Discuss the main features and potentiality of the Mansabdari system under Akbar.

The chronicles; AkbarNama of Abul Fazl, Muntakhab al-Tawarikh of Badauni, Tabaqat-i

Akbari of Nizam al-Din Ahmad Bakshi, Tarikh-i Akbari of Hajji Muhammad Arif
Qandahari and Tazkira-yi Humayun wa Akbar of Bayazid Bayat are the principal sources
of information for this period.

Introduction
1. The Mansabdari System was a unique system devised by Akbar, which is now
recognised as the basic feature of the Mughal administrative and military structure.
2. The word ‘mansab’ means a place or a position where something is fixed or
placed, and, thus, the term came to mean a position in the system. This system
organised the Mughal nobility into numerical grades and fixed their position in the
official hierarchy.
3. Over time, the term "mansab" evolved to become an obligation for the mansabdars
to provide service to the empire in exchange for their rank and salary. This service
usually involved maintaining a number of armed retainers denoted by the mansab
rank. The mansabdars could be assigned various administrative or military
functions or required to attend the court.
4. Mansabdari evolved over the years as a single service that combined both civil and
military responsibilities. The system undoubtedly gave the Mughal nobility and
military machine a high degree of uniformity and regularity in its functioning,
which is likely to have contributed to the empire’s stability and strength.
5. During Babur's time, the term mansabdar was not used; instead, another term
wajhdar was employed which was in some ways from the mansab system that
evolved under the Mughals after Babur.

The Mansabdari System was traced back to Ghengiz Khan's system of organizing armies,
according to Athar Ali. Akbar established 66 grades of mansabdars, ranging from
commanders of 10 horsemen to 10,000 horsemen, however, only 33 have been mentioned
by Fazl. The system brought about more order in the administrative system of the
Mughals and allowed Akbar to control the nobility through a set of rules and regulations.
The system also created a personal bond or some form of allegiance between the Emperor
and his officials, serving the administrative and military interests of the Empire.

Mansab denoted three things:

1. It determined the status of its holder (the mansabdar) in the official hierarchy.
2. It fixed the pay of the holder and also laid upon the holder the obligation of
maintaining a specified number of contingents with horses and equipment.
 3. The position of the mansabdar was denoted by two numbers.
a) The first number (zat) determined the mansabdar's personal pay
(talab-khassa) and his rank in the organisation.
b) The second number (sawar) fixed the number of horses and horsemen to be
maintained by the mansabdar and, accordingly, the amount he would
receive for his contingent (tabinan).

Debates surround the evolution of the Mansabdari System. Scholars like Moreland and
Abdul Aziz held that a single numerical rank existed before Akbar, the number directly
indicating the size of the cavalry contingent that the rank-holder was expected to
maintain. Moreland further supposed that as this number became more and more a sham
in terms of cavalry actually mustered, Akbar introduced the second (sawar) rank in his
11th regnal year (1566-67).

Moreland used five phases to denote the evolution of the Mansabdari system.
1. In the first phase, numerical rank appears as a military fact
2. In the second phase, the titular strength fell below nominal.
3. The third phase saw the emergence of the dual rank system
4. The fourth phase saw the repetition of the second phase whereby there was a fall
in the effective strength below nominal.
5. The last and final phase saw the reformation of the system by Shah Jahan like the
introduction of du-aspa-sih-aspa rank and the month’s scale reforms.

During the phase of the insurrection of the dual rank system two words gained common
ground. while the first became what in course of time came to be called the zat rank,
indicating personal pay and status only. Irfan Habib is of the view that Faz has given
only the zat rank and omitted the sawar ranks altogether, which has led to confusion
regarding the origin of the concept of the dual rank.

During 1595-96, the mansabdars were classified into three groups.

1. horsemen (sawar) equal to the number of the zat.
2. horsemen were half or more than half of the number of the zat,
3. those whose sawar rank was less than half of their zat rank.

The sawar rank was either equal or less than the zat. Even if the former was higher, the
mansabdar's position in the official hierarchy would not be affected. However, there were
exceptions to this rule. For instance, when the mansabdar was serving in difficult terrain,
the state often increased the sawar rank without altering the zat rank. Thus, reforms were
made without altering the basic scheme, such as the use of conditional rank (mashrut) in
emergencies, allowing an increase in sawar rank for a temporary period at the expense of
the state. However, these ranks were cancelled as soon as the expedition or service came
to an end. Athar Ali states that sometimes a part or whole of the conditional mansab was
made unconditional but that was considered a promotion and usually given as a mark of
favour.

