Chapter 2 :- Indus Valley Civilization

Chapter 2 :- Indus Valley Civilization 2.1) Introduction

1. The Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan culture,
10) Contribution 1) Introduction
was discovered in 1921.
2. Extension - Punjab, Haryana, Sind, Baluchistan,
9) Decline of Indus Valley 09
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01 2) Phases of Indus Valley Gujarat, Rajasthan & some areas of UP.
Civilisation
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Civilization 3. The area formed a triangle and accounted for about
8) Political Organisation 07 03 3) Important Sites Of Indus 12,99,000 km2 which was larger than ancient Egypt
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Valley Civilisations
and Mesopotamia.
7) Religious Practices 4) Economic Conditions 4. Cunningham, the first Director-General of
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), began
6) Art and Crafts 5) Social Conditions in Indus
Valley
archaeological excavations of Harappan culture in
the mid-19th century.
5. Seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists
such as Daya Ram Sahni and RD Banerjee in the early
decades of the 20th century.
6. On the basis of these findings, John Marshall,
Director-General of the ASI, announced the
discovery of a new civilization in the Indus Valley to
the world in 1924.
7. Radiocarbon dating has determined the most
acceptable time period of Indus Valley Civilisation
between 2350-1750 BC.

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 Extent of Indus Valley Civilisation
Easternmost site Alamgirpur (Meerut, Uttar
Pradesh)
Westernmost site Sutkagan Dor (Baluchistan)
Northernmost site Manda (Jammu)
Southernmost site Daimabad (Maharashtra)

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2.2) Phases of Indus Valley Civilization 2. It began when farmers from the highlands
progressively moved between their mountain
residences and the lowland river valleys.
3. Trade networks had been established and there
Early Harappan Phase Mature Harappan Phase Late Harappan Phase
from 3300 to 2600 BCE from 2600 to 1900 BCE from 1900 to 1300 BCE

are also evidences of the cultivation of crops. Peas,

A) Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BC) sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc., were grown during
1. The Phase is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in that time.
the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.

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B) Mature Harappan Phase (2600 to 1900 BC)
By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilisation had
entered into a mature stage.
The early Harappan communities were turning
into large urban centers, like Harappa and
Mohenjodaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India.
Sites of this phase were Harappa, Mohenjodaro,
Chanhudaro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali,
Sutkagendor and Surkotda.
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C) Late Harappan Phase (1900 to 1300 BC)
The signs of a gradual decline of the Harappan
Civilisation are believed to have started around
1800 BC and by 1700 BC, most of the cities were
abandoned.
However, various elements of the ancient
Harappan Civilisation can be seen in later cultures.
Archaeological data indicates the continuation of
the Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC.
The late Harappan phase is found in Rangpur and
Rojdi in Kathiawar peninsula (Gujarat).
 2.3) Important Sites Of Indus Valley Civilisations

Site Location Excavated by Year Major findings

1) Harappa Montgomery, Daya Ram Sahni 1921 Granary, workmen’s quarter, vanity case, furnaces, piece
Pakistan on the of Pottery with Indus script, cubical limestone weight,
banks of Ravi river copper Bullock cart, coffin burials, cemetery, terracotta
figurines, evidence of horse at superficial level, etc.
2) Mohenjodaro Larkana District of R.D. Banerjee 1922 Great Bath, granary, Unicorn seals, Bronze Dancing Girl
Sind on the bank of statue, Pashupati seal, steatite statue of Beard Priest,
Indus river piece of woven cloth, etc.

3) Sutkagendor Baluchistan on Dasht Auriel Stein 1927 Trade point between, Harappa and Babylon, flint Blades,
river stone Vessels, stone Arrowheads, Shell Beads, pottery,
horse remains,etc.

4) Chanhudaro Mullan Sandha, Sind NG Majumdar 1931 Bangle factory, inkpot, bead-makers shop, the footprint
on the Indus river of a dog chasing a cat, cart with a seated driver, it is the
only city without a citadel, etc.

5) Rangpur Kathiawad (Gujarat), MS Vats, SR Rao 1931, Post-Harappan site, rice husk, six types of pottery, etc.
on the Madar river 1957

6) Dholavira Gujarat in Rann of RS Bisht 1990 Only site to be divided into three parts, dame,
Kuchchh embankments, signboard with Indus script,

7) Kot-Diji Khairpur (Sindh, Fazal 1953 Figurine of ox, steatite seal, terracotta beads, etc.
Pakistan), on the Ahmad,Ghurrey
Indus river
8) Kalibangan Hanumangarh Amlanand 1953 Granary, ploughed field, wooden drainage, evidence of
District, Rajasthan on Ghose earthquake, wooden plough, camel’s bone, fire alters,
the bank of Ghaggar earthen bricks instead of baked one, etc.
river
9) Lothal Gujarat on Bhogva R Rao 1954 Divided into six sections, bead making factory, rice husk,
river near Gulf of ivory weight balance, dockyard, fire alters, terracotta
Cambay figure of horse, etc.

