Libertad National High School

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

ROSANA D. BARRIOS T-III

Subject Teacher
 Physical Science
Quarter 1 – LC# 1:
Formation of Heavier
Elements
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OBJECTIVES:
After going through this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the stellar nucleosynthesis;
2. Give evidence for the formation of heavier elements
during star formation and evolution;
3. Describe the formation of heavier elements during
star formation and evolution;
4. Make a creative representation on the formation of
heavier elements during star formation and evolution; and
5. Write the nuclear reactions involved in the
formation of heavier elements.
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TOPIC:
Give evidences for and describe the formation
of heavier elements during star formation and
evolution.

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PRETEST:
1. The formation of the elements is known as _________.
A. Nucleotides C. Nuclear fission
B. Synthogenesis D. Nucleosynthesis

2. The two elements formed in Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

where _________.
A. Hydrogen and helium C. Hydrogen and lithium
B. Hydrogen and oxygen D. Helium and lithium

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PRETEST:
3. ______________ Nucleosynthesis happens in the center
of the stars and is where the elements helium through
iron (Fe) are formed.
A. Big Bang B. Stellar C. Supernova D. Red Giant

4. All elements heavier than iron in the periodic table are

formed in ________.
A. Big bang nucleosynthesis C. Stellar nucleosynthesis
B. Supernova nucleosynthesis D. Genonucleosynthesis

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5. Three helium nuclei fuse to form ______.
A. Carbon C. lithium
B. hydrogen D. phosphorus
6. Which of the following processes is likely to generate
the heaviest element?
A. CNO Cycle C. triple alpha process
B. r – process D. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
7. Where can you find the heavy elements in the star?
A. Red Giant C. Protostar
B. Core D. Main Sequence Star

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7. Which theory suggests that the universe began from a
singularity and its inflation?
A. Big Bang Theory B. Eternal Inflation
C. Oscillating Universe D. Steady-State Universe
8. Aside from the neutron, the core of an atom is made up
of which other subatomic particle?
A. electron B. positron
C. proton D. None of the above.

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9.What does an element’s atomic number determine?
A. number of electron B. number of positron
C. number of proton D. None of the choices

10. What causes the formation of heavier elements in

space?
A. death of a star B. neutron-star merger
C. supernova D. All of the choices

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 Some people believe that we are in a way
connected to the stars when we were born and
that they affect our lives and fate. Whether this
thing is true or not, this makes studying stars
more interesting. This lesson about formation
and evolution of stars will give you important
clues in understanding the fundamental building
blocks of the universe and how life on earth is
connected to stars.
So, buckle up as we explore the vast universe
with the countless twinkling diamonds in the
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The Big Bang nucleosynthesis: It shows protons and neutrons
combining to form deuterium nuclei (D, containing one proton and
one neutron), accompanied by the emission of high energy photons
(denoted as γ); furthermore, it shows two deuterium nuclei fusing to
produce one nucleus of helium-3 (with two protons and one neutrons)
and one free neutron. Then, all other light elements we now have were
formed.

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VOCABULARY
• Big Bang Theory: this is the currently accepted theory of
the origin of the universe which proposes that everything
started from a singularity which in time inflated—and
continues to do so—until the world we know of today
started existing approximately 14 billion years ago.
• Stellar Nucleosynthesis: this is the birth of elements
through nuclear fusion that takes place within stars.
• Supernova: this is the explosion in the event of a death
of a star.
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VOCABULARY
• Neutron-Star Mergers: this is when stars merge to form
a more massive star, generating more energy than normal
stars.
• Light Elements: these are elements from Hydrogen to
Iron which form in less massive stars.
• Heavy Elements: these are elements heavier than Iron
which form from massive stars, supernovae, or neutron-
star mergers.

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 Among the proposed explanations on how the
universe began, the Big Bang Theory is the one
currently accepted, theoretically. It describes that the
universe started with a singularity defined simply as
a point where all matter, time, space, laws of the
universe and reality itself are condensed—ultimately
inflating (not exploding) since approximately 14
billion years ago until now, according to NASA
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
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Let us explore why the elements needed to exist
first: all matter that makes up most of the
universe—including us—are made up of
elements. These elements are what we study
about in the Periodic Table such as Hydrogen
(H), Oxygen (O), and Gold (Au). Now we need
to understand the foundations and formations of
elements.
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The steps below summarize the formation of the earliest and
lighter elements in the heart of massive stars, stars that are nine
(9) times the size of our Sun:
1. There is first a huge cloud of Hydrogen (H) atoms. As per the
law of the universe, gravity will pull these atoms together.
2. The core (center) of this cloud will get dense and hot, like
when more things rub together they get hotter and more
compressed. This dense and hot core will start to ignite.
3. This ignition is the start of fusion and since the atoms that are
fusing (clumping together) are Hydrogen atoms, this is called
Hydrogen Fusion happening in the core of the cloud.
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*KEEP IN MIND: When the Hydrogen
fusion takes place, this doesn’t mean that
ALL the Hydrogen atoms are already fusing.
The rest of the Hydrogen atoms that are
farther from the core remains outside the
core. This trend happens not only with
Hydrogen but also with other elements when
they start to fuse at a later stage of element
formation.
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4. The heated core eventually becomes plasma: a
soup of electrons and nucleuses that are not as
well-formed, explaining why they aren’t atoms yet.

