Connection-Oriented

Networks
X.25
 X.25

 X.25 is generally a protocol that was developed by Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) of
International Telecommunication Union.
 It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very popular in 1980s. Presently, it is used for
networks for ATMs and credit card verification.
 It usually allows various logical channels to make use of same physical line.
 It basically defines a series of documents particularly issued by ITU. These documents are also known as
X.25 Recommendations.
 X.25 also supports various conversations by multiplexing packets and also with the help of virtual
communication channels.
 X.25

 It also permits data exchange between terminals with different communication speeds.
 X.25 basically encompasses or suits to the lower three layers of the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) reference model for networking. These three protocol layers are :
 Physical Layer
 Frame Layer
 Packet Layer
 1. Physical Layer

 This layer is basically concerned with electrical or signaling. It lays out the physical, electrical and
functional characteristics that interface between the computer terminal and the link to the packet
switched node.
 This layer provides various communication lines that transmit or transfer some electrical signals.
 X.21 implementer is usually required for linking.
 The physical layer interface for connecting data terminal equipment (DTE), such as computers and
terminals at the customer premises, with the data communications equipment (DCE), such as X.25
packet switches at the X.25 carrier’s facilities. The physical layer interface of X.25 is called X.21bis
and was derived from the RS-232 interface for serial transmission.
 2. Data Link Layer

 Data link layer is also known as Frame Layer. This layer is an implementation or development of
ISO High-Level Data Link Layer (HDLC) standard which is known as LAPB (Link Access Procedure
Balanced).
 It also provides a communication link and transmission that is error-free among any two physically
connected nodes or X.25 nodes.
 LAPB also allows DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) or DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment)
simply to start or end a communication session or start data transmission.
 This layer is one of the most important and essential parts of X.25 Protocol.
 2. Data Link Layer

This layer also provides a mechanism for checking in each hop during the transmission. This service also
ensures a bit-oriented, error-free, and also sequenced and ordered delivery of data frames or packets. There
are many protocols that can be used in frame-level as given below :
 Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) – It is specified by ITU-T Recommendation X usually
derived from HDLC. It is the most commonly used protocol that allows establishing a logical connection.
 Link Access Protocol (LAP) – This protocol is very rarely used. This is usually used for framing and
transferring data packets across point-to-point links.
 2. Data Link Layer

 Link Access Procedure D-channel (LAPD) – It is used to convey or transfer data over D-channel. It
also enables and allows transmission of data among DTEs through D channel especially among a DTE
and an ISDN node.
 Logical Link Control (LLC) – It is used to manage and ensure the integrity of transmissions of data.
It also allows transmission of X.25 data packets or frames through a LAN (Local Area Network)
channel.
3. Packet Layer

 Packet layer is also known as Network Layer protocol of X.25.

 This layer generally governs the end-to-end communications among various DTE devices.
 It also defines how to address and deliver X.25 packets among end nodes and switches on
a network with the help of PVCs (Permanent Virtual Circuits) or SVCs (Switched Virtual
Circuits).
3. Packet Layer

 This layer also governs and manages set-up and teardown and also flow control among
DTE devices as well as various routing functions along with multiplexing multiple logical
or virtual connections.
 This layer also defines and explains the format of data packets and also the procedures for
control and transmission of data frames.
 This layer is also responsible for establishing a connection, transmitting data frames or
packets, ending or terminating a connection, error and flow control, transmitting data
packets over external virtual circuits.
 What is X.25?

 A packet-switching protocol for wide area network (WAN) connectivity that uses a public data network
(PDN) that parallels the voice network of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The current X.25
standard supports synchronous, full-duplex communication at speeds up to 2 Mbps over two pairs of wires,
but most implementations are 64-Kbps connections via a standard DS0 link.
 X.25 was developed by common carriers in the early 1970s and approved in 1976 by the CCITT, the
precursor of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and was designed as a global standard for a
packet-switching network. X.25 was originally designed to connect remote character-based terminals
to mainframe hosts. The original X.25 standard operated only at 19.2 Kbps, but this was generally sufficient
for character-based communication between mainframes and terminals.
 What is X.25?

