Senior High School

Physical Science
Quarter 3 - Module 1
Formation of Heavier Elements

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 What I Need To Know

This module is designed to deepen your knowledge about the Formation of Heavier Elements and consists of:
 Lesson 1 – The formation of the elements during the Big Bang and during stellar evolution.
 Lesson 2 – The distribution of the chemical elements and the isotopes in the universe.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution and
2. explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory
(S11/12PS-IIIb-11).

Discover where everything started. Find answers to how stars are formed and what they are made of, where
gold cam from and more in this module. So, let’s get started! And don’t forget - have fun while you learn!

Physical Science
The Formation of the Elements during
Module 1
Lesson 1 the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
The Universe is everything – from the tiniest elements to time and life itself.
Let us begin our quest to knowing the beginning of everything through chemical elements. A chemical element
is the building block of matter. It is composed of a single atom.
So, where do these chemical elements come from? How are they created?
In order to answer your questions above, we need to study nucleosynthesis.
Nucleosynthesis is a theory/process that explains the formation of the chemical elements that we know today.
This process is identified in three phenomena, namely: Big Bang (Big Bang Nucleosynthesis), stars (Stellar
Nucleosynthesis) , and supernova (Supernovae Nucleosynthesis).

What’s In

As you have learned in the lower grades, The Big Bang Theory is the most widely accepted explanation wherein
it is believed that theuniverse started from a single primordial atom. In specific, it states that the universe began as a hot
and definitely dense pointthat exploded 13.7 Billion years ago. From the explosion – matter, energy, space, and time
were created. It then became a theory that also explains the continuous expansion of the universe.

Source:Big Bang and the Age of the Universe (Credit: Dr. Gerald L. Schroeder, The Science of God, The Free Press, NY,NY 1997.)

As the temperature of the universe cooled downin the first few seconds of the the Big Bang Timeline, the great
energy created by the Big Bang formed the fundamental particles- quarks and leptons that collided initially but still
didn’t interact due to high temperatures.

This module will take you to the beginning of everything. This will highlight on the formation of light and heavy
elements known today, and to when the universe and stars began to exist.
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
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 As the universe continued to expand leading to the decrease in temperature (below 10 billion Kelvin), these
particles interacted to form the atomic particles, neutronsand protons. With further continued decrease in temperature,
neurons and protons thencombined with one another to form, the first two/light elements in the universe, Helium and
hydrogen. This phase is called Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.

Helium
There are 3 processes in the formation of the helium element (George Gamow, physicist):
1. Two separate interactions of a neutron and a proton which each create a deuteron (composed of a neutron and
proton which is a nucleus of a deuterium and an isotope of hydrogen).

2. The interaction between two deuteron which results to an ejected neutron and the formation of helium-3
atom(an isotope of Helium-4 atom and is considered as one of the most stable isotopes in the universe).
*The ejected neutron may interact with another proton to form another deuteron or may interact with another
deuteron to form a tritium (another isotope of hydrogen)

3. The interaction between a helium-3 and a deuteron will result in the formation of helium-4(composed of two
protons and two neutrons) and an ejected proton.
*The ejected proton may interact with a neutron to form a deuteron or may interact with another deuteron to form
helium-3.

On the other hand, hydrogen was created when a proton attracts an electron to revolve around it.At first there
were only a few hydrogen atoms created as the electrons were moving very fast due to the relatively high temperature.
Over time, as the temperature continue to decrease, these electrons slowed down thereby the proton has a higher
chance to attract an electron. Due to the simplicity of this process – this is the reason why hydrogen is the most
abundant element in the universe.
For a hydrogen atom to become more stable, it attaches to another hydrogen atom, thus forming a hydrogen
molecule. These hydrogen molecules, together with helium atoms clump together to form molecular dense clouds which
are the main ingredients in the formation of stars which we will be studying in the next lesson.

What’s New

The picture above is a fireworks display. Do they seem to be like man-made stars that illuminate the night sky?
Yes, indeed! But, do you know that the awesome spectacular colors are created by chemical elements just like stars?
Believe it or not, we too are made of star stuff as Carl Sagan, famous American astronomer, says. What did he mean by
that? If we know stellar nucleosynthesis and supernovae nucleosynthesis we’d understand how some important heavy
elements were formed same as stars then we’ll understand what he meant.

