Lecture 3-2 (Road Ways and Their Geometric Characteristics)

Lecture 3-2:
Roadways and Their Geometric Characteristics
Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Department of Civil Engineering
2018-2019
Lecture 3: Roadways and Their Geometric Characteristics
3.3.4 Superelevation of Horizontal Curves

Most highway curves are "superelevated," or banked,
to assist drivers in resisting the effects of centripetal
force. Superelevation is quantified as a percentage,
computed as follows:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒

𝑒=
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
The two factors that keep a vehicle on a highway curve are Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
•side friction between the tires and the pavement, and Engineering
2018-2019
•The horizontal element of support provided by a banked or "superelevated" pavement.
2
The speed of a vehicle and the radius of curvature are related to the superelevation rate (e) and the
coefficient of side friction (f), by the equation:
𝑆2
𝑅=
15(0.01𝑒 + 𝑓ሻ
where:
e = superelevation rate, %
f = coefficient of side friction
S = speed of the vehicle, ft/s
R =radius of curvature, ft
In design, these values become limits:

•S is the design speed for the facility, Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
•e is the maximum rate of superelevation permitted, and Engineering
2018-2019
•f is a design value of the coefficient of side friction representing tires in reasonable condition on a wet
pavement.
3
The resulting value of R is the minimum radius of curvature permitted for these conditions.
Maximum Superelevation Rates

AASHTO recommends the use of maximum superelevation rates between 4% and 12%. For design purposes.
Maximum rates adopted vary from region to region based on factors such as
 climate,
 terrain,
 development density, and
 Frequency of slow-moving vehicles.
Some of the practical considerations involved in setting this range and for selection of an appropriate rate
include:
 (12%) is the maximum superelevation rate in use. Drivers feel uncomfortable on sections with higher rates,
and driver effort to maintain lateral position is high when speeds are reduced on such curves. Some
authorities use 10% as a maximum practical limit.
 Where snow and ice are prevalent, a maximum value of 8% is generally used. Many agencies use this as Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
an upper limit regardless, due to the effect of rain Or mud on highways. Engineering
2018-2019
 In urban areas, where speeds may be reduced frequently due to congestion, maximum rates of 4% to 6%
are often used.
4
 On low-speed urban streets or at intersections, superelevation may be eliminated.
It should be noted that on open highway sections, there is generally a minimum superelevation
maintained, even on straight sections. This is to provide for cross-drainage of water to the
appropriate roadside(s) where sewers or drainage ditches are present for longitudinal drainage. This
minimum rate is usually in the range of 1.5% for high-type surfaces and 2.0% to 2.5% for low-type
surfaces.

Traffic Engineering
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2018-2019
5
Side-Friction Factors (Coefficients of Side Friction, f)

Design values of the side-friction factor vary with design speed. Design values represent wet pavements and
tires in reasonable. Table 3.3 illustrates commonly used side friction factors (f).
‫ﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺰﯾﺪ ﺳﺮﻋﺔ‬ Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
‫ﯾﻘﻞ اﻻﺣﺘﻜﺎك‬
6
Determining Design Values of Superelevation

Once a maximum superelevation rate and a design speed are set, the minimum radius of curvature can be
found R min Equation. This can be expressed as a maximum degree of curvature using Dmax Equation.
Example: Consider a roadway with a design speed of 60 mi/h, for which a maximum superelevation rate of
6% has been selected. What are the minimum radius of curvature and/or
maximum degree of curve that can be included on this facility?
Solution: For a design speed of 60 mi/h, Table 3.3 indicates a design value for the coefficient of side
friction (f) of 0.120. Then:
𝑆2 602
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 1333.33 𝑓𝑡 Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
15(0.01𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓ሻ 15(0.01 ∗ 6 + 0.12ሻ Traffic Engineering
‫اﻗﻞ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﯾﻔﻀﻞ‬ Department of Civil