 Because X.25 was designed when analog telephone transmission over copper wire was the norm, X.25
packets have a relatively large overhead of error-correction information, resulting in comparatively low
overall bandwidth. Newer WAN technologies such as frame relay, Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), and T-carrier services are now generally preferred over X.25. However, X.25 networks still have
applications in areas such as credit card verification, automatic teller machine transactions, and other
dedicated business and financial uses.
• An X.25 network consists of a backbone of X.25 switches that are called
packet switching exchanges (PSEs). These switches provide packet-switching
services that connect DCEs at the local facilities of X.25 carriers. DTEs at
customer premises connect to DCEs at X.25 carrier facilities by using a device
called a packet assembler/disassembler (PAD). You can connect several DTEs
to a single DCE by using the multiplexing methods inherent in the X.25
protocol. Similarly, a single X.25 end node can establish several virtual
circuits simultaneously with remote nodes.
• An end node (DTE) can initiate a communication session with another end
node by dialing its X.121 address and establishing a virtual circuit that can be
either permanent or switched, depending on the level of service required.
Packets are routed through the X.25 backbone network by using the ID
number of the virtual circuit established for the particular communication
session. This ID number is called the logical channel identifier (LCI) and is a
12-bit address that identifies the virtual circuit. Packets are generally up to 128
bytes in size, although maximum packet sizes range from 64 to 4096 bytes,
depending on the system.
A network following the X.25
standard is made up of three basic
parts.
Data terminal equipment are
the network hosts and personal
computers that use the network.
Data circuit terminating
equipment are the modems and
packet switches that allow
communication between
computers and the network.
Packet switching exchanges are
the switches that actually transfer
data through the network.
Frame Relay
 Frame Relay

 Frame Relay (frame relay) is a packet switching technology that fragmented into
transmission units called frames and sent in high-speed bursts through a digital network.
Establishes an exclusive connection during the transmission period called virtual
connection.
 It uses a technology called fast packet in which error checking does not occur in any
intermediate node of the transmission but done at the ends. It makes it more efficient than
X.25, and a higher process speed achieved (it can transmit over 2,044 Mbps).
 Another advantage is that you need less powerful switching centers (nodes) and with
less memory capacity than those needed by X25 (each X25 switching center uses the
receive-store-check-relay method, while Frame Relay does not need checking or
correcting errors).
 Frame Relay Devices are
 DTE − Data Terminal Equipment
 DCTE: − Data Circuit Terminating Equipment
 Various key features of this protocol are as
follows:

1. The call control packets are used for setting up and clearing virtual
circuits.
2. In band signaling is used.
3. Multiplexing of virtual circuits takes place at layer 3.
4. Layer 2 and 3 include flow control and error control.
 Characteristics of Frame Relay

 Frame Relay service is a service that supports the transport of data

 Frame relay is a connectionless service, meaning that each data packet passing through
the network contains -address information
 Frame relay is a service that is provided with a variety of speeds from 56 Kbs up to 25
Mbs.
 Even though the most used speeds for the service are currently 56 Kbs and 1.544 Mbs
 Frames are variable in length and goes up to 4,096 bytes
 Frame Relay is considered to be a Broadband ISDN service
 One of the unique facets of frame relay service is that the service supports variable size
data packets.
 Features of frame relay:

 Some important features of frame relay are :

1. Frame relay operates at a high speed (1.544 Mbps to 44.376 Mbps).
2. Frame relay operates only in the physical and data link layers. So it can be easily used
in Internet.
3. It allows the bursty data.
4. It has a large frame size of 9000 bytes. So it can accommodate all local area network frame
sizes.
5. Frame relay can only detect errors (at the data link layer). But there is no flow control or error
control.
6. The damaged frame is simply dropped. There is no retransmission. This is to increase the
speed. So frame relay needs a reliable medium and protocols having flow and error control.
Frame Format

The frame format used in frame relay.

• The DLCI length is 10 bits
• There are two EA locations. The value of the first one is fixed at 0 and the second
at 1 is set in the DE (Discard Eligibility) for the part that can be discarded first when
congestion occurs
• The data size may vary up to 4096 bytes.
Frame relay layers
• Frame relay has only two layers i.e. physical layer and
data link layer.

Physical layer
• Frame relay supports ANSI standards.
• No specific protocol is defined for the physical layer.
The user can use any protocol which is recognized by
ANSI.

Data link layer

• A simplified version of HDLC is employed by the
frame relay at the data link layer.
• A simpler version is used because flow control and
error correction is not needed in frame relay.
The need for frame relay:

• The frame relay is being used for a number of reasons. Some of the
important reasons are as follows:
1. Higher data rates.
2. It allows transfer of bursty data.
3. It has lower overheads.
• Let us discuss these points one by one.
 1. Higher Data Rates

It allows transfer of bursty data.