Activity 1: Fill Me Out!

Directions: Label the sequence of the star life cycle. Make use of the words provided in the box below.
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 1.

2.

3.
6.

4.
7.

5.
8.

9.

protostar main sequence star red giant red super giant star

black dwarf supernova black hole neutron star

What is It
Stars are born, age, and die over a course of a billion years. The stellar evolution, the process by which a star
changes over time, help us trace the formation of the other elements.
A star’s life cycle is determined by its mass. The larger the mass, the shorter its life cycle. A star’s mass is
determined by the amount of matter that is available in its nebula (the giant cloud of gas and dust from which it was
born.)

LIFE CYCLE OF STARS

The life of a star generally begins from the nebula, the giant cloud of gas and dust from which it was born. It is
composed mostly of hydrogen.

Over time, the hydrogen gas in the nebula is pulled together by gravity and contract to form stellar cores.

As the mass falls together, it heats up and becomes a protostar. Protostars, “proto” means primitive, are a
contracting mass of gas which represents an early stage in the formation of a star, before nucleosynthesis/
nuclear fusion begins. These protostars rotate faster and increase in temperature as they compress and further
contract.

The contraction causes the central temperature to increase (about 15,000,000 degrees) igniting a series of
nuclear reactions - the beginning of the main stage of the hydrostatic stellar evolution where stellar
nucleosynthesis occurs. Nuclear fusion occurs in the cloud’s core. A star is formed when it is hot enough for the
hydrogen nuclei to fuse together to make helium. The fusion process releases energy, which keeps the core of
the star hot. It begins to glow brightly, contracts a little, and becomes stable. It is now a main sequence star and
will remain in this stage, shining for millions or billions of years to come. During this phase, the force of gravity
holding the star together is balanced by higher pressure due to high temperatures. This is the stage where our
Sun is at.

Both low mass and high mass stars undergo through the same process above.
However, the next stages of its life cycle depends on its mass.

Low Mass Stars High Mass Stars

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 A larger star with more mass will
When all the hydrogen has been used up in go on making nuclear reaction,
the fusion process, larger nuclei begin to form getting hotter and expanding
leading to its contraction then expansion. It known as RED SUPER GIANT
cools down and becomes a RED GIANT as STAR until it explodes as a
the helium fused into carbon. SUPERNOVA, releasing great
energy and throwing off hot gas
and elements into space.

When the nuclear fuel is exhausted, the outer

Depending on the mass at the
material is blown off into space leaving the inert
start of its life, a supernova will
carbon that contracts under the pull of gravity.
leave behind either a neutron
This becomes the WHITE DWARF which fades
star or a black hole. NEUTRON
as it cools.
STAR IS the smallest star.
BLACK HOLE is a region in
space where gravity is too strong
that no matter can escape from
The said remains of the white dwarf that it.
cooled down and no longer emits light and
heat known as the hypothetical BLACK
DWARF.

STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
The word “stellar” means star and stellar nucleosynthesis is the creation (nucleosynthesis) of chemical elements
by nuclear fusion reactions within stars.
I general, all the naturally occurring elements in the Universe are produced by nuclear fusio in stars. For
example, beryllium and carbon nuclei can be produced from helium nuclei.
During the majority of a star’s lifetime, hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium nuclei. As the star runs out
of hydrogen, other fusion reactions take place forming the nuclei of other elements.

Stage 1: Hydrogen Burning Stage

The first stage of the series of nuclear reactions where the hydrogen shell fusion, also called hydrogen core, is converted
into heavier elements. The nuclear reactions that happen in this stage depends on the mass of the star.
Low Mass Stars
If a star is a low mass star (a star with a mass less than eight times our sun’s mass) Proton-proton interaction
or PPI takes place. Proton-proton chain reaction is the process by which stars get their energy by converting the
hydrogen core into helium. This interaction has three chains, namely: Chain I Reaction (84%) while the remaining
percentages are in the Chains II & III Reaction.
PPI Reaction creates a new inner core which is made of helium. Once the hydrogen shell fusion is almost
depleted, the newly formed helium core contracts – thus increasing the inner temperature and at the same time
increasing the energy generation into the hydrogen shell.
With the increase energy generation rate in the hydrogen’s shell, this causes the star to expand enormously in
luminosity and size thus the star becomes a RED GIANT.