10) Ropar Punjab, on the river YD Sharma 1953 Five-fold sequence of culture, stone and mud house,
Sutlej evidence of dog burial, alongwith human burial, etc.

11) Alamgirpur Meerut (UP), on the YD Sharma 1958 Pottery, animal bones, plant fossils, copper tools, etc.
Hindon river
12) Surkotada Gujarat JP Joshi 1964 Bones of horses, beads, stone covered beads, etc.

13) Rakhigarhi Hisar (Haryana), on Surajbhan 1969 Largest Harappan site, fire alters, cylindrical seal,
the Drishdavati river terracotta wheel, etc.

14) Banawali Fatehabad district of RS Bisht 1974 Remains of street and drains, beads, barley, oval shaped
Haryana settlement, the only city with radial streets, toy plongh,
the largest number of barley grains, etc.

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2.4) Town Planning 3. A few towns feature citadels to west built on higher
platforms, with residential areas to the east.
Their town layout demonstrates that they had
4. The Harappan civilisation is distinguished by the
a civilised and evolved life. The Harappan
widespread use of burned bricks
civilization’s town layout supports the idea that
5. The underground drainage system that were
the city’s municipal establishments were well
covered by stone slabs or bricks.
developed.
6. The Great Bath, which is 39 feet long, 23 feet wide,
and 8 feet deep, is Mohenjodaro’s most significant
Drainage
system
Great bath public space.
3 A flight of steps leads to the surface at each
Streets and
Granaries
end. There are separate dressing rooms. The
Roads
Bath’s floor was constructed of charred bricks.
7. The biggest structure at Mohenjodaro is a granary
150 feet long and 50 feet wide.
Town 8. However, there are as many as six granaries
Introduction
Planning
Buildings
in Harappa’s fortress.

A) Introduction
1. Grid-based town planning system, in which streets B) Streets and Roads
and alleys cut across one another virtually at right 1. Roads were all straight and intersected at a right
angles, separating the city into many rectangular angle.
blocks. 2. Roads were constructed with burned bricks, with the
2. Harappa, Mohenjodaro & Kalibangan had their length of each brick being four times its height and
own castle erected on a high mud-brick pedestal. the breadth being two times its height.

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 3. The city was split into rectangular blocks by the 3. There is a large swimming pool in the centre (about
streets and roadways. 39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep)
4. Archaeologists unearthed the lamp posts at regular 4. It features a flight of stairs at either end and is supplied
intervals. This implies the presence of street lighting. by a well in one of the neighboring apartments.
5. On the streets, there were also trash cans. These 5. Water was released through a massive drain with a
demonstrate the presence of competent municipal corbelled ceiling that was more than 6 feet deep.
management. 6. The Great Bath’s outside walls were 8 feet thick.
7. To prevent water leakage, the tank was covered with
C) Drainage system gypsum.
1. Very sophisticated water and sewage systems.
2. Many Indus Valley sites have houses with single,
double, and more rooms coupled to a very effective
drainage system.
3. Each residence had its own drainage and soak pit
that was linked to the public drainage system.
4. Every roadway was lined by brick-paved canals.
5. They were covered and had manholes at regular
intervals for cleaning and clearing.
6. To convey extra water, large brick culverts with
corbelled roofs were built on the city’s outskirts.
7. As a result, the Indus people developed a flawless
subsurface drainage system.
8. No other modern culture paid such close attention
to hygiene.

D) The Great bath
1. Most notable feature of Mohenjodaro.
2. Great Bath was a huge rectangular tank
special rites or ceremonial bathing.
E) The Granaries
1. The biggest structure at Mohenjodaro - 45.71
metres long and 15.23 metres broad.
2. Harappa has a set of brick platforms that served as
foundation for 2 rows of six granaries each.
3. Brick platforms have also been discovered in the
southern section of Kalibangan.
4. During disasters, most staple foods like rice, wheat,
and barley were stockpiled in these warehouses for
public distribution.
5. Archeological evidence suggests that lowest half of
the stockroom was formed of blocks, while the upper
part was most likely made of wood.
used for

