BC IM MM OM O

M
I

Understanding ILS © Pilotscafe.com

Posts Navigation Tutorial IFR

by Amir Fleminger
7 min read

An Instrument Landing System (ILS) enables pilots to shoot

precision instrument approaches to a runway.

Before digging into the nuts and bolts of ILS, let's review what an
instrument approach, and more specifically, a precision-instrument
approach is.

You may already know that Instrument approaches are IFR

procedures designed to guide the aircraft from the en-route part of the
flight to a position from which it can make a safe landing.

A precision approach provides lateral (left and right) and vertical (up
and down) course guidance on the final approach leg.

The ILS is one of the oldest yet most widely used instrument approach
procedures still in service. It is still, by far, the most commonly used
:
 precision instrument approach procedure.

ILS relies on multiple ground-based and aircraft equipment that

provides:

Lateral guidance,
Vertical guidance,
Range information, and
Visual transition to the runway

Localizer

The primary component of the ILS is the localizer, which provides

lateral course guidance. It can serve as part of an ILS approach or in a
stand-alone localizer-only procedure.

VORs and localizers share the same navigation radio and display
equipment in the flight deck.

Navigation with localizers and VORs is very similar. In both, the pilot
stays on the desired track by keeping the CDI (Course Deviation
Indicator) centered. Unlike VORs, which facilitate navigation on any
bearing around them (from 0º to 359º), localizers only support a single,
specific direction.

Unlike in VOR navigation, turning the OBS knob when a localizer is in-
use does not affect the CDI displacement. However, it is still a good
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 idea to set the OBS to the inbound course of the published approach
for better situational awareness.

Note about reverse sensing

Typically, we want the CDI to deflect to the side of the desired track.

With reverse sensing, the needle veers to the wrong side.

This phenomenon may cause disorientation and lead the pilot to

navigate away from the course instead of toward it.

For localizer navigation, a simple, old-style VOR display has an

advantage over an HSI when it comes to reverse sensing. Since the
OBS selection doesn't move the needle, a regular VOR display is
unaffected by reverse sensing when using a localizer.

In contrast, HSI-type displays, which eliminate reverse sensing with

VOR stations, do not eliminate it with a localizer.

To avoid this problem with an HSI and have better situational

awareness regardless of the dial type, always set the OBS to the
inbound course.

Localizer specs
Localizers operate on VHF frequencies between 108.1 and 111.95 MHz.
You should note that the VOR frequency range is broader (108.0 to
117.95 MHz) and overlaps this range. Therefore, localizers use only odd
tenths decimals (e.g., 108.1, 110.7 MHz), while VOR stations in this
range use even tenths (e.g., 108.0, 110.0 MHz).

Localizer course widths range between 3º and 6º. The specific angle
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 chosen makes the course width at the runway threshold about 700'.
Typically, this is a 5° total width (or 2.5º full deflection to each side),
four times more sensitive than a VOR.

Outside the full-width deflection range, the aircraft receiver should still
sense the localizer signal within a given coverage range. The coverage
area goes up to an altitude of 4,500'. It covers 35º to each side of the
centerline up to 10 NM and 10º up to 18 NM from the antenna.

The localizer transmits a Morse code ID that typically starts with an "I,"
followed by a three-letter code. Before trusting the localizer for
navigation, you must identify that the correct station is in use.
Identifying the station is done by listening to the Morse code over the
navigation radio. Modern avionics, such as the Garmin 1000, can
automatically decode the Morse code and display it to you, eliminating
the need to listen and decipher it yourself.

35º
10

Localizer
18 NM
NM

Antenna 10º
Array 700’ wide
Runway 150 Hz
3º-6º

Back Front
90 Hz
Course Course 10º

35º
© PilotsCafe.com

How does the localizer work?

:
 The localizer antenna array is located at the departure end of the
runway. It uses Amplitude Modulation (AM), like in your old car radio, to
modulate two signals on a single VHF frequency — one at 90 Hz and
the other at 150 Hz. These signals are emitted to each side of the
centerline in two narrow patterns.