Hydrogen envelope
Hydrogen shell fusion

This shows the Proton-Proton Chain reaction in main sequence star. This is the process by which low mass star gets their energy and convert Hydrogen into Helium. It starts with proton and neutron
fused together to form deuterium. When one proton collides with deuterium, Helium-3 is formed. Two Helium-3 collided will form Helium-4.

High Mass Stars

If a star is a high mass star (stars which has mass eight times greater than the sun’s mass) Carbon-Nitrogen-
Oxygen (CNO) cycle may take place in the Hydrogen Burning Stage.

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 Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4681017/

This shows what happens in high mass stars. They undergo CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) cycle to convert Hydrogen into Helium. You can see at
the right how Carbon 12 fused with proton (H) and form Nitrogen-13.Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form Carbon-13. Carbon13 captures proton
(H) and Nitrogen 14 is formed. Nitrogen 14 captures proton and Oxygen-15 is produced. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and produces Nitrogen-15.
Nitrogen-15 fused with proton gives off Helium and ends up with Carbon-12. Then the process repeats again.

Stage 2: Helium Burning Stage

The contracting helium core begins this nuclear reaction stage. In this stage, the inner parts of the helium core is
bound to create another core made of carbon with some specks of oxygen via the tri alpha process. This process
involved the combination or fusion of three alpha particles (helium nuclei 4He) to form a carbon nucleus (12C).

1.The triple-a process begins when two

4
He nuclei fuse to form an unstable Be
nucleus.

3. The energy released is carried

off both by the motion of the 12C
nucleus and a gamma ray
2. If this nucleus collides with another
4
He nucleus before it breaks apart, the
two will fuse to form a nucleus of
carbon-12 (12C).

An alpha particle is the nucleon of helium-4 which is composed of two neutrons and two protons.
A star accumulates more mass and continues to grow into red super giant. Alpha particle fusion happens at its
core and creates more heavy elements until Iron. This is known as the Alpha ladder process.

Low Mass Stars

In low mass stars, this is the last stage for the nuclear reaction. As the low mass star runs out of its source of energy
generation, the two outermost shells, the hydrogen and helium shells synchronously contract and expands until such a
time that this is spread away from the star and forms a planetary nebula. What is left is a WHITE DWARFSTAR, which
is the last inner core created in the stellar evolution.

High Mass Stars

Tri alpha process happens in RED SUPER GIANT STAR once they leave the stage of main sequence star. This is how
three Helium-4 are converted into Carbon. In high mass stars, the series of nuclear reactions does not stop with carbon
core in this type of star. It continues until an iron core with some percentage of nickel is made. Once an iron core is
made, no further nuclear reactions will follow. It is said that iron is the most stable element based on its mass per nuclear
particle ratio.

SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
This refers to the theory of the production of many different heavy chemical elements in supernova explosions.

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 When high mass stars reach the red super giant phase, their core temperature increases as carbon atoms are
formed from the fusion of the helium atoms. Gravity continues to pull carbon atoms together as the temperature
increases and additional fusion processes proceed, forming oxygen, nitrogen, and eventually iron.
How are elements heavier than Iron form?
When the core of the star contains basically just iron, nuclear fusion in the core stops. This is because iron is the
most compact and stable of all elements in the universe. This means, it takes more energy to break the nucleus of iron
compared to any other element.
Creating heavier elements through fusing of iron requires an input of energy instead of release of energy.
Different pathway is needed for heavier elements to be formed.
Neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. Below is the representation of how neutron
is captured and heavier nucleus is formed.

Example:

Neutron capture can slow or rapid;

a. S-process or slow process happens when there is a slow rate of capturing neutron while there is a faster
rate of radioactive decay hence increasing the proton by 1.

b. R-process or rapid process means that there is faster rate of capturing neutron before it undergoes
radioactive decay thus, more neutrons can be combined at the nucleus. This is what happens in a
supernova forming heavier elements than Iron with the process known as supernova nucleosynthesis.