• If the LANs located at physically distant places are to be connected to each other then there are two options
available to do this.
1. Interconnect them using the T lines.
2. Interconnect using the frame relay.
Fig. (a) Shows four such LANs interconnected via T-lines. The T-lines offer a high data rate but they make
point to point connectiol1$. Hence we need 6 T-lines to connect each LAN to the remaining three.
• Now refer Fig. (b) in which the LANs are interconnected via a frame relay. This requires only 4 T-lines. The
saving increases with increase in the number of LANs.
• For the direct interconnection of Fig.(a), once a T-line is used, we have to pay a fixed charge for it
irrespective of its usage because it is a leased line.
• The T-lines of Fig.(a) may be fully utilized sometimes and not utilized at all at other times.
• The frame relay network can handle data rates upto T-3 transmission i.e. 44.376 Mbps.
2. Can handle bursty data:

 The data being sent from a source to destination is not of

continuous/constant nature.
 Instead it is bursty in nature. That means a large amount of data (data
burst) is sent suddenly, then for sometime there is very little or no data.
 The T-lines are not equipped to handle such bursty data because they offer
a constant data rate.
 The frame relay can tackle this problem. It supports a minimum average
data rate and can handle the bursty data.
3. Lower overheads:

 In frame relay network, there are no acknowledgements sent from the switches
back to the sender.
 There is no intermediate error check. The error checking takes place only at the
destination.
 The intermediate host/switch does not keep a copy of the packet forwarded to the
next host/switch. This saves a lot of memory space of the hosts and switches.
 All this lead to reduced overheads.
 Frame relay architecture:

Frame relay can provide two types of virtual circuits.

1. Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC).
2. Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC).
• Fig. Shows the frame relay network connected to internet. The routers connect LANs and WANs
in the Internet.
Virtual Circuits
 The virtual circuits in frame relay
are called as Data Link Connection
Identifier (DLCI).
 This is actually a number which
identifies a virtual circuit in frame
relay.
Switches:
 The switches in frame relay are
supposed to route frames. For this
each switch has a table.
 The routing procedure is same as
that in the data transfer mode
except for one change. VCIs are
replaced by DLCIs.
 How frame relay works?

 Frame relay can support the Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) as well as Switched
Virtual Circuits (SVC).
 Whether to use PVC or SVC is decided by the user, based on the data transmission
requirements and the budget.
 The Frame Relay works on the basis of virtual circuits. These virtual circuits are
created and used in the data link layer.
 Each virtual circuit is identified by a number called Data Link Connection Identifier
(DLCI).
 When a virtual circuit is established, a DTE (Data Transmission Equipment) is
provided with a DLCI which it can use to communicate with the remote DTE.
 How frame relay works?

 Assume that a virtual circuit has been established between computers A and C using the DLCI
numbers of Fig.
 Then computer A uses DLCI = 68 (i.e. that of C) while sending a packet from A to C. On the other
hand, computer C uses DLCI = 30 (that of A) while sending a packet from C to A.
 The DLCI numbers are assigned permanently if PVC IS being supported and on a per connection
basis if SVC is supported.
 Frame relay switching:

 A frame relay uses the concept of

switching in order to route packet from
the sender to receiver.
 Each switch is a special type of
computer that can forward packets based
on the address contained in the packet.
 Fig. shows the basic frame relay
network.
 In Fig. there are three frame relay
switches which are connected to several
computers.
 The process of forwarding a packet has been illustrated.
 The Frame Relay switch of Fig. has three incoming and four outgoing interfaces.
 The incoming interface-l receives two packets wit~ DLCI numbers 58 and 25.
 The switching table for the frame relay switch is shown in Table.
 As per this table the packet with DLCI number 58 is forwarded to the outgoing interface-3 and that
having DLCI number 25 is forwarded to interface-I.
 Advantages of frame relay:

 1. Streamlined communication process.

 2. The number of functions of a protocol at the user-network interface is reduced.
 3. Lower delay.
 4. Higher throughput.
 5. Frame relay can be used at access speeds upto 2 Mbps.
 6. Frame Relay is cost- effective, partly due to the fact that the network buffering requirements are carefully
optimized.
 7. Compared to X.25, with its store and forward mechanism and full error correction, network buffering is
minimal.
 8. Frame Relay is also much faster than X.25: the frames are switched to their destination with only a few byte
times delay, as opposed to several hundred milliseconds delay on X.25.
Disadvantages of frame relay:

 1. Frames are delivered unreliably.

 2. Packets may not be delivered in the same sequence as that at the sending end.
 3. Packets having errors are simply discarded.
 4. Frame relay does not provide flow control.
 5. It does not provide the acknowledgement of received packets.
 6. Frame discarded in case of network congestion. If congestion occurs in the
network, frame (data) is discarded within the network without re-transmission of
this frame. The sender must perform re-transmission control at his own
responsibility.