5. Hydrogen atoms will eventually fuse into

Helium (He) and this (He) is now the new core.
The surroundings of this (He) core is the previous
(H) now called H-shell or H fusion shell.
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Figure 1. Shows
the fusion of the
isotopes of
Hydrogen atoms
to form a
Helium atom.

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6. Since the remaining H-shell are also constantly fusing into the
(He) core, more (He) is formed building up. With this (He) build-
up, where gravity pulls atoms inward, there is also pressure which
pushes the H-shell outward causing the size of the star to get
bigger.
7. Steps 1-6 are going to continue until other fusions starts to
happen:

a. He fuses with H into a Carbon (C) core with a He-shell outside it;
b. C fuses with He into Oxygen (O) core with a C-shell outside of
it; and so on until Iron (Fe).
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8. Why do we stop at Fe? It’s because in order to
produce another element after Fe, more energy is
needed than what the existing fusion can supply. That
does not mean only the elements from H to Fe are real
elements. Heavier elements continue to form where
there is enough energy: during supernovae (plural of
supernova—when stars explode and die) and neutron-
star mergers (when stars merges).

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Now that we have cleared the basics of
how the lighter elements are formed,
we go in-depth on how the heavier
elements get formed—one concept
still unknown to science but supported
by theories.
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Stellar Nucleosynthesis is one of the ways
heavier elements are formed. Nucleosynthesis
explains how new atomic nucleus are formed from
nucleons preceding from the new ones. There is
also Nuclear Fusion, a process where neutrons
and protons combine to new atoms. Nuclear
fusion is how elements Hydrogen, Helium and
small amounts of Lithium and Beryllium were
formed.
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*REMEMBER: The number of protons
(+) is the identity of an element, not
the number of neutron (+) nor the
number of electrons (-).

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Identify the letter that corresponds to the correct order as shown in the illustration below. Write
your answer on the space provided.

___ 1. Neutron star

___ 2. Supernova
___ 3. Protostar
___ 4. Nebula:Gravity causes this to condense into a protostar
___ 5. Massive star
___ 6. When a star begins to run out of fuel and grows larger
___ 7. Dwarf star
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 The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
The proton-proton chain is a series of
thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is
the main source of energy radiated by the
sun and other stars. It happens due to the
large kinetic energies of the protons. If the
kinetic energies of the protons are high
enough to overcome their electrostatic
repulsion, then proton-proton chain
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proceeds.
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The sequence proceeds as
follows:
1. The chain starts when two
protons fuse. When the fused
proton breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a neutron.
2. The proton and neutron then
pairs, forming an isotope of
hydrogen called deuterium.
3. Another proton collides with a
deuterium forming a helium-3
nucleus and a gamma ray.
4. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei
collide, and a helium-4 is
created with the release of two
protons.

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Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle
For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-
oxygen cycle is the more favorable route in converting
hydrogen to helium.
The cycle proceeds as follows:
1. Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off a gamma
ray, producing an unstable nitrogen-13.
2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form carbon-13.
3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray
to become nitrogen-14.

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4. Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton and releases a
gamma ray to produce oxygen-15.
5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-
15.
6. Finally, nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off
helium (alpha particle) ending the cycle and returning to
carbon-12.
Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic
process. Carbon-12 acts a catalyst for the cycle. It is used
in the initial reaction and is regenerated in the final one.

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Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via
neutron or proton capture processes.
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a
seed nucleus. The addition of neutron
produces a heavier isotope of the element.

For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons

to produce iron-59.

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Determine whether the provided statements are correct or incorrect.
Write FACT if it is correct and BLUFF if it is incorrect.

_________ 1. Protostar was formed due fragment contraction from the

star formation theory.
_________ 2. Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through
nuclear nucleosynthesis.
_________ 3. A large amount of energy was released during the
supernova explosion which lead to the formation of heavier elements.
_________ 4. The energy detected from different stages of star formation
was Infrared Radiation.
_________ 5. The element silicon was formed through the fusion of
magnesium.

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_________ 6. Iron element was formed from silicon fusion.
_________ 7. The interstellar medium of gas and dust were
sufficient evidences which supported the star formation theory.
_________ 8. The main sequence star evolved from protos
tar by which hydrogen was fused into helium through proton-
proton chain.
_________ 9. The star turned into a red giant as the helium
converted to carbon in the core and in the surrounded core
hydrogen was converted into helium.
_________ 10. The element oxygen was formed from carbon fusion
while neon was formed from the fusion of nitrogen.

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