Since energy is no longer released from the core, the star begins the final phase of gravitational collapse. The
iron atoms then are crushed together thus increasing the core temperature to over 100 billion degrees. The repulsive
force between the nuclei overcomes the force of gravity, and the core recoils out from the center of the star in a shock
wave, which we see as a supernova explosion.
As the shock comes in contact with the material in the star’s outer layers, it heats the material causing fusion
resulting to the formation of new elements and radioactive isotopes. While many of the more common elements are
made through nuclear fusion in the cores of stars, it takes the unstable conditions of the supernova explosion to form
many of the heavier elements. When a supernova explodes, the shock wave propels all the materials and elements
produced out into space. The material that is released away from the star is now known as supernova remnant.
The hot material, the radioactive isotopes, as well as the leftover core of the exploded star, produce X-rays and
gamma-rays. The heavy elements found on Earth, such as gold, came from material thrown out in previous supernova
explosions.
Depending on the mass at the start of its life, a supernova will leave behind either a neutron star or a black hole.

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 Supernova is similar to fireworks display previously mentioned in our activity. Both of them make big explosions
and spectacular colors. The main difference between the two is that temperature and pressure is higher in the
supernova that it can create spontaneous nuclear reactions to form the heavier elements, while in the fireworks the
temperature is just enough to ignite the appearance of the emission spectrum of the chemical elements.

Two supernovae, one reddish yellow and one blue, form a close pair just below the
image center (to the right of the galaxy nucleus)

Photo credit: C. Hergenrother, Whipple Observatory, P. Garvanich, P. Berlind, R.

Kirdhner (CFA).

What’s More

Activity 2: Match Me!

Directions: Match the description in Column A to the correct term in Column B. Please write the letter of your answer
on the answer sheet.

A B
_____1. Process wherein light elements such as Helium and A. Alpha ladder process
Hydrogen form.
B. Big bang nucleosynthesis
_____2. Process by which chemical elements are created by nuclear
fusion reactions within stars. C. CNO cycle
_____3. Process by which low mass stars get their energy by
converting the hydrogen core into helium. D. Neutron capture
_____4. Process by which high mass stars get their energy by E. Proton- proton chain
converting the hydrogen core into helium.
_____5. A neutron is added to a seed nucleus and heavier nucleus is F. R- process
formed.
_____6. Process involved the combination or fusion of three alpha G. S- process
particles (helium nuclei 4He) to form a carbon nucleus (12C).
_____7. Process wherein a star accumulates more mass and H. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
continues to grow into red super giant. Alpha particle fusion
I. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
happens at its core and creates more heavy elements until
Iron. J. Tri alpha process
_____8. Happens when there is a slow rate of capturing neutron while
there is a faster rate of radioactive decay hence increasing K. Big Bang Theory
the proton by 1.
_____9. Happens when there is faster rate of capturing neutron before
it undergoes radioactive decay thus, more neutrons can be
combined at the nucleus.
_____10. Process that happens in a supernova forming heavier
elements than Iron with the process.

What I Have Learned

Activity 3: Life of A Star!
Directions: The graphic organizer contains words about the processes by which chemical elements are formed. Discuss
briefly the star’s life cycle and the chemicals created.

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 What I Can Do

Directions: Now that you know that it took billions of years and the intricacies for the naturally occurring chemical
elements to form, write about what you can do in your home, school and community to preserve or make good use of
these magnificent work of nature. You can also write about what you can advise people to do and avoid when dealing
with these to improve yours and their lives in general. Please write your answer on he answer sheet.

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_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Rubrics for What I Can Do

Criteria Excellent (5 pts.) Fair (3 pts.) Poor (1 pt.)

Work shows time, effort, and

neatness that enhances the Work shows time Lacks effort and
Overall effort overall written input. and effort put into it. cleanliness

The output contains

background and context and The project contains No background or contextual
Background shows how behaviors have/can discussion of behaviors but is information included.
context significantly affected unclear how they have/can
his/her life. affect the student’s life.

Grammar and The output does not have any The output has 1-3 The output has more than 4
Spelling errors in terms of grammar ans grammatical or spelling errors grammatical or spelling errors.
spelling.

The output includes

information about one’s home, The output includes Information included
school, and community and is very few details. is not related to
Content about to depict proper resource Output is very tied the task or no
management. up with the topic. attempt was made.

Additional Activities

Activity 4: Star struck!

Directions: Reflect on the topic written in the middle of the star. Write about what key concepts you have learned in this
module.
1.

5. Star 2.

Formation

4. 3.

