Transmission and Distribution Systems

ELECTRICAL ASPECTS

TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS ground and/or corona. Leakage current

An overhead transmission line consists of a
group of conductors running parallel to each
other and carried on supports which provide
insulation between the different conductors
and between each conductor and earth.
In calculating the performance of a transmission
line, four parameters are considered and
computed. These parameters are uniformly
distributed throughout but can be lumped for
the purpose of analysis on approximate basis:
depends on the amount of dirt, salt,
and to other contaminants that have
accumulated on insulators, as well as on
meteorological factors like the presence
of moisture. Corona occurs when a high
value of electric field strength at the
conductor surface causes the air to
become electrically ionized and to
conduct current. It is usually neglected
in OHTL.

1. Resistance – this is the opposition of

line conductors to current flow. It is
distributed uniformly along the whole
length of the line. This accounts for
ohmic line losses. The resistance of the
conductor is very important in
transmission efficiency evaluation and
economic studies.
2. Inductance – when AC flows through a SKIN EFFECT – this refers to the tendency of
conductor, a changing flux is set up alternating current to concentrate near the
which links the conductors. That is why surface of the conductor. It depends upon the
inductance is defined as the flux following factors:
linkages per unit ampere. This (together
with resistance) gives rise to voltage 1. Nature of material
drop along the line. The power 2. Diameter of wire
transmission capacity of the 3. Frequency – negligible when supply
transmission line is mainly governed by frequency is less than 50Hz.
the series inductance. 4. Shape of wire – (less for stranded
3. Capacitance – any two conductors of an conductor than solid conductor)
overhead transmission line are
separated by air which acts as an
insulation, hence capacitance exists.
Capacitance is defined as the charge per
unit of potential difference. Shunt
capacitance gives rise to line-charging
currents. The shunt capacitance
assumes importance for medium and
long transmission lines.
4. Conductance – this accounts for
The skin effect can be easily explained by
leakage currents flowing across
considering a solid conductor to be composed
insulators and ionized pathways in the
of a large number of annular filaments, each
air. It accounts for “real power” line
carrying a fraction of total current. The flux
losses due to leakage currents between
linkages due to the filaments lying at the
conductors or between conductors and
surface link the whole of the conductor while

