LITHOSPHERE

The lithosphere is the rigid, outermost layer of the Earth's rocks and minerals,
which consists of the crust and upper mantle. The term "lithosphere" comes from
the Greek word litho, which means "stone," and "sphere," referring to the rough
shape of the Earth. Thus, it is the sphere of rocks and minerals that encases the
Earth.
Lithosphere is the basic solid sphere of the planet earth. It is the sphere of hard
rock masses. The land we live in is on this lithosphere only. All other spheres are
attached to this lithosphere due to earth’s gravity. Lithosphere is a massive and
hard solid substratum holding the semisolid, liquid, biotic and gaseous molecules
and masses surrounding it. All geomorphic processes happen on this sphere. It is
the sphere where all natural resources are existing. It links the cyclic processes of
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Lithosphere also acts as the basic route
for all biogeochemical activities.
Features of Lithospheres:
The lithosphere is the outer part of the Earth.
The lithosphere is made up of the Earth's crust and upper mantle (It is the
outermost layer of the upper mantle).
The lithosphere is about 55 km thick below the oceans.
The lithosphere is up to about 200 km thick below the continents.

Main elements in the lithosphere:

Oxygen, aluminum, calcium, iron, and silicon are the most abundant elements in
Earth's lithosphere.

THE EARTH’S STRUCTURE:

The interior of the earth can be divided into 3 different layers – crust, mantle, and
core. The crust is the outermost layer of the earth, and the core is the innermost
layer of the earth, located at a depth of 2900 Km.
The Crust:
The crust is the outermost solid part of the earth.
It is fragile.
The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust.
The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems.
The crust is made up of heavier rocks having a density of 3 g/cm3.
The kind of rock seen in the oceanic crust is basalt.
The mean density of material in the oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.
The crust itself can be divided into two sub-layers.
One kind of layer is found everywhere, under the oceans and also below the
continents. This is called as the oceanic crust. This layer is dominated by relatively
heavy, dark, dense rocks.
A second layer is normally found in the continents. It is made up of light colored
rocks.
The Earth’s Mantle
The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.
It is in a solid-state.
It has a density higher than the crust portion.
The thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
The asthenosphere is the upper portion of Mantle.
It is the chief source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic
eruptions.
The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called the lithosphere.
The Earth’s Core:
The core-mantle boundary is positioned at the depth of 2,900 km.
The inner core is in the solid-state whereas the outer core is in the liquid state.
The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and iron.
Hence it is also called the “nife” layer.
THE LITHOSPHERIC PLATES:
The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates. There are currently seven or eight
major and many minor plates. These plates move in relation to one another at one
of three types of plate boundaries as convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries
and conservative transform boundaries.
Plate size can vary greatly, from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across;
the Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among the largest. Plate thickness also varies
greatly, ranging from less than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to about 200
km or more for ancient continental lithosphere.
The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over
time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all
of the continents.
The Major plates of the earth are called as primary plates:
African Plate, Antarctic Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, Indian Plate, Australian Plate,
Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate and Pacific Plate.
The notable Minor plates are called as secondary plates:
Arabian Plate, Caribbean Plate, Juan de Fuca Plate, Cocos Plate, Nazca Plate,
Philippine Sea Plate and Scotia Plate.