The aircraft receives the 90 Hz signal more intensely when it is left of

the centerline and the 150 Hz more strongly when on the right side.
Both transmissions are at equal amplitude on the localizer's centerline.

The aircraft's navigation equipment interprets the difference between

these two signals' amplitude and deflects the CDI needle accordingly.

Glideslope
The glideslope provides vertical course guidance. Its angle varies with
terrain requirements at the specific runway but is typically 3 degrees.

Glideslope specs
Glideslope frequencies range between 329.3 and 335 MHz (UHF).

Each one of the 40 available localizer frequencies has an associated

glideslope frequency. The glideslope receiver automatically tunes to
the correct frequency when the pilot sets the localizer.

You may never need to worry about the glideslope frequency when
flying, but if curious, you can find the localizer-glideslope frequency
pairs in the FAA's Aeronautical Information Publication (AIM).

The glideslope guidance's width is 1.4º so that full needle deflection is

0.7º in either direction. Typically the glideslope signal transmits as far
as 10 NM from the antenna.
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 How does the glideslope work?
The glideslope operates very similarly to a localizer but on a vertical
plane. The glideslope UHF frequency carries two signals, one at 90 Hz
and the other at 150 Hz. These signals are directionally transmitted
above and below the desired approach path, accordingly. The aircraft
GS equipment interprets both signals' amplitude to display the
aircraft's vertical location above or below the path.

Glideslope errors
The glideslope is subject to false signal errors. False glide slopes may
be present above the desired path. These false signals are at a higher
angle than it and may cause the pilot to fly a steeper approach than
expected.

To prevent following the wrong slope, always intercept the glideslope

from the published altitudes on the approach fixes.

False Slope
90 Hz
GS Antenna 10
1 .4 º NM
3º
250-650 ft
150 Hz
750-1,250 ft © PilotsCafe.com

Range information
Range, or distance, information helps the pilot identify the aircraft's
position on the instrument approach.
:
 Several types of equipment can provide the pilot with range
information.

Marker Beacons
Each marker type implies a specific range from the runway and is
indicated in the cockpit by a color light and Morse code.

Outer Marker (OM): located 4-7 miles from the runway threshold.
It indicates the position at which the aircraft should intercept the
GS at the appropriate interception altitude ±50ft. A blue flashing
light and a series of audible dashes ("---") at 400 Hz identify the
OM on the marker beacon receiver in the cockpit.

0:00 -0:10

Outer Marker dash-dash-dash

Middle Marker (MM): Placed about 3500ft from the runway.

Indicates the approximate point where the GS meets the decision
height, usually at 200ft above the touchdown zone elevation.
Identified by an amber light and an audible pattern of dot-dash-
dot-dash (". - . -") at 1,300 Hz.

0:00 -0:09

Middle Marker dot-dash-dot-dash

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 Inner Marker (IM): placed between the MM and runway threshold.
It indicates the point where the glide slope meets the DH on a CAT
II ILS approach — identified by a flashing white light and an audible
series of dots ( "...") at 3,000 Hz.

0:00 -0:10

Inner Marker dot-dot-dot

Back Course marker (BC): Indicates the FAF on selected back

course approaches. This marker shares the same light indication in
the cockpit as the inner marker. Back course markers are not part
of an ILS approach. They are identified by the white inner marker's
light and an audible series of double dots at 3,000 Hz (".. ..").

0:00 -0:03

BC Marker dot-dot, dot-dot

BC IM MM OM O
M
I

© Pilotscafe.com

As part of the ILS equipment, marker beacons are the traditional means
for range information. However, thanks to DME and RNAV, many ILS
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 installations omit some or even all marker beacons.

Compass Locator Markers

Some marker beacons have an associated compass locator co-
installed with them.

Compass locators are low-powered NDB stations that add another way
to identify the OM or MM and navigate to it.

Many ILS approach configurations have a compass locater placed at

the OM. This compass locator is called a Locator Outer Marker (LOM).
With it, the pilot can directly navigate to the OM and intercept the
inbound course without needing RNAV or vectoring by ATC.