Shireen Moosvi divides the evolution of the Mansabdari system into phases or landmark
regnal years, and suggests that no rank existed before Akbar's reign.
1. She notes that in the first decade of his reign, there was no evidence of a link
between the size of a noble's contingent and their salary, which was fixed
arbitrarily by the Emperor without defining military obligations. Moreland argued
that Akbar's measures in the 11th year (1566-67) required officials to maintain a
specified number of cavalrymen. However, she maintains that the concept of rank
or 'mansab' had not yet evolved and there is no evidence to suggest how the
troopers were categorised during this period, and that this year only witnessed an
attempt to work out the size of military obligation from the estimated revenues of
the jagir. This system continued until the dagh system was introduced in 1573-74.
2. The 18th regnal year (1573-4) saw the institution of the numerical rank (mansab).
According to Abul Fazl, this year saw the introduction of the dagh, and the ranks
of the Imperial officials were also fixed. It was in the following year that the term
‘mansab’ came to be used in the sense of a rank and it was this rank that
determined, according to Badauni, the number of horses or sawar that they were
expected to maintain.
3. According to Moosvi, the final stage of the Mansab system was marked by an
innovation in the 40th regnal year, where mansabdars were expected to maintain
horsemen equal in number to their mansab, which was not always fulfilled.
Mansabdars were first assigned their personal pay and a salary for a number of
troopers equal to their mansab, which was fixed on a provisional rate. If they
couldn't produce the required number of troopers at the dagh, they were paid at a
partial rate, causing a loss for the administration. The administration modified the
system to allow mansabdars to pay a fee if they couldn't maintain the full quota of
troopers.
4. In the 40th regnal year, the number of troopers a Mansabdar was expected to
maintain became distinct from his Mansab rank. An additional rank, Sawar, was
assigned denoting the number of troopers to be maintained, and the partial rate
applied only to this rank. The Mansab rank and salary were determined by the
existing rank. The system led to a demotion for those who did not maintain their
contingents in full and a reduction in their salaries. The dual rank evolved fully in
 the 41st regnal year, and this demarcation led to the clear evolution of the
Mansabdari system.

By Akbar's death, the mansab system had evolved into two numerical representations: zat
and sawar. The zat determined the holder's personal pay and status, while sawar indicated
the number of horsemen to be maintained and set the amount sanctioned for their pay.
The zat also determined the number of horses, elephants, and carts to be maintained.
Athar Ali argues that zat placed the mansabdar in an appropriate position in the Mughal
hierarchy, while sawar highlighted their exact responsibility.

Abu’l Fazl in the Ain-i-Akbari has mentioned the existence of 66 grades of Mansabdars
starting with commanders of the rank of 10 and extending up to 5,000. I.H.Qureshi
states that if one examines the list of mansabdars prepared by Fazl then it would reveal
the existence of only 33 ranks in reality; the other 33, according to him, were just
theoretical and to satisfy the superstitious spirit of the time.

Satish Chandra has stated that while the term mansabdar was a generic term it was
popularly used only for those holding ranks upto 500. Those from 500 to 2500 were
called amirs and those above 2500 were called amir-i-azam. He further states that
mansabs above 5,000 were usually meant for princes of blood.

The Dagh system

1. Iqbalnama mentions that in order to check all invasions of military obligations by
mansabdars Akbar introduced dagh (branding) for the horses and chehra
(descriptive rolls) for the men
2. Under the dagh system, every mansabdar had to bring their horses and elephants
for branding. Troopers brought a certain number of horses based on their
capability, ranging from one to three horses, for the dagh payment.
3. The dagh system required every mansabdar to bring their personal horses and
elephants for branding with a specific pattern to distinguish them from those of
other nobles. The physical description of the troops was also recorded to reduce
the possibility of presenting the same horse for inspection again. Shireen Moosvi
argues that the salaries of the mansabdars were fixed according to their mansabs,
while the rates for their troopers were sanctioned separately.

Salary of mansabdar
1. The mansabdars had two types of salaries: personal and contingent. The pay scale
was based on their zat or sawar rank. The salary for the zat rank was fixed. If the
zat rank was less than 5,000, the salary differed for the three categories of
 mansabdars. The salary for the sawar rank was based on the number of troopers
maintained.
2. The salaries and obligation of maintaining troops were governed by a definite set
of rules which underwent changes from time to time. For revenue purposes, all the
land was divided into two - the jagir and khalisa. The land revenue collected from
the khalisa went to the royal treasury while that from the jagir to mansabdars.
Mansabdars received their salaries in cash from the treasury or as jagirs.
3. The jagirs given in the form of salaries were called tankhwa jagirs. The tankhwa
jagir was not hereditary and was subject to transfer. However when Rajput
chieftains were inducted into the imperial service, their territory was designated as
watan jagir wherein hereditary succession was recognised. It is seen that all
jagirdars were mansabdars but all mansabdars were not jagirdars.