SOIL RESOURCES
Soil resources are a form of environmental asset providing a range of ecosystem
services. A key feature of soils is their delivery of supporting services including
the formation of and function of the soil itself, nutrient cycling, water cycling,
structural support of vegetation and soil biodiversity.
Soil is the most important renewable resource.
It is the medium of plant growth.
It supports different types of living organisms on the earth.
Soil is a living system.
The coverage of Earth’s surface with soil varies from place to place. Tropical
forests have thin soils that are poor in nutrients, while grasslands in temperate
regions have soils that are rich and well able to support crops. There are several
different classes of soil depending on how the soil is formed and where it is
located. An understanding of which class of soil is found in a particular location is
an important foundation to obtaining successful crop yields.
Soil resources need conserving as much as water resources do. Erosion is the key
process by which soil is created from rock and destroyed. Wind and rain are the
main factors that cause erosion of soil from agricultural areas, possibly converting
them into new desert. Some modern agricultural practices leave soil exposed to the
elements and thereby risk loss of long-term productivity because of soil erosion.
Soil is as important as water as a resource. It provides nutrients and an anchor to
the roots of plants and is therefore essential to their healthy growth and yield of
food. It is a complex mixture of organic and mineral content which is constantly
being formed by the weathering of rocks.
Soil has a layered structure, with the topsoil being around 4 in (10 cm) deep and
rich in organic material. Then there is a layer between topsoil and subsoil through
which dissolved or suspended matter moves. Below this is the subsoil, where
humic compounds, clay, iron, and aluminum may accumulate after leaching from
the upper layers. Finally there is the actual bedrock, which is the source of the soil
through weathering processes. Soil is also classified according to the size of the
particles it contains. A soil with a lot of clay has fine particles, while one with a lot
of gravel is coarser.
A knowledge of soil resources, which is concerned with the type and distribution
of soils around the world, is an important factor in global food supply. Soils are
classified according to their type and composition. In the United States, these
considerations give rise to twelve soil orders and these can be related to the type of
environment where the soil is located. The best soils for farming are known as
mollisols and alfisols, both of which are rich in organic matter. Both of them form
wherever rainfall and precipitation are moderate. Spodosol is another class of soil;
it is formed under pine forests, where the acidic needle litter will form a
characteristic white and ashy looking middle layer.
Soil resources form a fundamental part of the environment. They provide the
physical base to support the productivity and cycling of biological resources,
provide the source of nutrients and water for agricultural and forestry systems and
fulfil a complex buffering role against environmental variability (ranging from
dampening diurnal and seasonal change in temperature and water supply to the
storage and binding of a range of chemical and biological agents). They are also
highly biodiverse. Soils themselves vary greatly – a soil with favourable mix of
physical, chemical and biological characteristics will have a much higher potential
for productivity in gross terms than one less favoured. A broader ecosystem view
complicates this, however. For example, “poor” soils with low levels of nutrients
can have highly diverse flora and fauna with high levels of endemism.
Accounting for soil resources therefore has many dimensions. Soil loss through
erosion and other causes can be quantified – with the loss measured in soil volume
and in the nutrients and biological resources that are redistributed or destroyed.
More broadly, accounting for soil resources in terms of their types, volumes,
nutrient content, and other characteristics is relevant for a more detailed
examination of agricultural and forest productivity and the impact of changing land
uses.
Characterization of soil resources
Soil resources are a form of environmental asset providing a range of ecosystem
services. A key feature of soils is their delivery of supporting services including
the formation of and function of the soil itself, nutrient cycling, water cycling,
structural support of vegetation and soil biodiversity.
In the central framework the focus of accounting for soil resources is on the
volume of soil, the various components and properties of soil. Soil components
reflect the biogeochemical composition (e.g. mineral, organic, liquid or gas). Soil
properties reflect the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil –
e.g. porosity, texture, pH level, microbial biomass.

Land Pollution
Land Pollution means degradation or destruction of the Earth’s surface and soil,
directly or indirectly as a result of human activities. Anthropogenic activities are
conducted citing development, and the same affects the land drastically, we
witness land pollution; by drastic we are referring to any activity that lessens the
quality and/or productivity of the land as an ideal place for agriculture,
forestation, construction etc. The degradation of land that could be used
constructively, in other words, is land pollution.
Land Pollution has led to a series of issues that we have come to realize in recent
times, after decades of neglect. The increasing numbers of barren land plots and
the decreasing numbers of forest cover are increasing at is an alarming ratio.
Moreover, the extension of cities and towns due to the increasing population is
leading to further exploitation of the land.
Landfills and reclamations are being planned and executed to meet the increased
demand for lands. This leads to further deterioration of land and pollution caused
by the landfill contents. Also due to the lack of green cover, the land gets
affected in several ways like soil erosion occurs washing away the fertile
portions of the land or even a landslide can be seen as an example.
CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION

1. Deforestation and soil erosion

Deforestation carried out to create dry lands is one of the major concerns. Land
that is once converted into dry or barren land, can never be made fertile again,
whatever the magnitude of measures to redeem it is. Land conversion, meaning
the alteration or modification of the original properties of the land to make it use-
worthy for a specific purpose is another major cause. This hampers the land
immensely.
Also there is a constant waste of land. Unused available land over the years
barren; this land then cannot be used. So in search of more land, potent land
hunted and its indigenous state is compromised with.
2. Agricultural activities
With the growing human population, demand for food has increased
considerably. Farmers often use highly toxic fertilizers and pesticides to get rid
of insects, fungi and bacteria from their crops. However with the overuse of
these chemicals, they result in contamination and poisoning of soil.
3. Mining activities