Prepared by: Eleazer C. Nabong, REE, M.Eng-Mfg. Page 1

 Transmission and Distribution Systems
the flux set up due to the inner filaments does
not link with the surface of outer filaments.
Thus the filaments near the center are of larger
inductance than that near the outer surface.
The high reactance of the inner filaments
causes the current to distribute in such a way
that the current density is less in the interior of
the conductor than at the surface.
In practice, stranded conductors are invariably
used for transmission and distribution lines and
hollow conductors for solid bus-bar. This is
done to overcome the adverse effect of skin
effect.
PROXIMITY EFFECT – the inductance and
therefore, the current distribution in a
conductor is also affected by the presence of
other conductors in its vicinity. The effect is
known as proximity effect.
With proximity effect, two conductors carrying
currents in opposite directions, the magnetic
fields set up will tend to cause an increase in
current density in the adjacent portions of the
conductors while if the currents are in the same
direction, the current density is increased in
remote parts of the conductor. So, like skin
effect, proximity effect affects the current
distribution and results in an increase in the
resistance of the conductor and decrease of
self-reactance.
A. Resistance Calculation
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )]
𝑇 + 𝑡2
𝑅2 = 𝑅1
𝑇 + 𝑡1
Where:
 = resistivity
L = length of line
Prepared by: Eleazer C. Nabong, REE, M.Eng-Mfg.
A = cross-sectional area
1 = temperature coefficient
𝛼0
=
1+𝛼0 𝑡1
T = temperature constant of the conductor
0 = temperature coefficient @ 0C
B. Self- and Mutual-GMD Calculation
The use of Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
simplifies the inductance and capacitance
computations. It is important in estimating
transmission parameters particularly in multi-
conductor setup.
In self-GMD (GMR), we are assuming a single
value of conductor radius to replace the
multiple strands of solid conductor. This
imaginary radius approximates the combined
effect of external (due to proximity effect) and
internal fluxes (due to skin effect), instead of
solving every conductor independent of each
other.
Geometric mean radius is the (n2)th root of the
product of the distances from every filament in
the conductor to itself and to every other
filaments or strands.
The formula is:
1
𝑛 (𝑛2 −𝑛) 𝑛2
𝐺𝑀𝑅 = (𝐷𝑠 ∙ 𝑑 )
Where:
𝐷𝑠 = 0.7788 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
𝑑 = 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠
Composite and Bundled Conductors
Transmission line conductors used in practice
are always stranded to provide necessary
flexibility for stringing. Stranded conductors are
also known as composite conductors as they
compose of two or more elements or strands
electrically in parallel.
The total number of strands (S) in
concentrically stranded
conductor with total annular
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 Transmission and Distribution Systems
space filled with strands of uniform diameter
(d) is given by: S = 3y2 – 3y +1, where y is the
number of layer in a single strand center. The
overall diameter D = (2y – 1)d.
Extra-high voltage transmission lines are usually
constructed with bundled conductors – consist
of two or more sub-conductors symmetrically
arranged. The sub-conductors within a bundle
are separated at frequent intervals by spacer-
dampers (it prevents clashing, provide
damping, and connect the sub-conductors in
parallel). Bundling reduces the line reactance,
which improves the line performance and
increases the power capability of the line. It also
reduces the voltage surface gradient, which in
turn reduces corona loss, radio interference and
surge impedance.
In mutual-GMD or simply GMD, we are
assuming a single value of separation distance
between phases of transmission line, instead of
solving them individually especially on non-
symmetric three-phase transmission lines.
Geometric mean distance is the (xy)th root of
the product of the xy distances between 2
conductors.
1 Where:
𝐺𝑀𝐷𝐴𝐵 = (𝑑 𝑥𝑦 )𝑥𝑦
Where:
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴
𝑦 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐵
a. For single-phase line
𝐺𝑀𝐷 = 𝐺𝑀𝐷𝐴𝐵
b. For three-phase line
1
𝐺𝑀𝐷 = (𝐺𝑀𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐺𝑀𝐷𝐴𝐶 𝐺𝑀𝐷𝐵𝐶 )3
Prepared by: Eleazer C. Nabong, REE, M.Eng-Mfg.
C. Inductance Calculation
A current-carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field around the conductor. The
magnetic flux lines are concentric closed circles
with direction given by the RHR (right-hand
rule). In RHR, the thumb points in the direction
of the current while the four fingers encircled
the wire point in the direction of the magnetic
field. When the current inside the conductor
changes, the flux also changes, and a voltage is
induced in it. For nonmagnetic material, the
inductance L is the ratio of its total magnetic
flux linkage to the current I.
There are two kinds of inductances produced in
a conductor, (1) internal inductance which is
caused by internal flux linkages inside the
conductor and, (2) external inductances that
are due to flux linkage of the conductor with
other conductors. Together, they form the total
inductance of a given circuit.
Inductance of a Conductor Due to Internal and
External Flux
1
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑥10−7 𝐻/𝑚
2
𝑑
𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑥10−7 𝑙𝑛 𝐻/𝑚
𝑟
𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
1 𝑑
𝐿 𝑇 = ( + 2𝑙𝑛 ) 10−7 𝐻/𝑚
2 𝑟
𝑑
𝐿 𝑇 = (2𝑙𝑛𝑒 1/4 + 2𝑙𝑛 ) 10−7 𝐻/𝑚
𝑟
𝑑
𝐿 𝑇 = (𝑙𝑛 −1/4 ) 2𝑥10−7 𝐻/𝑚
𝑟𝑒
𝐝
𝐋𝐓 = (𝐥𝐧 ′ ) 𝟐𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐇/𝐦
𝐫
d = distance between 2 conductors
r = radius of conductors
r’= re-(1/4) = a fictitious conductor
assumed to have no internal flux but with the
same inductance as the actual conductor.
Inductance of a 2-conductor Line
𝐝
𝐋𝐓 = 𝟐[(𝐥𝐧 ′ ) 𝟐𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟕 ]𝐇/𝐦
𝐫
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 Transmission and Distribution Systems