Appointment
1. The appointment of Mansabdars was a lengthy process, involving officials and
leading nobles, until the final approval by the emperor. The Mir Bakshi would
scrutinize potential candidates and bring them to the court for approval, while
leading nobles could also send in their recommendations. The king could also
directly appoint Mansabdars to establish a bond of allegiance. Akbar appointed
Rajputs to high mansabs to win them over and incorporate them into the Empire.
2. The appointment of mansabdars during the Mughal reigns showed that certain
groups were more favoured than others, such as the khanazad and those who held
high positions in other kingdoms like Uzbek and Safavi Empires and Deccan
kingdoms. However, these favoured groups were not constant and changed
throughout the Mughal Empire. For instance, during the reign of Akbar, Rajputs
were favoured, but their position changed later on. Similarly, the position of
Afghans improved under the later Mughals compared to Akbar's reign. The
preference of these groups was based on various factors and needs of the Mughal
Empire during different periods.

New Innovations
The Mansabdari system following the death of Akbar witnessed a number of new
innovations.
1. During Jahangir's reign, a new rank called "du-aspa sih-aspa" was introduced,
which marked a significant change from the system established by Akbar. In the
10th year of his reign, Jahangir created 1,700 sawars out of the rank of Mahabat
Khan du-aspa sih-aspa, which was a special distinction. This tradition continued
under Aurangzeb and Shahjahan, who awarded this rank on a larger scale.
 2. The du-aspa sih-aspa rank was theoretically a part of the sawar rank and the
remaining part of the sawar rank that was left after this was called barawurdi. This
rank doubled both the rank and the military obligation for that portion. Athar Ali
has thrown some light on how the pay-scale worked in case of this rank.
3. Jahangir's introduction of the "du-aspasih-aspa" rank, which allowed for additional
sawar rank without disturbing the zat rank or mansab hierarchy, has been the
subject of speculation by modern historians. Some suggest that Jahangir wanted to
promote nobles he trusted and strengthen them militarily, but faced practical
problems due to the hierarchy and financial burden. The "du-aspasih-aspa" rank
allowed for additional sawar rank without these issues and was a financially viable
option. The rank became more widespread under Aurangzeb and Shahjahan.
4. After Akbar's death, the number of mansabdars in the Mughal state increased
significantly. Satish Chandra suggests that Jahangir's insecurity and lack of trust
in Akbar's nobles, as well as Shahjahan's rebellion, prompted him to create a new
nobility that was loyal to him. Jahangir increased the ranks of his favoured nobles
by 20% to 400%, mainly from the khalisa land, as the empire's territorial extent
could not be expanded substantially. This reduction in khalisa land significantly
affected the amount of revenue that could be collected by the Mughal Empire.

Conclusion
In a nutshell, we find that the mansabdari system is the army, the peerage and the civil
administration all rolled into one.
1. The system executed the assumptions of the military patronage state to perfection,
remarks Douglas E. Streusand.
2. Andre Wink believes that mansabs were perhaps the most striking aspect of the
systematization which occurred under Akbar, in that they converted the rank,
payment, and the military and other obligations of their holders into exact
numbers.
3. Abdul Aziz states that the institution of army and the mansabdari system
interpenetrate each other so much so that the one is unintelligible without the
other.
4. According to Satish Chandra, the mansabdari system was the "steel framework" of
the Mughal Empire, which generated institutional despotism. The system was
independent of the ruler and restricted the political, military, and fiscal obligations
of the mansabdar, leading to the subordination of the mansabdar to the institution,
state, and king. The Mughal Polity absorbed the existing elite, which is evident
from the institution of watan jagir, as a large proportion of mansabdar families
held similar positions before the Mughal conquest as pointed out by Streusand..
Hence, Akbar’s mansabdari had succeeded in transforming the nobility from autonomous
and semi-autonomous chieftains into imperial officials deriving their status from the
pleasure of the emperor thereby leading to the emergence of a composite nobility bound
together by the doctrines of sulh-i kul and wahdat-ul wajud.