Engineering
2018-2019
5729.58 5729.58
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
=
1333.33
= 4.3° ‫ﻋﺪد ﺻﺤﯿﺢ‬
7
The actual rate of superelevation for any curve with less than the maximum degree of curvature (or more
than the -minimum radius) is found by solving Equation for e using the design speed for S and the
appropriate design value of f. Then
2
𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑒 = 100 − 𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
15𝑅
Example: For the highway just described, what superelevation rate would be used for a curve with a radius of
1,500 ft?
2
Solution: 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 602
𝑒 = 100 − 𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 100 − 0.12 = 4%
15𝑅 15 ∗ 1500
Traffic Engineering
Thus, although the maximum superelevation rate for this facility was set at 6%, a superelevation rate Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
of 4.0% would be used for a curve with a radius of 1,500 ft, which is larger than the minimum radius
for the design constraints specified for the facility.
8
Achieving Superelevation
The transition from a tangent section with a normal
superelevation for drainage to a superelevated
horizontal curve occurs in two stages: .
•Tangent Runoff (Lt)
•Superelevation Runoff(Lr)
For most undivided highways, rotation is around the
centreline of the roadway, although rotation can also
be accomplished around the inside or outside edge of
the roadway as well. For divided highways, each
directional roadway is separately rotated, usually
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around the inside or outside edge of the roadway. Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
9

Traffic Engineering
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Engineering
2018-2019
10
Figure 3.8 illustrates the rotation of undivided two-lane, four-lane, and six-lane highways around the
centerline

Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
11
The tangent and superelevation runoffs are, of course, implemented for the transition from tangent to
horizontal curve and for the reverse transition from horizontal curve back to tangent.
The recommended minimum length of superelevation runoff is given as:
𝑤 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑏𝑤
𝐿𝑟 =
where:
∆ ‫ وﺗﻌﻮض‬ed ‫ھﻨﺎ ﻻزم‬
Lr = minimum length of superelevation runoff, ft
w =width of a lane, ft
n =number of lanes being rotated
ed =design superelevation rate, %
bw =adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated
∆ =maximum relative gradient, %
Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
12
AASHTO-recommended values for

•The maximum relative gradient, ∆, are shown in Table 3.4.

Traffic Engineering
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Engineering
2018-2019
•The adjustment factor (bw), depends on the number of lanes being rotated. A value of 1.00 is used
when one lane is being rotated, 0.75 when two lanes are being rotated, and 0.67 when three lanes are
being rotated. 13
Example: Consider a four-lane highway, with a superelevation rate of 4% achieved by rotating two 12-ft
lanes around the centerline. The design speed of the highway is 60 mi/h. What is the appropriate minimum
length of superelevation runoff?
Solution: From Table 3.4, the maximum relative gradient for 60 mi/h is 0.45%; the adjustment factor for
rotating two lanes is 0.75. Thus:
𝑤 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑏𝑤 12 ∗ 2 ∗ 4 ∗ 0.75
𝐿𝑟 = = = 160 𝑓𝑡
∆ 0.45

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2018-2019
14
The length of the tangent runoff is related to the length of the superelevation runoff, as follows:
𝑒𝑁𝐶
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑒𝑑 𝑟
where:
Lt = length of tangent runoff, ft
Lr = length of superelevation runoff, ft
eNC = normal cross-slope, %
ed =design superelevation rate, %
Example: If, in the previous example, the normal drainage cross slope was 1%, determine the length of the
tangent runoff Traffic Engineering
𝑒𝑁𝐶 1 Department of Civil
Solution: 𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿 = ∗ 160 = 40 𝑓𝑡 Engineering
𝑒𝑑 𝑟 4 2018-2019
The total transition length between the normal cross section to the fully superelevated cross section is the
sum of the superelevation and tangent runoffs, 160 + 40 = 200 ft. 15
To provide drivers with the most comfortable operation, from 60% to 90% of the total runoff is achieved
on the tangent section, with the remaining runoff achieved on the horizontal curve. Where a spiral
transition curve (see next section) is used between the tangent and horizontal curves, the
superelevation is achieved entirely on the spiral. If possible, the tangent and superelevation runoff may
be accomplished on the spiral.

Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
16
3.3.5 Spiral Transition Curves

Although not impossible, it is difficult for drivers to travel
immediately from a tangent section to a circular curve with a
constant radius. A spiral transition curve begins with a tangent
(degree of curve, D =0) and gradually and uniformly increases
the degree of curvature (decreases the radius) until the
intended circular degree of curve is reached.
Use of a spiral transition provides for a number of benefits:

 Provides an easy path for drivers to follow: Centrifugal
and centripetal forces are increased gradually
 Provides a desirable arrangement for superelevation
runoff Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
 Provides a desirable arrangement for pavement widening Engineering
2018-2019
on curves (often done to accommodate off-tracking of
commercial vehicles)
17
 Enhances highway appearance
The latter is illustrated in Figure 3.9, where the

visual impact of a spiral transition curve is
obvious. Spiral transition curves are not always
used because construction is difficult and
construction cost is generally higher than for a
simple circular curve. They are recommended for
high-volume situations where degree of
curvature exceeds 3°.

Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
Figure 3.9: The Visual Impact of a Spiral Transition Curve
18
The geometric characteristics of spiral transition curves are complex; they are illustrated in Figure 3.10.
The key variables in Figure 3.10 are defined as

follows:
T.S. = transition station from tangent to spiral
S.C. = transition station form spiral to circular curve
C.S. - transition station from circular curve to spiral
S.T.= transition station from spiral to tangent
∆ = angle of deflection (central angle) of original
circular curve without spiral
∆s = angle of deflection (central angle) of circular
portion of curve with spiral Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
δ = angle of deflection for spiral portion of curve Engineering
2018-2019
Ls = length of the spiral, ft

19
Figure 3.10: Geometry of Spiral Transition Curves
Length of Spiral, Ls
The length of the spiral can be set in one of two ways:
(1) Ls is set equal to the length of the superelevation runoff, as described in the previous section;
(2) the length of the spiral can be determined as
3.15𝑆 3
𝐿𝑠 =
𝑅∗𝐶
where:
Ls= length of the spiral, ft
S= design speed of the curve, mi/h
R= radius of the circular curve, ft
C= Rate of increase of lateral acceleration, ft/s3
The values of C commonly used in highway design range between 1

and 3 ft/s3 . When a value of 1.97 is used (a common standard value
adopted by highway agencies), the equation becomes: Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
𝑆3 Engineering
𝐿𝑠 = 1.6 2018-2019
𝑅
20
Angle of Deflection (Central Angle) for the Spiral, δ

The angle of deflection for the spiral reflects the average degree of curvature along the spiral. As the
degree of curvature is uniformly increased from 0 to D, the average degree of curvature for the spiral is
D/2. Thus the angle of deflection for the spiral is:
𝐿𝑠 ∗ 𝐷
𝛿=
where: 200
δ= spiral angle of deflection, degrees
Ls = length of the spiral, ft
D = degree of curve for the circular curve, degrees
Angle of Deflection (Central Angle) for Circular Portion of Curve with Spiral Easement, ∆s Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
∆𝑠 = ∆ − 2𝛿 Engineering
where: 2018-2019
∆s= angle of deflection for circular curve with spiral, degrees or radians
∆= angle of deflection for circular curve without spiral, degrees or radians
21
δ= angle of deflection for the spiral, degrees or radians
Length of Tangent Distance, T.S., between P.I. and T.S. (and P.I. and S.T.)
∆ 𝐿𝑠 2 ∆
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 + 𝑅 ∗ cos 𝛿 − 𝑅 + ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 + 𝐿𝑠 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
2 6𝑅 2
where:
Ts = distance between P.I. and T.S. (also P.I. and S.T]), ft
R = radius of circular curve, ft
∆= angle of deflection for circular curve without spiral, degrees or radians
δ = angle of deflection for spiral, degrees or radians
It is recommended
that the maximum
radius for use of a
spiral should be based
on a minimum lateral
acceleration rate. Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
Traffic Engineering
These radii are listed Department of Civil
in below. Engineering
2018-2019
22
Example: A 4° curve is to be designed on a highway with two 12-ft lanes and a design speed of 60 mi/h. A
maximum superelevation rate of 6% has been established. The normal drainage cross-slope on the tangent is
1%. Spiral transition curves are to be used. Determine the length of the spiral and the appropriate stations for
the T.S., S.C., C.S., and S.T. The angle of deflection for the original tangents is 38°, and the P.I. is at station
1,100 + 62. The segment has a two lane cross section.
Solution:
The appropriate side-friction factor for 60 mi/h is found from Table 3.3 as 0.120
The radius of curvature for the circular portion of the curve is found from the degree of curvature as:
5729.58 5729.58
𝑅= = = 1432.4 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 4
For design speed of 60 mi/h it is recommended to use spiral as R< 1822 (exhibit 3.33) The length of the
spiral may now be computed using Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
𝑆3 603
𝐿𝑠 = 1.6 = 1.6 ∗ = 241.3 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 1432.4
23
The minimum length of the spiral can also be determined as the length of the superelevation runoff. For a 60-mi/h
design speed and a radius of 1,432.4 ft, the superelevation rate is found
2
𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 602
𝑒 = 100 − 𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 100 − 0.12 = 4.8%
15𝑅 15 ∗ 1432.4
For 60 mi/h, the design value of ∆ is 0.45 (Table 3.4). The adjustment factor for two lanes being rotated is 0.75.
Then, the length of the superelevation and tangent runoffs are computed as:
𝑤 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑏𝑤 12 ∗ 2 ∗ 4.8 ∗ 0.75
𝐿𝑟 = = = 192 𝑓𝑡
∆ 0.45
𝑒𝑁𝐶 1
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿𝑟 = ∗ 192 = 40 𝑓𝑡
𝑒𝑑 4.8
The spiral must be at least as long as the superelevation runoff, or 192 ft. The result of minimum Ls is 241.3 ft,
so this value controls. In fact, at 241.3 ft the minimum length of the spiral is sufficient to encompass both the
superelevation runoff of 192 ft and the tangent runoff of 40 ft. Normally, the length of the spiral would be rounded, Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
perhaps to 250 ft, which will be assumed for this problem. Engineering
2018-2019
The angle of deflection for the spiral is computed as:
𝐿𝑠 ∗ 𝐷 250 ∗ 4 24
𝛿= = = 5°
200 200
The angle of deflection for the circular portion of the curve is