Inductance of a Composite Polyphase Line same manner as the plates of a capacitor when
there is a potential difference between them.
𝐺𝑀𝐷𝑥𝑦 The capacitance between conductors is the
𝐿𝑥 = (𝑙𝑛 ) 2𝑥10−7 𝐻/𝑚
𝐺𝑀𝑅𝑥 charge per unit of potential difference.
𝐺𝑀𝐷𝑥𝑦 Capacitance between parallel conductors is
𝐿𝑦 = (𝑙𝑛 ) 2𝑥10−7 𝐻/𝑚
𝐺𝑀𝑅𝑦 constant dependent only on the size and
𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑥 + 𝐿𝑦 spacing of the conductors. For power lines less
than about 80 km (50 mi) long, the effect of
As a general formula, capacitance can be slight and is often neglected.
For longer lines of higher voltage capacitance
𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 becomes increasingly important.
𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐆𝐌𝐃
= 𝟐𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐥𝐧 (𝐇/𝐦)
𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐆𝐌𝐑 Potential Difference Between Two Points Due
to a Charge – it is numerically equal to the work
Transpose Line
in Joule per Coulomb necessary to move a
Coulomb of charge between two points.

𝐷2 𝐷2
𝑞𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝐷2
𝑉12 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = 𝑙𝑛
𝐷1 𝐷1 2𝜋𝑘𝑥 2𝜋𝑘 𝐷1

𝑞1 𝐷 𝑞2 𝑟2
𝑉12 = 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 2𝜋𝑘 𝐷

Since qa = -qb
𝑞1 𝐷 𝑟2
𝑉12 = (𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛 )
2𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝐷
2
𝑞1 𝐷
𝑉12 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2
Since Vab = qa/Cab
2𝜋𝑘
𝐶𝑎𝑏 =
𝐷2
𝑙𝑛 𝑟 𝑟
𝑎 𝑏
If ra = rb
𝛑𝐤
𝐂𝐚𝐛 = 𝑭/𝒎
Practical transmission lines cannot maintain 𝐃
𝐥𝐧 𝐫
symmetrical spacing of conductors because of
Since Can = Cbn = 2Cab
construction considerations. With asymmetrical
spacing, even with balanced currents, the
𝟐𝛑𝐤
voltage drop due to line inductance will be 𝐂𝐚𝐧 = 𝑭/𝒎
𝐃
unbalanced. One way to regain symmetry in 𝐥𝐧
𝐫
good measure and obtain a per-phase
configuration is to consider transposition – it a. Neglecting ground effects
consists of interchanging the phase
configuration every 1/3 length so that each Transmission line conductors also exhibit
conductor is moved to occupy the next physical capacitance with respect to each other due to
position in a regular sequence. the potential difference between them. The
amount of capacitance between the conductors
D. Capacitance Calculation is a function of conductor size, spacing, and
height above ground. Capacitance is the ratio of
Capacitance of a transmission line is the charge to the voltage.
result of the potential difference between the
conductors; it causes them to be charged in the

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 Transmission and Distribution Systems

2𝜋𝜀𝑜 This is the usual case, and the effect of ground

𝐶𝑙𝑛 =
𝐺𝑀𝐷 is generally neglected for 3-phase lines except
𝑙𝑛 𝐺𝑀𝑅 ′
for calculations by symmetrical components
𝜋𝜀𝑜 when the sum of the three line currents is not
𝐶𝑙𝑙 = zero.
𝐺𝑀𝐷
𝑙𝑛 𝐺𝑀𝑅 ′