Physical Science Concept of Atomic Number that Led to the

Module 1 Synthesis of New Elements in the
Lesson 2 Laboratory
Elements are made up of tiny particles, the neutron, proton and electron. H and Helium are the elements that
exist in the early beginning. Early in the Big Bang, it was a tiny elementary particle. As the Universe expanded and
cooled, there was a period of proton-proton chain reaction wherein protons were fuse into Helium. The Universe ran into

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a problem. Red giant cores get past this via the Triple-Alpha process, but the Universe expands right through this
possibility and the density/temperature are quickly too low to synthesis any additional elements.

What’s In
You learned earlier how all matter in the universe is made from tiny building blocks called atoms. All modern
scientists accept the concept of the atom, but when the concept of the atom was first proposed about 2,500 years ago,
ancient philosophers laughed at the idea. It has always been difficult to convince people of the existence of things that
are too small to see. We will spend some time considering the evidence (observations) that convince scientists of the
existence of atoms.

Do you have any idea how the different elements on the periodic table were formed, known and identified? Let’s
have a short review.

In the Big Bang Theory that we have previously mentioned, we will study some key stages: Singularity, Inflation,
Nucleosynthesis and Recombination: Let us differentiate them. Singularity is a one-dimensional point which contains a
huge mass in an infinitely small space, where density and gravity become infinite and space-time curves infinitely, and
where the laws of physics as we know them cease to operate. The basic homogeneity in distribution of matter in the
universe was established as a consequence of the first phase of inflation. Nucleosynthesis was the nuclear fusion and
the formation of new nuclei actions in the early stages of development of the universe. Recombination - the formation of
the
capture of free electrons by the cations in a plasma.

What’s New
Activity 1. Making Your Own Periodic Table
Directions: Make your own periodic table using the hypothetical elements that are given in the clues. Explain the word/s
that will be formed if you arrange the symbols of the elements correctly.

a. P and Pr both have one electron each. Pr has a bigger atomic size.
b. Od, Ri, and Eare in the same series as P, C, and I. In terms of atomic size, P is the biggest while C is the
smallest. E is a metal while I is a non-metal. Od is smaller than Ri in atomic size.
c. O has a bigger atomic size than E in the same group. Y is also a bigger atom than C in the same group. R is
more nonmetallic than Pe but more metallic than Ti.

What is It
Key Points

• The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged particles) in an atom.
• Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number, the number
of protons in an atom, determines most of the properties of an element.
• In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction a process of transforming
one element or isotope into another element.
• In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87.
Elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using particle accelerators.
• A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion between the
protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new
elements.
• Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are called transuranium elements
They were discovered in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

Dmitri Mendeleev created a classification of elements based on their atomic weight. He found that organizing the
elements at the time by their calculated weight demonstrated a periodic pattern of both physical and chemical properties,
such as luster, physical state, reactivity to water, and others.

Activity 1.1 Making Your Own Periodic Table shows how theoretical elements where arranged according to its
atomic weight. For example, H has an atomic mass of 1.00794 amu, which makes hydrogen the lightest element on the
periodic table. Hydrogen, H, was named by Laviosier and is the most abundant element on the periodic table. It is
followed by He, Li, Be and so on and so fort because atomic weight is used to arrange elements from lightest to
heaviest.

Hello there, let me help you about how elements form with the atomic concept.

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 By the way, He is Henry Moseley. He was an English physicist whose experiment demonstrated that the major
properties of an element are determined by the atomic number, not by the atomic weight, and firmly established the
relationship between atomic number and the charge of the atomic nucleus.

Henry Moseley was a researcher at Rutherford’s laboratory.

In 1913, Moseley used Rutherford’s work to advance the understanding of the elements and solve the problem
with Mendeleev’s periodic table.

Moseley noticed that shooting electrons at elements caused them to release x-rays at unique frequencies. He
also noticed that the frequency increased by a certain amount when the “positive charge” of the chosen element was
higher.

By arranging the elements according to the square root of the frequency they emitted, he was able to draw out
an arrangement of elements that more correctly predicted periodic trends.

Mention the experimental evidence he gave to an existing hypothesis: that the elements’ atomic number, or
place in the periodic table, was uniquely tied to their “positive charge”, or the number of protons they had. This discovery
allowed for a better arrangement of the periodic table, and predicted elements that were not yet discovered. His method
of identifying elements by shooting electrons and looking at x-rays became a very useful tool in characterizing elements,
and is now called x-ray spectroscopy.