During extraction and mining activities, several land spaces are created beneath
the surface. We constantly hear about land caving in; this is nothing but nature’s
way of filling the spaces left out after mining or extraction activity.
 4. Overcrowded landfills

Each household produces tones of garbage each year. Garbage like aluminum,
plastic, paper, cloth, wood is collected and sent to the local recycling unit. Items
that cannot be recycled become a part of the landfills that hampers the beauty of
the city and cause land pollution.
5. Industrialization

Due to an increase in demand for food, shelter and house more goods are
produced. This resulted in creation of more wastes that needs to be disposed off.
To meet the demand of the growing population, more industries were developed
which led to deforestation. Research and development paved the way for modern
fertilizers and chemicals that were highly toxic and led to soil contamination.
6. Nuclear waste

Nuclear plants can produce a huge amount of energy through nuclear fission and
fusion. The left over radioactive material contains harmful and toxic chemicals
that can affect human health. They are dumped beneath the earth to avoid any
casualty.
7. Sewage treatment

A large amount of solid waste is leftover once the sewage has been treated. The
leftover material is sent to landfill site which end up in polluting the
environment.
EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION

Soil Pollution
Soil Pollution is another form of land pollution, where the upper layer of the soil
is damaged. This is caused by the overuse of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion
caused by running water and other pest control measures; this leads to loss of
fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder patches for grazing, etc.
1. Change in climate patterns

The effect of land pollution is very hazardous and can lead to the loss of
ecosystems. When land is polluted, it directly or indirectly affects the climate
patterns.
 2. Environmental impact

When deforestation is committed, the tree cover is compromised. This leads to a

steep imbalance in the rain cycle. A disturbed rain cycle affects a lot of factors.
To begin with, the green cover is reduced. Trees and plants help balance the
atmosphere, without them we are subjected to various concerns like global
warming, the green house effect, irregular rainfall and flash floods among other
imbalances.
3. Effect on human health

The land when contaminated with toxic chemicals and pesticides lead to the
problem of skin cancer and the human respiratory system. The toxic chemicals
can reach our body through foods and vegetables that we eat as they are grown in
polluted soil.
4. Causes air pollution

Landfills across the city keep on growing due to an increase in waste and are
later burned which leads to air pollution. They become home for rodents, mice
etc. which in turn transmit disease.
5. Distraction for tourists

A place loses its attraction as a tourist destination as landfills do not look good
when you move around the city. It leads to a loss of revenue for the government.
6. Effect on wildlife
The animal kingdom has suffered the most in the past decades. They face a
serious threat with regards to the loss of habitat and natural environment. The
constant human activity on land is leaving it polluted forcing these species to
move further away and adapt to new regions or die trying to adjust. Several
species are pushed to the verge of extinction due to no homeland.
Other issues that we face include increased temperature, unseasonal weather
activity, acid rains etc. the discharge of chemicals on land, makes it dangerous
for the ecosystem too. These chemicals are consumed by the animals and plants
and thereby make their way in the ecosystem. The process is called bi-
magnification and is serious threat to the ecology.
Solutions for Land Pollution
 1. Make people aware of reduce, reuse and recycle.
2. Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities.
3. Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in the
landfill site.
4. Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of
garbage.
5. Buy biodegradable products.
6. Do organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the
use of pesticides.
7. Create dumping ground away from residential areas.

"3R technology" typically refers to the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle.
These principles aim to minimize waste generation and promote sustainable
resource management. Here "R" stands for:

Reduce: This involves reducing the amount of waste generated by consuming and
using fewer resources. It emphasizes efficiency and avoiding unnecessary
consumption.
Reuse: Reusing items or materials rather than discarding them after a single use.
This can involve repairing, refurbishing, or repurposing products to extend their
lifespan.
Recycle: Recycling involves processing used materials or waste into new products
or raw materials that can be used again. It helps conserve resources and reduce the
environmental impact of waste disposal.