b. Considering ground effects
For an isolated charged conductor, the electric
flux lines are radial and are orthogonal to the
cylindrical equipotential surfaces. The presence
of Earth will alter the distribution of electric flux
lines and equipotential surfaces, which will
change the effective capacitance of the line.
The effect of Earth is to increase the
capacitance. But normally the height of the
conductor is large as compared to the distance
between the conductors, and the earth effect is
negligible. Therefore, for all line models the
effect of earth on the capacitance can be
neglected. However, for unbalanced fault
analysis, the earth’s effect as well as the shield
wires should be considered.
Charging Current
An alternating voltage impressed on a
transmission line causes the charge on the
conductors at any point to increase and
decrease with the increase and decrease of the
instantaneous value of the voltage between
conductors at the point. The flow of charge is a
current, and the current caused by the alternate
charging and discharging of the line due to AC
voltage is called “charging current” of the line.
Charging current flows in a transmission line
even when it is open-circuited. It affects the line
as well as the efficiency and power factor of the
line and the stability of the system of which the
line is a part.
𝑉∅
𝐼𝑐 = = 𝑉∅ (2𝜋𝑓𝐶)
𝑋𝑐

For purposes of calculation of capacitances, the

earth may be replaced by a fictitious charged
conductor below the surface of the earth by a
distance equal to that of the overhead
conductor above the earth. Such a conductor
has a charge equal in magnitude and opposite
in sign to that of the original conductor and is
called the image conductor.

2𝜋𝜀𝑜
𝐶𝑙𝑛 =
𝐺𝑀𝐷 (𝐻 )1/3
𝑙𝑛 𝐺𝑀𝑅 ′ − 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑚 1/3 )
(𝐻𝑆 )

Where:
𝐻𝑚 = 3√𝐻𝐴𝐵′ 𝐻𝐵𝐶′ 𝐻𝐴𝐶′
𝐻𝑆 = 3√𝐻𝐴𝐴′ 𝐻𝐵𝐵′ 𝐻𝐶𝐶′

The equation shows that the effect of Earth is to

increase the capacitance of a line. If the
conductors are high above ground compared
with the distances between them, the diagonal
distances in the numerator of the connection
term are nearly equal to the vertical distances
in the denominator, and the terms is very small.

Prepared by: Eleazer C. Nabong, REE, M.Eng-Mfg. Page 5

 Transmission and Distribution Systems

Problem-Solving:
8. Three conductors of a 3-phase overhead line
1. Determine the GMR and GMD of the are arranged in a horizontal plane 6 m apart.
The diameter of each conductor is 1.24 cm. Find
conductor configurations (see figure).
the capacitance of each conductor to neutral
per 100 km of the line.
a. GMR
9. Find the loop inductance and reactance per
km of a single-phase overhead transmission line
consisting of two conductors, each 1.25 cm in
diameter. The spacing between conductors is
1m and frequency is 50 Hz. [L = 2.13 mH, X =
0.669 ]
b. GMD

2. A single phase line has two parallel

conductors 1 meter apart. The radius of each
conductor is 0.5 cm. Calculate the loop
inductance per kilometer of the line.

3. Find the inductance per kilometer per phase

of a 3-phase overhead transmission line using 2
cm diameter conductor when these are placed
at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side 4
meters.

4. The three conductors of a 3-phase line are

arranged at the corners of a triangle of sides, 4,
5 and 6 meters. Calculate inductance per km of
each conductor is regularly transposed. The
diameter of each line conductor is 2 cm.

5. The three conductors of 3-phase overhead

line are arranged in a horizontal plane with a
spacing of 4 meter between adjacent
conductors. The diameter of each conductor is
2 cm. determine the inductance per km per
phase of the line assuming that the lines are
transposed.

6. A single phase transmission line has two

parallel conductors 1.5 meters apart, the
diameter of each conductor being 0.5 cm.
Calculate line to neutral capacitance for a line
80 km long.

7. A 200-km, 3-phase transmission line has its

conductors placed at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of 2.5 m side. The radius of
each conductor is 1 cm. Calculate: (a) line to
neutral capacitance of the line, (b) charging
current per phase if the line is maintained at 66
kV, 50 Hz.

Prepared by: Eleazer C. Nabong, REE, M.Eng-Mfg. Page 6