He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an element. He bombarded a beam of electrons
to different elements and measured their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that frequency of the X-rays
given off by an element was mathematically related to the position of that element in the Periodic table. The frequency is
proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic number.

When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers, there were four gaps in the table. These
gaps corresponded to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later synthesized in the laboratory
through nuclear transmutations.

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction — a reaction involving the
transformation of one element or isotope into another element. The first nuclide to be prepared by artificial means was
an isotope of oxygen, 17O. It was made by Ernest Rutherford in 1919 by bombarding nitrogen atoms with α particles:

14 4 17 1
7 N + 2α → 8O + 1 H

However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to repel each other.
Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic nuclei are often bombarded
with neutrons (neutral particles) in particle accelerators.

James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, as a previously unknown neutral particle produced along with
12C by the nuclear reaction between 9Be and 4He:

9 4 12 1
4 Be + 2 He → 6C + 0n

The first element to be prepared that does not occur naturally on the earth, technetium, was created by
bombardment of molybdenum by deuterons (heavy hydrogen, H12), by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in 1937:
2 97 1 97
1 H + 42 Mo → 0n + 43Tc

The first controlled nuclear chain reaction was carried out in a reactor at the University of Chicago in 1942. One
of the many reactions involved was:

235 1 97 146 1
92 U + 0n → 35Br + 57La +3 0n

The Discovery of the Missing Elements

Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61,
85, and 87. Two of these elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle accelerators. A particle accelerator
is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic
nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new elements. In 1937, American physicist Ernest
Lawrence synthesized element with atomic number 43 using a linear particle accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum
(Z=42) with fast-moving neutrons. The newly synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word
"technêtos" meaning “artificial.” Tc was the first man-made element.

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 The bombarding of Mo with deuteron formed technicium which is the first artificially made element.
97 2 97 1
42 Mo + 1H → 43Tc+ 0n

In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered element with atomic number 85. They
bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron. A cyclotron is a particle accelerator
that uses alternating electric field to accelerate particles that move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field.
Element-85 was named astatine from the Greek word “astatos” meaning unstable.

The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered through studies in radioactivity.
Element-61 (Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium while element-87 (Francium) was
discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.

The Synthesis of the Elements

The invention of the device called cyclotron paved the way for transmuting one element into another artificially.
The high-energy particles that are produced from the cyclotron upon hitting heavy target nuclei produce heavier nuclei.

The Universe ran into the Be problem. Red giant cores get past this via the Triple-Alpha process, but the
Universe expands right through this possibility and the density/temperature are quickly too low to synthesis any
additional elements.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The oldest stars in the Galaxy are deficient in the abundance of elements heavier than Helium (but show the
predicted amount of He)
• The current record holder has Fe/H about 130,000 times smaller than the solar value.
• Not quite down to Big Bang abundances, but we are getting pretty close and still looking.

Chemical Evolution of the Universe

Chemical Evolution
• Low-mass stars synthesize `new’ He, C, O during the main-sequence, RGB, HB and AGB phases.
• These freshly minted elements are brought to the surface via convection and redistributed via stellar winds and
planetary nebulae into the interstellar medium to be incorporated into later generations of stars.

Chemical Evolution II
• For more massive stars, `equilibrium’ fusion reactions produce elements all the way up to Fe.
• Freshly made elements are delivered via stellar winds or, sometimes more spectacularly via supernova
explosions

Chemical Evolution III

What about the trans-Fe elements?
• Equilibrium fusion reactions of light elements don’t proceed past Fe because of Fe’s location at the peak of the
curve of binding energy.
• However, in certain circumstances, supernovae for example, non-equilibrium reactions can build elements
beyond Fe in the Periodic Table. Many of these are radioactive, but some are stable.

Neutron Capture Elements

• There are two principle paths to building the elements heavier than Fe. Both use the addition of neutrons to
existing `seed’ nuclei (neutrons have no charge so are much easier to add to positively-charged nuclei).

