for workers' rights and social
justice.

- Example
The Paris Commune of 1871 sought to challenge traditional power structures and implement
reforms such as workers' control of factories and secular education.

1. Queen Consort
The wife of a reigning king, such as Marie Antoinette, who played a significant but often
ceremonial role in the governance and representation of the monarchy.

- Example
Marie Antoinette, as queen consort of King Louis XVI, wielded influence over courtly affairs and
served as a symbol of royal authority and extravagance.

1. Reign of Terror
A period of mass executions and political repression during the French Revolution,
characterized by the dominance of radical Jacobins and efforts to eliminate perceived enemies
of the revolution.

- Example
The Reign of Terror saw the guillotine used extensively to execute thousands of individuals,
including political opponents, aristocrats, and perceived counter-revolutionaries.

2. Republicanism
A political ideology advocating for a republican form of government, characterized by elected
representatives, popular sovereignty, and the absence of a monarch.

- Example
Republicanism gained prominence during the French Revolution, leading to the establishment
of the First French Republic and the abolition of the monarchy.

3. Radical
In the context of the French Revolution, radicals were individuals or political factions advocating
for extreme or revolutionary change, often through radical means such as violence, mass
mobilization, or direct action.

- Example
Radical factions such as the Jacobins and the Montagnards played a prominent role in the
revolutionary government and the National Convention during the Reign of Terror.
4. Romagna
Romagna is a historical region in northern Italy, known for its cultural, historical, and economic
significance.

- Example
Romagna, like other regions in Italy, was affected by the political and military developments of
the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars.

5. Ravenna:
Ravenna is a city in northern Italy, historically known for its cultural, artistic, and architectural
heritage.

- Example
Napoleon's campaigns in Italy brought Ravenna under French control, leading to changes in
governance, administration, and social structure in the region.

1. Sans-culottes
Literally meaning "without breeches," a term used to describe radical working-class militants
who played a significant role in the French Revolution, advocating for social equality and
democratic reforms.

- Example
The sans-culottes formed a vocal and often violent faction within revolutionary Paris, demanding
price controls, redistribution of wealth, and political power for the common people.

2. Storming of the Tuileries

An event on August 10, 1792, during the French Revolution, in which revolutionaries attacked
and captured the Tuileries Palace, leading to the downfall of King Louis XVI and the
establishment of the First French Republic.
- Example
The storming of the Tuileries marked a decisive moment in the Revolution, symbolizing the shift
of power from the monarchy to the revolutionary forces.

3. Siege of Toulon
The Siege of Toulon was a military engagement during the French Revolution, in which
revolutionary forces, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, captured the city of Toulon from royalist and
British forces.

- Example
The Siege of Toulon took place in 1793, during the War of the First Coalition. Royalist and
counter-revolutionary forces had seized control of Toulon and invited British naval support.
T

1. Tennis Court Oath

A pivotal event of the French Revolution on June 20, 1789, in which members of the Third
Estate, locked out of their meeting place, swore not to disband until they had drafted a new
constitution for France.

- Example
The Tennis Court Oath demonstrated the determination of the representatives of the Third
Estate to challenge the authority of the monarchy and establish a new political order based on
principles of liberty and equality.

2. Third Estate
The commoners of France, comprising the majority of the population and bearing the heaviest
burden of taxes and social obligations under the Ancien Régime.

- Example
The Third Estate played a central role in the French Revolution, spearheading the calls for
political and social change, culminating in the formation of the National Assembly and the
abolition of feudal privileges.

3. Taille
The taille was a direct land tax levied on the Third Estate (commoners) in pre-revolutionary
France, imposed by the king or local nobles.

- Example
The taille was one of the most significant sources of revenue for the French monarchy before
the Revolution. It was one of the grievances of the Third Estate, who bore the brunt of the
taxation burden while the nobility and clergy were often exempt.

4. Tithes
Tithes were a form of compulsory tax or levy imposed by the Catholic Church on members of
the clergy and the peasantry, typically amounting to one-tenth of their income or produce.

- Example
Tithes were a significant source of revenue for the Catholic Church and a symbol of its wealth
and power in pre-revolutionary France.

5. Tyranny
Tyranny refers to oppressive or arbitrary rule by a single individual or group, often characterized
by the abuse of power, violation of rights, and disregard for the welfare of the people.

- Example
The French Revolution was in part a response to perceived tyranny and abuses of power by the
monarchy and the Ancien Régime. Revolutionary leaders and thinkers condemned tyranny and
advocated for the establishment of a government based on principles of liberty, equality, and
popular sovereignty.

6. Taxation
Taxation refers to the process of levying and collecting taxes or duties from individuals,
businesses, and other entities by a government to fund public services, infrastructure, and
governance.

- Example
Taxation was a central issue during the French Revolution, as grievances over the unequal
distribution of taxes and the heavy burden on the Third Estate fueled popular discontent and
revolutionary fervor.

7. Treaty of Tolentino
The Treaty of Tolentino was a peace treaty signed between France and the Papal States in
1797, following the French victory in Italy during the War of the First Coalition.

- Example
The Treaty of Tolentino was one of several treaties signed between France and various
European powers during the French Revolutionary Wars. It resulted in territorial concessions by
the Papal States to France, including the cession of Romagna and other territories in northern
Italy.

8. Treaty of Campo Formio

The Treaty of Campo Formio was a peace treaty signed between France and Austria in 1797,
marking the end of the War of the First Coalition and the establishment of new territorial
arrangements in Europe.

- Example
The Treaty of Campo Formio was a significant diplomatic achievement for France during the
French Revolutionary Wars. It resulted in territorial gains for France, including the annexation of
the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) and parts of northern Italy.

1. Universal Suffrage
The principle that all adult citizens, regardless of gender, race, or property ownership, have the
right to vote in elections and participate in the political process.

- Example
Universal suffrage was a key demand of many revolutionaries during the French Revolution,
although it was not fully realized until much later in history.
V

1. Versailles Palace
A symbol of royal power and extravagance, located near Paris, which served as the residence of
French monarchs before the French Revolution.

- Example
The opulent lifestyle of the royal court at Versailles became a source of resentment among the
French people, contributing to the growing unrest that eventually led to the Revolution.

1. Women's March on Versailles

A significant event on October 5, 1789, during the French Revolution, in which thousands of
Parisian women marched to Versailles to demand bread and the return of the royal family to
Paris.

- Example
The Women's March on Versailles highlighted the role of women in the revolutionary movement
and put pressure on the monarchy to address the grievances of the people.

1. Xenophobia
Fear or hostility towards foreigners or people from different cultures, which sometimes
manifested during periods of social upheaval, including the French Revolution.

- Example
Xenophobic sentiments were occasionally directed towards foreign-born individuals or
immigrants in France during the revolutionary period, particularly during times of economic
hardship or political instability.

1. Years of Lead
A term used to describe a period of political violence and turmoil in France during the late 18th
century, particularly during the French Revolution and its aftermath.

- Example
The Years of Lead witnessed widespread unrest, revolutionary fervor, and radical political
experimentation, as well as repression and counter-revolutionary violence.

Z
1. Zero-sum Game
A situation in which one participant's gain is exactly balanced by another participant's loss, often
used to describe political conflicts and power struggles during the French Revolution.

- Example
The political landscape of the French Revolution was often characterized by zero-sum games,
where competing factions vied for control and influence, leading to cycles of revolution and
counter-revolution.