Transmission and Distribution Systems

INTRODUCTION

Development of sources of energy to accomplish A distribution subsystem constitutes the part of the
useful work is the key to the industrial progress electric power system between the step-down
which is essential to the continual improvement in distribution substation and the consumers’ service
the standard of living of people. The electric power switches. A distributed system is designed to supply
system is one of the tools for converting and continuous and reliable power at the consumers’
transporting energy which is playing an important terminals at minimum cost.
role in meeting the needs of the modern society. It
consists of three principal divisions; (1) the
generating stations – converts energy available in
different forms in nature into electrical energy, (2)
the transmission systems – connecting links
between generating stations and the distribution
systems and (3) the distribution systems – connects
all the individual loads to the transmission lines at
substations which perform voltage transformations
and switching functions.

Types and Characteristics of Generating Stations

Generating stations, based on the type of primary
source of energy employed, can be classified into
the following four categories:
(i) thermal (coal, natural gas, oil)
(ii) hydro,
(iii) nuclear, and
(iv) non-conventional (wind, solar, geothermal, etc.)
Sub-transmission System - The portion of the
transmission system that connects the high-voltage
substations through step-down transformers to the
distribution substations is called the sub-
transmission network. There is no clear
demarcation between the transmission and sub-
transmission voltage levels.
Load Subsystem
From the perspective of a power supplier, an item
(component) consuming electrical energy is a load.
Therefore, loads on a power system can be broadly
categorized as follows: (a) industrial, (b)
commercial, and (c) domestic.
Industrial loads, which are voltage and frequency
dependent, are a combination of motor loads,
lighting loads, etc. Induction motors comprise a
high percentage of the industrial load and consume
considerable reactive power. Both commercial and
domestic loads are voltage dependent and are
mainly constituted of lighting, heating, and cooling.
Electrical energy is superior to all other forms of
energy due to the following reasons:

1. Convenient form
2. Easy control
 Transmission and Distribution Systems
3. Greater flexibility
4. Cleanliness
5. High Efficiency
Requirements of Satisfactory Electric Supply
1. Voltage regulation
2. Dependability
3. Balanced voltage (polyphaser system)
4. Efficiency
5. Frequency (has effect on the speed of rotating
machines)
6. Sinusoidal waveform (freedom from harmonics)
7. Freedom from inductive interference (causes
noise or hum to communication circuits)
Interconnected Grid System
The connection of several generating stations in
parallel is known as interconnected grid system.
Various problems in supplying electrical power are
considerably reduced by interconnecting different
power stations in parallel.
Some of the advantages of interconnecting power
systems are:
1. Exchange of peak loads. If the load curve of a
power station shows a peak demand that is greater
than the rated capacity of the plant, then the excess
load can be shared by other stations
interconnecting with it.
2. Use of older plants. Although older plants may
be inadequate when used alone, they have
sufficient capacity to carry short peaks of loads
when interconnected with other modern plants.
3. Ensures economical operation. In interconnected
systems, sharing of load among the stations is
arranged in such a way that more efficient stations
work continuously throughout the year at a high
load factor and the less efficient plants work for
peak load hours only.
4. Increases diversity factor. The load curves of
different interconnected stations are generally
different. The diversity factor of interconnected
systems is improved, thereby increasing the
effective capacity of the system.
5. Reduces plant reserve capacity. Every power
station is required to have a standby unit for
emergencies. For interconnected systems, this
reserve capacity is greatly reduced, thereby
increasing the efficiency of the system.
6. Increases reliability of supply. During power
outage in some sections of the system, continuity of
supply can be maintained by other operational
stations.
The first electric supply system was introduced by
Thomas Edison in 1882 at the Pearl Street Station in
New York, USA. Power was generated in a steam
engine driven dc dynamo (generator), and dc power
was distributed through underground cables for
lighting purposes only. The scope of distribution
was limited to short distances because of the low
voltage of the distribution circuits. Nowadays,
electrical transmission and distribution is broadly
categorized as:
1. AC or DC system
2. Overhead or underground
Elements of a Transmission Line
1. Conductors – usually ACSR
2. Transformers – for stepping-up or down
transmission voltage
3. Line insulators –
4. Support – poles or towers
5. Protective devices –
6. Voltage regulating devices – maintain the
voltage at the receiving end within
permissible limits
Advantages of AC Transmission/Distribution
1. The power can be generated at higher voltages.
2. The maintenance of AC substation is easy and
cheaper.
3. The AC voltage can be stepped up/down by
transformers with ease and efficiency. This permits
to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it
at safe potentials.
Disadvantages of AC Transmission/Distribution
1. An AC requires more copper than DC lines
2. An AC transmission line is more complicated than
DC transmission line.
3. Due to skin effect in AC system, the effective
resistance of the line is increased.
4. An AC line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a
continuous loss of power due to charging current
even when the line is open.
 Transmission and Distribution Systems
Technological developments that have occurred in
conjunction with AC transmission
1. The suspension insulator
2. The high-speed relay system, currently
capable of detecting short-circuit currents
within one cycle (0.017 s)
3. High-speed, extra-high-voltage (EHV) circuit
breakers, capable of interrupting up to 63-
kA three-phase short-circuit currents within
two cycles (0.033 s)
4. High-speed reclosure of EHV lines, which
enables automatic return to service within a
fraction of a second after a fault has been
cleared
5. The EHV surge arrester, which provides
protection against transient over-voltages
due to lightning strikes and line-switching
operations
6. Power-line carrier, microwave, and fiber
optics as communication mechanisms for
protecting, controlling, and metering
transmission lines
7. The principle of insulation coordination
applied to the design of an entire
transmission system
8. Energy control centers with supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) and
with automatic generation control (AGC) for
centralized computer monitoring and
control of generation, transmission, and
distribution
9. Automated distribution features, including
advanced metering infrastructure (AMI),
reclosers and remotely controlled
sectionalizing switches with fault-indicating
capability, along with automated
mapping/facilities management (AM/FM)
and geographic information systems (GIS)
for quick isolation and identification of
outages and for rapid restoration of
customer services
10. Digital relays capable of circuit breaker
control, data logging, fault locating, self-
checking, fault analysis, remote query, and
relay event monitoring/recording.
Typical AC Power Scheme
1. Generating Stations (11 kV)
2. Primary transmission (66, 132, 220, 400 kV)
3. Secondary Transmission (3.3, 11, 33 kV)
4. Primary Distribution (11-132 kV)
5. Secondary Distribution (440/220 V)
Economic choice of Transmission Voltage
The power transmitted over a transmission line is
proportional to the square of the transmission
voltage. Therefore, ideally it is desirable to have the
highest transmission voltages. As such, continuous
efforts are undertaken to increase the transmission
voltages.
As the transmission voltage is increased, the cost of
insulating the conductors cost of transformers,
switchgear, and other terminal apparatus also
increases. For every transmission line, there is
optimum transmission voltage, beyond which there
is nothing to be gained in economy consideration,
and this is known as economical transmission
voltage.
The present day trend is to follow the empirical
formula for finding the economical transmission
voltage. Based on American practice, the economic
voltage between lines in 3-phase AC system is:
3𝑃
𝑉 = 5.5√0.62𝐿 +
150
Where:
V = line voltage in kV
P = max kW/phase
L = distance in km
Advantages of High Transmission Voltage
1. Reduces volume of conductor material
2. Increases transmission efficiency
3. Decreases percentage line drop
Limitations of High Transmission Voltage
1. Increased cost of insulating the conductors
2. Increased cost of transformers, switchgear and
other terminal apparatus
Economic choice of Conductor Size
The cost of conductor material is generally a very
considerable part of the total cost of a transmission
line. The determination of proper conductor size for
the line is of vital importance.
A material for conducting electric power should
have the following properties:
1. High electrical conductivity.
2. Low cost.
3. Low specific gravity.
 Transmission and Distribution Systems
4. High tensile strength.
Commonly used materials for conductors are:
1. Copper.
2. Aluminum
3. Aluminum conductor steel Reinforced (ACSR)
4. Galvanized steel
5. Cadmium copper
The most economical area (size) of conductor is that
for which the total annual cost of transmission line
is minimum (Kelvin’s Law). The total annual cost of
transmission line is divided into two parts, annual
charge on capital outlay and annual cost of energy
wasted in the conductor.
1. Annual charge on capital outlay. This is on
account of interest and depreciation on the
capital cost of complex installation of
transmission line. In overhead systems, it will be
the annual interest and depreciation on the
capital cost of conductors (variable cost which is
proportional to cross-sectional area), supports
and insulators and the cost of their erection
(constant cost).
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝐴
2. Annual cost of energy wasted. This is on account
of energy lost mainly in the conductor due I2R
losses. Since resistance is inversely proportional
to the area of cross-section, the energy lost in the
conductor is inversely proportional to area of
cross-section.
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 /𝐴
Therefore the total cost = Eqn 1 + Eqn 2, and
differentiating we obtain;
Variable part of Annual cost = Annual cost of
energy wasted
Kelvin’s Law – the most economical area of
conductor is that for which the variable part of
annual charge is equal to the cost of energy losses
per year.
Limitations of Kelvin’s Law
1. It is not easy to estimate the energy loss in the
line without actual load curves, which are not
available at the time of estimation.
2. The assumption that annual cost on account of
interest and depreciation on the capital outlay
using the formula does not always hold.
3. It does not take into account several physical
factors like safe current density, mechanical
strength, corona loss, etc.
4. The conductor size determined by this law may
not always be practicable one because it may be
too small for the safe carrying of necessary
current.
5. Interest and depreciation on the capital outlay
cannot be determined accurately.
Problem-Solving:
1. Determine the most economical cross-section for
a 3-phase transmission line, 1 km long to supply at a
constant voltage of 110 kV for the following daily
load cycle:
6 hrs 20MW 0.8 lagging
12 hrs 5MW 0.8 lagging
6 hrs 6MW 0.8 lagging
The line is used for 365 days yearly. The cost/km of
the line including erection is (9000 + 6000a) where
‘a’ is the area of cross-section of conductor in cm2.
The annual rate of interest and depreciation is 10%
and the energy cost is (6%)/kW-Hr. The resistance
per km of each conductor is 0.176/a. [Ans. 1.56 cm2]
2. A 2-conductor cable 1 km long is required to
supply a constant current of 200 A throughout the
year. The cost of cable including installation is P
(20a + 20) per meter where ‘a’ is the area of cross-
section of the conductor in cm2. The cost of energy
is 5% per kW-hr and interest and depreciation
charges amount to 10%. Calculate the most
economical conductor size. Assume resistivity of
conductor material to be 1.73 -cm. [Ans. 1.74
cm2]
3. the cost of a 3-phase overhead transmission line
is P(25000a + 2500)/km, where ‘a’ is the area of
cross-section of each conductor in cm2. The line is
supplying a load of 5 MW at 33 kV and 0.8 pf lagging
assumed to be constant throughout the year.
Energy costs 4% per kW-Hr and interest and
depreciation totals 10% per annum. Find the most
economical size of the conductor. Given the specific
resistance of conductor material is 10-6 -cm. [Ans.
0.71 cm2]