S-process (slow addition of neutrons)

R-process (rapid addition of neutrons)

The S-process
• The S-process stands for the Slow addition of neutrons to nuclei. The addition of a no produces heavier
isotope of a particular element. However, if an electron is emitted (this is called beta-decay), the nucleus moves one step
up the periodic table.
• `Slow’ here means that rate of no captures is low compared to the beta-decay rate.
• It really is slow. Sometimes 100’s of years goes by between neutron captures.

The s-process acting in the range from Ag to Sb.

Here a neutron changed into a proton by emitting an electron

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 • The S-process can produce elements up to #83 - Bismuth. There are peaks in the Solar System abundance of
heavy elements at 38Sr, 56Ba and 82Pb. These are easily understood in the context of the S-process and `magic’
numbers of neutrons.
• The site of the S-process is AGB start during and between shell flashes. The no source is a by-product of
C13+He4 -> O16
• 43Tc is an s-process nucleus and proof that it is in operation in AGB stars.
The R-process
• The R-process is the Rapid addition of neutrons to existing nuclei. Rapid here means that many neutrons are
added before a beta-decay occurs.
• First build up a VERY heavy isotope, then, as beta-decays occur, you march up in atomic number and produce
the REALLY HEAVY STUFF.
• For this to happen, a big burst of neutrons is needed. The most promising place with the right conditions is in a
SNII explosion right above the collapsed core.
• We see an overabundance of R-process elements in the oldest stars. As the early chemical enrichment of the
Galaxy was through SNII, this is evidence of SNII as the source of r-process elements.
• If we look at the Crab Nebula or other SNII remnants we don’t see r-process elements.
• We DO see regions of enhanced O, Si, Ne and He which appear to reflect the `onion skin’ structure of the
massive star progenitor.

1Diagram (How R-Process Occur) Crab Nebula

The Transuranic Elements

In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin
McMillan proved that an element having an atomic number 93could be created. He used a particle accelerator to
bombard uranium with neutrons and created an element with an atomic number 93 which he named neptunium.

Transuranic elements are synthetic elements with atomic numbers higher than that of Uranium (Z = 92).
238 1 239 0
92 U + 0n → 93 Np+ 1 β
Plutonium (Z = 94)
238 2 239 1
92 U+ H→
1 93 Np+2 0n

238 239 +1 0
93 Np → 94 N p +−1 β

At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded
uranium with deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was named
plutonium.

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are called transuranium elements.
Hence, neptunium and plutonium are both transuranium elements. They are unstable and decay radioactively into other
elements. All these elements were discovered in the laboratory as artificially generated synthetic elements. They are
prepared using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. In the next lesson, you will learn the nuclear reactions involved
in the synthesis of these transuranium elements.

Stellar nucleosynthesis

This is the process by which elements are created within stars by combining the protons and neutrons together
from the nuclei of lighter elements. Fusion inside stars transforms hydrogen into helium, heat, and radiation. Heavier
elements are created in different types of stars as they die or explode.

The Superheavy Elements

Superheavy elements are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103. These are produced by bombarding
heavy nuclear targets with accelerated heavy projectiles.

Bohrium (Z = 107) – projectile used was Cr

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 209 54 261 1
83 Bi + 24Cr → 107 Bh+2 0 n

Following are the equations of several nuclear reactions that have important roles in the history of nuclear
chemistry:

• The first naturally occurring unstable element that was isolated, polonium, was discovered by the Polish
scientist Marie Curie and her husband Pierre in 1898. It decays, emitting particles:

212 208 4
84 Po → 82 Bh+ 2 He

What’s More
Activity 2: React!
Directions: Write the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of each of the following new elements:

a. Curium (Z = 96) was formed by reacting Pu – 239 with alpha particles 42He. It has a half-life of 162 days.
b. Mendelevium (Z = 101) was formed by reacting En-253 with alpha particles.
c. Meitnerium (Z = 109) was formed by cold fusion which involves the combination of Bi and Fe nuclides at
ordinary temperature

What I Have Learned

Why do scientists study and synthesize new transuranium elements in the laboratory? What are the uses of
these elements?