∆𝑠 = ∆ − 2𝛿 = 38 − 2 ∗ 5 = 28°
The length of the circular portion of the curve, is found as:
∆𝑠 28
𝐿𝑐 = 100 = 100 = 700 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 4
The distance between the P.I. and the T.S. is
∆ 𝐿𝑠 2 ∆
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 + 𝑅 ∗ cos 𝛿 − 𝑅 + ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 + 𝐿𝑠 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
2 6𝑅 2
38 2502 38
𝑇𝑠 = 1432.4 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 + 1432.4 ∗ cos 5 − 1432.4 + ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 + 250 − 1432.4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5
2 6 ∗ 1432.4 2
= 619 𝑓𝑡

Traffic Engineering
From these results, the curve may now be stationed: Department of Civil
Engineering
T.S. = P.I. -Ts = 1,162 - 619.0 = 543 or sta. 500 + 43 2018-2019
S.C = T.S. + Ls = 543 + 250 = 793 or Sta. 700 + 93

C.S. = S.C + Lc = 793 + 700 = 1,493 or Sta. 1400 + 93 25
ST. = C.S. + Ls= 1,493 + 250 = 1,743 or Sta. 1700 + 43

3.3.6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

One of the most fundamental design criteria for all
highway facilities is that a minimum sight distance
equal to the safe stopping distance must be
provided at every point along the roadway. On
horizontal curves, sight distance is limited by
roadside objects (on the inside of the curve) that
block drivers' line of sight. Roadside objects such as
buildings, trees, and natural barriers disrupt
motorists' sight lines. Figure 3.11 illustrates a sight
restriction on a horizontal curve.
Figure 3.10: A Sight Restriction on a Horizontal Curve Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

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26
Figure 3.12 illustrates the effect of horizontal curves on sight
distance. Sight distance is measured along the arc of the roadway,
using the centerline of the inside travel lane. The middle ordinate,
M, is taken as the distance from the centerline of the inside lane to
the nearest roadside sight blockage
The formula for the middle ordinate is given as:
∆
𝑀 = 𝑅 1 − cos
2
In this case, however, the length of the curve is set equal to the
required stopping sight distance. Then:
∆ 𝑑𝑠 ∗ 𝐷
𝐿 = 𝑑𝑠 = 100 𝑜𝑟 ∆=
𝐷 100
Substituting in the equation for M:
𝑑𝑠 𝐷
𝑀 = 𝑅 1 − cos Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
200 Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
The equation can be expressed uniformly using either the degree of curvature, D, or the radius of curvature, R: Engineering
2018-2019
5729.58 𝑑𝑠 𝐷 28.65 𝑑𝑠
𝑀= 1 − cos 𝑀 = 𝑅 1 − cos
𝐷 200 𝑅 27
Example: A 6° curve (measured at the centerline of the inside lane) is being designed for a highway
with a design speed of 70 mi/h. The grade is level, and driver reaction time will be taken as 2.5 s. What
is the closest any roadside object may be placed to the centerline of the inside lane of the roadway?
Solution: The safe stopping distance, ds, is computed as:
𝑆𝑖2 − 𝑆𝑓2 702 − 02

