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EARTHWORKS

Introduction

Computation of areas and volumes in water and related sectors is a common practice, especially
because the type of land surveying applicable to these sectors is largely engineering surveying.
But even where cadastral surveying is required, acreage/ area determination is applicable. So is
the case with topographical survey. Computation of volumes in order to establish capacity of
water bodies such as dams and pans as well as volume of excavation is common in water,
sanitation and irrigation sectors.

Plan Area of Regular Geometric Figures

The Triangle

The triangle, especially, the equilateral triangle is the most stable geometrical figure. In land
surveying, in particular mutation survey of general boundaries under cadastral survey, a well-
conditioned triangle is an important figure that helps to find acreage with reliable accuracy cost-
effectively. This is so because most land parcels are regular in shape and as such can be divided
into triangles whose individual areas can be computed and summed up to establish the total area
of the land parcel.

For a triangle whose base and height is known; Area= 1/2bh

h
For a triangle where any two sides and included angle is known;

Area = ½ abSinC = ½ bcSinA = ½acSin B

b
A

b For a triangle with all the sides

c
Known:

C Area is computed by Hero’s

B
a formula as:

A = {s(s-a) (s-b) (s-c)} ½

Where s = 1/2(a + b + c)

The Trapezium

Surveying Notes by Magondu G.M

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The Trapezium is another important geometrical figure in the computation of earthworks because
the cross sections of drainages, roads, canals, and dams are trapezoidal in shape.

b Area = 1/2(a+b)h

Where h= centre height; a= formation width; b = plan width and

h s = side slope
s

Plan Area Enclosed by Curvilinear/ Irregular Boundaries

Give and Take Method- Diagrams to be developed in class

The irregular boundary is regularized/ linearised by established “Give and Take” lines which
best balances the given (excluded) area with taken (included) area. The resulting geometrical

figure is thus regular and thus it can be portioned into known geometrical figures whose
individual areas can be calculated in the normal way and summed up to get the total area
enclosed. However, this approach gives approximated area of rather low accuracy depending on
the curvature of the irregular boundaries and the balancing of give and take among other factors.

Graphical Method- Diagrams to be developed in class

Knowing the size of a square or a rectangular grid, the gridded transparency is mounted over the
figure whose area is required. The number of complete and predetermined portions of the grid
that are enclosed by the figure are counted and enumerated.

For example,

Grid portion enclosed Number of portions Fully Complete grids

Fully complete 14 portions
14 14
¾ complete 3 3*3/4 2.25
½ complete 6 ½*6 3
¼ complete 5 ¼*5 1.25
Total Fully Complete Grids 20.50

Surveying Notes by Magondu G.M

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Plan Area 20.50*area of one grid Ground Area = Plan

Area*scale 2
20.50*2*2 = 82 cm2
82*5002

Area from Coordinates

Sometimes it is desirable to establish area at much high accuracy as is the case of precise/fixed
cadastral survey. In such a case therefore, a traverse is run so as to determine the rectangular
coordinates of the corners beacons/ vertexes and the “cross coordinates” method is applied.

N1,E1

N
m
N2,E2
N E
N4,E4 1 1

N E
2 2

N E
N3,E3 3 3

N E
4 4

E N
1
E
1

Area = ½ {( N E N E
1 2+ 2 3 + N3 E4 + N4 E1) - (N2 E1 + N3 E2 + N4 E3 + N1 E4 ) }

The method gives accurate area computation and as such is used in precise cadastral survey.
However, the accuracy achieved depends on the reliability of the coordinates and computational
accuracy.

Area by Planimeter- Notes and diagrams to be developed in class

Mathematical Approach

a) Trapezoidal Rule b) Simpson’s Rule

A
W
h1  2h2  h3  ......  hn1   hn  A = W/3 { (h1 + hn) +2( h3 +h5 +-----+ hn-2 ) +
2 4(h2 +h4 + -----+ hn-1) }

Surveying Notes by Magondu G.M

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Assumption: The area under the curve is the Assumption: The curve approximates a
sum of areas of individual trapezia separated parabolic arc.
by small equal interval.
Condition: The number of offsets/ordinates
Condition: The number of offsets/ordinates can must be odd
be odd or even

Example: A series of perpendicular offsets were taken from a baseline to a curved boundary of a river as
indicated in the table. Determine the area enclosed using: 1. Trapezoidal rule; 2. Simpson’s rule

Distance (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Offset (m) 2.2 2.6 0.85 1.24 2.05 1.66 1.00 0.84
a) Area by Trapezoidal rule - Diagrams to be developed in class

A
W
h1  2h2  h3  ......  hn1   hn 
2
=10/2[2.2+2(2.6+0.85+1.24+2.05+1.66+1.00)+0.84]
=10/2[2.2+2(9.4)+0.84]
=10/2[2.2+18.8+0.84]
=5[21.84] = 109.2m2
b) Area by Simpson’s rule
A = W/3 { (h1 + hn) +2( h3 +h5 +-----+ hn-2 ) + 4(h2 +h4 + -----+ hn-1) }
= 10/3 { (2.20 +1.00) + 2(0.85+2.05) + 4 (2.6 + 1.24 + 1.66)}+ 10/2 (1.00 + 0.84)
= 10/3 {(3.2) + (5.8) + (22) } +10/2 (1.84)
= 103.33 +9.2 =112.53m2

Volume/Capacity Computation- Diagrams to be developed in class

Volume from Sections: Volume is calculated using the established cross sectional areas and the
constant interval between the cross sections. Then either the End area formula or the Prismoidal
formula is applied appropriately.

Surveying Notes by Magondu G.M

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Volume from Contours: Volume is calculated using the established cross sectional areas
enclosed by the individual contours and the constant vertical interval of the contoured map. Then
either the End area formula or the Prismoidal formula is applied appropriately.

Diagrams to be developed in class

a) By End Areas Formula (n can be odd or even number)

V= d/2{(A1 + An) + 2 (A2 + A3 + -------------------- + An-1)}

b) By Prismoidal Formula (n must be an odd number otherwise truncate last section, apply
formula and then compute and add the volume between last two sections)

V= d/3{(A1 + An) + 2 (A3 + A5 + ------- + An-2) + 4 (A2 + A4 +------------ +An-1)}

Prismoidal Excess = (VEnd Areas - VPrismoidal)

In the above formulae, As are cross sectional areas and d is the constant interval between two
successive sections. In case of volumes from contours, d is replaced with V.I and A s represent
cross sectional areas enclosed by various contours separated by a contour interval.

Volume from Spot Heights- To be developed in class

Surveying Notes by Magondu G.M