Create a timeline using illustrations and text showing on how elements form with the concept of atomic number.
TIMELINE RUBRIC

Category/Content 10 points 7 points 5 points 3 points

Facts Facts were accurate Facts were accurate Facts were accurate Facts were often
for all events for almost all events for most (~75%) of inaccurate for events
reported on the reported on the the reported on the
timeline timeline. events reported on timeline.
the
timeline.
Graphics All graphics are All graphics are Some graphics are Several graphics are
effective and effective, but there effective and their not effective.
balanced appear to be too few use
with text use. or is balanced with text
too many. use.
Readability The overall The overall The timeline is The timeline is
appearance of the appearance of the relatively readable. difficult
timeline is pleasing timeline is somewhat to read.
and easy to read. pleasing and easy to
read.
Requirements The timeline The timeline The timeline The timeline
contained contained contained contained
10 events related to at least 8-9 events at least 6-7 events fewer than 5 events
the topic being related to the topic related to the topic
studied. being studied. being studied.

What I Can Do
Short Essay (maximum of 3 sentences)

1. Dmitri Mendeleev is often regarded as the Father of the Periodic Table. Would you say that Henry Moseley
deserves the recognition more than him?
2. Explain why the atomic number is called the “fingerprint” of elements.
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 3. How would you relate alchemy to synthesis of new elements?

Additional Activities
Research on the latest instruments used in preparing new elements in the laboratory. What were the
instruments used in preparing the newest four elements, nihonium, moscovium, tennessine, and
oganesson?

Answer Key
Lesson 1

What’s New (Activity 1) What’s More (Activity 2)

1. Protostar 1. B.
2. main sequence star 2. H.
3. red giant 3. E
4. white dwarf 4. C.
5. D.
5. black dwarf
6. J.
6. red super giant star
7. A.
7. supernova 8. G.
8. neutron star 9. F.
9. black hole 10. I.

Activity 3 & 4
Please refer to What is It section- Life cycle of stars.

References
Abuel, Rose Ann. Module 1: Formation of Heavy Elements. DepEd Commons accessed 15 February 2021, <https://com
mons.deped.gov.ph/documents?filter%5Bcategory%5D=4415754d-bcd9-4ce4-a35a-f23a5ddf5c90>

Cruzpero, R. [UP TALKS]. (2019, May 5). Nucleosynthesis: Formation of the Elements [Video]. Youtube.
https://www.you tube. com/watch?v=TgBo-bCVijQ

Mattson, B., Myers, J., Smale, A. The Life Cycle of Stars: How Supernovae Are Formed. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration Goddard Space Flight Center, accessed 15 February 2021, <
https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/les sons/xray_spectra/background-lifecycles.html

Sofia. 2016. Positivity is Key.Wordpress, accessed 15 February 2021, <https://sofssolarsystem.wordpress.com/2016/03/

15/positivity-is-key/>

Weiss, Achim. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Cooking up the First Light Element. Einstein Online, accessed 15 February
2021, https://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlight/bbn/

Answer Key
Lesson 2

WHAT’S MORE

a. 23994Pu + 42He —>

24296Cm+ 10n Cm is
named after Marie
and Pierre Curie who
had done extensive
research on natural
radioactivity.
b. b.25399 En + 42He — 16
>256101Mv + 10nMv
is named after
References
Coyne, Glynis L. (2012). Lead to Gold, Sorcery to Science: Alchemy and the Foundations of Modern
Chemistry. University of North Carolina PIT Journal, 4. Retrieved October 10, 2015
http://pitjournal.unc.edu/article/lead-gold-sorcery-sciencealchemy-and-foundations-modern-
chemistry

Famous Scientist Org. “Henry Moseley.” Famous Scientists. famouscientist.org, December 29, 2014.
http://www.famousscientists.org/henry-moseley/.

Gonzales, Jay. “Synthesis of the New Elements in the Laboratory.” LinkedIn Corporation. SlideShare,
December 22, 2017. https://www.slideshare.net/JhayGonzales/synthesis-of-the-new- elements-
in-the-laboratory.

“Henry Moseley, the Atomic Number, and Synthesis of Elements.” Teach Together, 2012.
http://teachtogether.chedk12.com/teaching_guides/view/283.

Navarro, Mary Grace. “The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements.” Academia.
Academia.edu. Accessed May 22, 2020.
https://www.academia.edu/33928561/The_Atomic_Number_and_the_
Synthesis_of_New_Elements.

“The Synthesis of the Elements.” Lick Observatory. Accessed May 23, 2020.
http://www.ucolick.org/~bolte/AY4_04/class6_04bwd.pdf.

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