Compass locators typically transmit at 25 Watts or less to a range of 15

miles and are available on frequencies between 190 and 535 kHz.

A two-letter Morse ID audibly identifies the compass locator.

The following can substitute for the OM

Compass locator
Precision Approach Radar (PAR)
Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), VOR, or NDB authorized in
the instrument approach procedure.
RNAV with a GPS capable of fix identification

Approach Light System

An Approach Light System (ALS) is a pattern of lights installed at the
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 runway's approach end. It provides the pilot with visible means to
transition between instrument-guided flight into a visual approach to
landing.

ALSF I ALSF II SSALR / MALSR MALSF ODALS

Steady burning lights

Flashing light
Omnidirectional flashing light
Runway
© Pilotscafe.com

The ALS extends from the landing threshold into the approach area up
to:

2,400 - 3,000 ft for precision instrument runways, and

1,400 - 1,500 ft for non-precision instrument runways.

Some Approach Light Systems include sequenced flashing lights (SF),

often nicknamed "The Rabbit." These appear to the pilot as a ball of
light traveling towards the runway twice a second.

The pilot can estimate the available flight visibility according to the ALS
configuration's visible parts by being familiar with the pattern of
different Approach Light Systems.

ILS Approach categories

ILS approaches are categorized by their lowest permissible minimums.
When we talk about these minimums, remember they are for the
:
 creators of the approach procedure, not for the pilot. So, a specific
approach plate may show higher required minimums than those that
define the ILS categories.

Typically, individual instrument pilots can operate only within Category I

minimums. The FAA permits lower categories — CAT II and III to select
operators by special authorization. CAT II and III approach authorization
involves special aircrew training, specific aircraft equipment, and an
elaborate approval process. Due to the cost of obtaining and
maintaining CAT II and III authorization, they are typically performed
only by commercial operators (like airlines and on-demand charters).
Not all airports or runways that offer CAT I approaches support CAT II
and III approaches as those require special ground equipment and
airport lighting.

ILS Category Visibility (RVR) Decision Height (DH)

CAT I 2,400' or 1,800' 200 ft

CAT II 1,200' 100 ft

CAT IIIa > 700' < 100 or no DH

CAT IIIb 150'-700' <50 or no DH

CAT IIIc 0' No DH

Flying an ILS approach

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 © PilotsCafe.com

To avoid catching a false glideslope signal, the pilot should use

published altitudes and intercept the glide path from below.

While on the final approach course, maintain the desired flight path by
keeping the localizer and glideslope indicators centered. The needles'
location represents the relation of the vertical and lateral tracks to the
aircraft.

When the needle is right of center, the pilot should turn right to
intercept the course. Likewise, when the indicator is on the left, the
pilot should turn left.

Similarly, the glideslope needle indicates the position above and below
the desired path. When the glideslope indicator is above the center, the
aircraft is too low; when it is under the center, the plane is too high.

A Decision Height (DH) on the glideslope marks the missed approach

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 point at which the pilot should decide whether to land or to go around.

When can you descend from the Decision

Height / Altitude?
At the Decision Height, you must perform a go-around unless you meet
the following three conditions:

1. The aircraft is continuously in a position where the pilot can make

a safe landing at the intended runway using normal descent rates
and normal maneuvers.
2. The flight visibility at least as prescribed for the procedure, and at
least one of the following visual references are distinctly visible at
the runway of intended landing:
3. The Approach Light System (Except for CAT II and III
procedures). ALS with red sidebars or red terminating bars (such
as ALSF-I and ALSF-II) allow you to descend below the DH, down
to 100' above the touchdown zone height, when these red bars are
insight.

The threshold.
The threshold markings.
The threshold lights.
The visual glideslope indicator. (i.e., PAPI, VASI)
The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings
The touchdown zone lights.
The runway or runway markings.
The runway lights.

Recommended Reading
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 Nov 20, 2020
Last Updated: May 23, 2023
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