𝑑𝑠 = 1.47 ∗ 𝑆𝑖 ∗ 𝑡 + = 1.47 ∗ 70 ∗ 2.5 + = 726.6 𝑓𝑡
30 0.348 ∓ 0.01𝐺 30 0.348 + 0.01 ∗ 0
The minimum clearance at the roadside is given by the middle ordinate for a sight distance of 726.6 ft:
5729.58 𝑑𝑠 𝐷 5729.58 726.6 ∗ 6

𝑀= 1 − cos = 1 − cos = 68.3 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 200 6 200
Thus, for this curve, no objects or other sight blockages on the inside roadside may be closer than 68.3 Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan
ft to the centreline of the inside lane. Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
28
3.3.7 Compound Horizontal Curves:
A compound horizontal curve consists of two or more consecutive
horizontal curves in a single direction with different radii. Figure 3.13
illustrates such a curve. Some general criteria for such curves include:
•Use of compound curves should be limited to cases in which physical
conditions require it.
•Whenever two consecutive curves are connected on a highway segment,
the larger radii should not be more than 1.5 times the smaller. A similar
criteria is that the degrees of curvature should not differ by more than 5°.
•Whenever two consecutive curves in the same direction are separated
by a short tangent (< 200 ft), they should be combined in a compound
curve. Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
•A compound curve is merely a series of simple horizontal curves subject Engineering
2018-2019
to the same criteria as isolated horizontal curves.

•AASHTO relaxes some of these criteria for compound curves for ramp 29
design.
3.3.8 Reverse Horizontal Curves

A reverse curve consists of two consecutive
horizontal curves in opposite directions. Such a
curve is illustrated in Figure 3.14. Two horizontal
curves in opposite directions should always be
separated by a tangent of at least 200 ft. Use of
spiral transition curves is a significant assist to
drivers negotiating reverse curves.

Traffic Engineering
Department of Civil
Engineering
2018-2019
30

Lecture 3-2 (Road Ways and Their Geometric Characteristics)

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Lecture 3-2:

Roadways and Their Geometric Characteristics

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

3.3.4 Superelevation of Horizontal Curves

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒

In design, these values become limits:

Maximum Superelevation Rates

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Side-Friction Factors (Coefficients of Side Friction, f)

‫ﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺰﯾﺪ ﺳﺮﻋﺔ‬ Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Determining Design Values of Superelevation

‫اﻗﻞ ﻧﺼﻒ ﻗﻄﺮ ﯾﻔﻀﻞ‬ Department of Civil

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

The recommended minimum length of superelevation runoff is given as:

AASHTO-recommended values for

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

3.3.5 Spiral Transition Curves

Use of a spiral transition provides for a number of benefits:

The latter is illustrated in Figure 3.9, where the

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

The key variables in Figure 3.10 are defined as

Ls = length of the spiral, ft

The values of C commonly used in highway design range between 1

Angle of Deflection (Central Angle) for the Spiral, δ

The angle of deflection for the spiral is computed as:

The angle of deflection for the circular portion of the curve is

The distance between the P.I. and the T.S. is

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

S.C = T.S. + Ls = 543 + 250 = 793 or Sta. 700 + 93

ST. = C.S. + Ls= 1,493 + 250 = 1,743 or Sta. 1700 + 43

3.3.6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

Figure 3.10: A Sight Restriction on a Horizontal Curve Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

Solution: The safe stopping distance, ds, is computed as:

𝑆𝑖2 − 𝑆𝑓2 702 − 02

5729.58 𝑑𝑠 𝐷 5729.58 726.6 ∗ 6

to the same criteria as isolated horizontal curves.

3.3.8 Reverse Horizontal Curves

Dr. Shakir Al-Busaltan

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