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 2.5) Economic Conditions
1) Agriculture (Main)
F) Buildings
1. People from the Indus Valley civilisation erected
dwellings and other structures beside highways.
2. They constructed terraced dwellings out of charred
bricks. Every dwelling had at least two rooms.
3. There were also multi-story buildings.
4. The buildings were built around an inner courtyard
and had pillared hallways, bath rooms, paved floors,
a kitchen, a well, and other amenities.
5. It had an outstanding water supply system.
6. There were public wells throughout the streets.
7. Each large residence has its own well.
8. The majority of the residences in the Lower Town Irrigation
featured a central courtyard surrounded by rooms.
Summer activities like cooking and knitting were
most likely done in the courtyard.
9. To promote privacy, the main entrance was usually
located so that it did not provide a direct view of the
inside.
Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood
plains, helped in producing sufficient foodgrains
not only to feed themselves but also the town
people
The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains
in the month of November, when the flood water
receded. and reaped their harvests of wheat and
barley in April before the advent of the next flood
The Harappan probably used wooden
ploughshare.
3 Terracotta models of the plough have been
found at Banawali.
3 Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan
(Rajasthan). The field had two sets of furrows
at right angles to each other, suggesting that
two different crops were grown together.
Crops – cotton, wheat, barley (Banawali), peas,
sesame, lentil, millets (Gujarat), rice (Lothal)
Foodgrains were stored in granaries -
Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Kalibangan.
1. Most Harappan sites were in semi-arid lands, where
irrigation was required for agriculture.
2. Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams were used for
storing water in Baluchistan but channel or canals
seem to be absent.
3. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan
site of Shortughai in Afghanistan.

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 4. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was
used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found
in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store
water for agriculture.

4) Trade and Commerce

Evidence - Presence of numerous seals, uniform
2) Domestication of Animals script and regulated weights and measures.
Oxen, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, cat & pig. All exchanges were carried on through barter.
Camels & asses were used for carriage. Internal and external trade - For the internal trade,
Horse :- The remains of the horse are reported carts with solid wheel were used while the external
from Surkotada (Gujarat). But horse was not in trade was carried out through ships.
regular use in Harappan times. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC
Elephants and rhinoceros were also known to refer to trade relations with Meluha.
Harappans. The Mesopotamian texts speak of two intermediate
trading stations called Dilmun (Bahrain) & Magan.
3) Occupations
Harappans had set up a trading colony in Northern
Weavers, mason, potters, bead-makers, boat- Afghanistan which evidently facilitated trade with
maker, seal-maker. Central Asia.
Bead-making factories have been found at
Lists of Imports during Indus Valley Civilisation
Chanhudaro and Lothal.
Items of Import Place
Gold Afghanistan, Karnataka
Silver Afghanistan
Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Oman
Tin Afghanistan, Iran
Carnelian Saurashtra
Jade Central Asia
Amethyst Maharashtra
Turquoise Central Asia, Ira

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2.6) Social Conditions in Indus Valley 2.7) Art and Crafts in Indus Valley
1. The Harappan society was egalitarian i.e., all people A) Bronze Craft
were treated equal. The Harappans were very well-acquainted with
2. The caste system does not found to be existed. the manufacture and use of Bronze.
However, the varying size of houses indicates the Bronze was made by mixing tin with copper.
prevalence of a kind of class system. They produced not only images and utensils but
3. Food :- Fish and meat, wheat, barley, maize, millet, also various tools and weapons such as axes, saws,
pulses, rice, fruits and other eatables. knives and spears.
4. For children, there were small clay carts resembling A bronze statue of dancing girl found in Mohenjo-
the modern ekkas, figures of animals, whistles and Daro, is the best specimen of that time.
rattles of all kinds.
5. Older spent their time in gambling, dancing &
hunting.
6. Clothes :-
Weaved cotton and woolen
The women wore a short skirt.
The men wrapped a long piece of cloth
7. Ornaments :-
Both men (amulets) and women
The women wore bracelets and necklaces.
These were made of beads of shell for common
people and of gold and silver for the rich people.
Burial methods of Indus Valley Civilization :-

Harappan used to bury their dead in pits.

Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,
perhaps indicating a belief that these could be
used in the afterlife.
Jewellery has been found in burials of both men
and women.
In some instances the dead were buried with
copper mirrors.

B) Terracotta Toys
1. Terracotta toys or objects of worship.
2. The terracotta pieces represent unsophisticated
artistic works.
Terracotta

A type of ceramic pottery.

Terracotta is made by baking terracotta clay.
The word “terracotta” comes from the Italian
words for “baked earth.”
C) Weights and Measures
1. The Harappan used weights and measures for trade.
2. They show that in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples
were used; e.g., 16, 64, 160, 320 and 640.
3. Weights were usually made up of chert stone,
generally cubical with no markings.
4. Sticks inscribed with measure marks have been
found.

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 F) Seals
1. Seals are made of soft stone and often carry short
inscriptions with pictures of the one-horned animal
(called Unicorn), the buffalo, the tiger, the rhinoceros,
the goat and the elephant.
2. Seals and sealing (impression of the seal) were used
to facilitate long distance communication.
3. The seals were perhaps used by the merchants and
traders to stamp their goods.
4. The most famous seal is the Pashupati Seal of
Harappan civilisation from Mohenjodaro. It is a seal
with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with
animals around; an elephant and a tiger to the right
of the figure and rhino and a buffalo to its left. At his
feet appear two deer.
D) Pottery
1. The use of the potter’s wheel.
2. The pottery was glossy and shiny.
3. The Harappans used Red and Black Ware (RBW)
pottery.
4. Most of them were made on reddish clay and lines,
dots, geometrical designs, tree and leaf designs and
animal figures were painted in black on them.
E) Harappan Script
1. The Harappans invented the art of writing, but it has
not been deciphered so far.
2. Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the
Harappans did not write long inscriptions.
3. The Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly
pictographic.
4. Around 250 to 400 pictographs are found and in the
form of a picture each letter stands for some sound,
idea or object.
5. These pictographs do not show any influence scripts
of Western Asia.

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2.8) Religious Practices
1. The Harappan worshipped Gods in the form of
nature such as trees, animals and human beings.
2. Gods were not placed in temples.
3. Numerous terracotta figurines of women have been
found. So it is evident that they probably worshipped
mother goddess.
4. In one figurine a plant is shown growing out of the
embryo of a woman. Probably, it represents the
goddess of Earth. Therefore, it is perceived that
the Harappans, looked upon the Earth as a fertility
goddess as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile
Goddess Isis.
5. Pashupati seal :- This god has three-horned heads.
But the identification is doubtful, because horned
gods also appear in other ancient civilizations.
6. Animals were also worshipped in Harappan times.
2.10) Contribution of Indus Valley Civilisation
The most important of them is the humped bull.
7. Findings of amulets in large numbers indicate that
the Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces.
2.9) Political Behaviour
1. There is no clear idea about the political organisation
of the Harappans.
2. In contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia, no temple or
religious structure has been found at any Harappan
site. Therefore, the priests cannot said to be the rulers
of Harappa.
3. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned
about commerce than the conquests. Harappans
were possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
4. The Harappans were peace loving people since the
findings from Harappan sites lack any type of weapon.
2.10) Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation
1. Different theories states causes of decline may be
Aryan invasion, climate change, deforestation,
excessive floods, epidemic, shifting or drying up of
rivers, ecological imbalance.
2. By 1800 BC, most of the mature Harappan sites were
abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion
of population into new settlements in Gujarat,
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.
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3. Aryan invasion theory was propounded by Mortimer
Wheeler. This theory was supported by the fact that
some exotic tools indicate the entry of new people.
A few signs of violence appear in the last phase of
Mohenjodaro.
4. Traces of new people appear in a cemetery belonging
to late phase of Harappa. However, there is no
evidence of any mass-scale confrontation between
the Harappan and the Aryans.
5. The ecological imbalance theory of Walter Fairservis
best explains this belief.
6. Thus, the causes of the decline of this civilisation
have not been firmly established. Archaeologists now
believe that the civilisation did not come to an abrupt
end but gradually declined.
1. The Harappan culture has contributed a lot to the
Indian culture, society, polity and economy.
2. The Harappan culture did not end; rather its traits
were adopted by the subsequent cultures.
3. Even today, a number of factors can be analysed
which traces their origin to the culture of Indus
Valley Civilisation.
3 The planning of cities on Grid Pattern
3 The underground covered drainage system
3 The standardized weights and measures.
3 The practice of multi-cropping system and
methods of irrigation.
4. Harappans created sculpture, seals, pottery and
jewellery from terracotta, metal and stone.
5. Evidence shows Harappans participated in maritime
trade from Central Asia to modern-day Iraq, Iran,
Kuwait and Syria. The people of Harappan culture
used to bury their dead.
6. At present time, people have adopted the practice of
worshiping Shiva, phallus, pipal, mother goddess and
bull from Harappan culture.
7. The worship of Shiva & Mother Goddess are examples
of continuing traditions of the Harappan culture.
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