Note - 3complex Integration

COMPLEX ANALYSIS AND
MATHEMATICAL TRANSFORMS
IS 3302
Content
• Singular Points
• Isolated Singular Points
• Removable Singularity
• Pole
• Essential Singularity
• Non-Isolated Singular Points
• Series
• Classification of Singularities
• Power Series
• Taylor Series
• Laurent Series
01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 2
Singular point
𝑧0 is a singular point of a complex function 𝑓(𝑧) if;
• 𝑓 (𝑧) is not analytic in 𝑧0 .
• 𝑓 (𝑧) is analytic in a point in every neighbourhood of 𝑓 (𝑧).
If a function 𝑓 𝑧 is failed to be analytic at a point 𝑧0 , but it is analytic at

some points in every neighbourhood of 𝑓 𝑧 , then 𝑧0 is called a
singular point, or singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Examples
1 𝑧
1. 𝑓 𝑧 =
1
5. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝜋
9. 𝑓 𝑧 = (𝑧−7)
𝑧 sin( 𝑧 )
2 𝑧−3
2. 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧 6. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 10. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑧−5)(𝑧−2)
(𝑧+1)(𝑧−3)
4𝑧
3. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 7. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 −2𝑧+2
1
11. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧−2
1 𝑧+2
4. 𝑓 𝑧 = cos(𝑧)
8. 𝑓 𝑧 = (𝑧−2)

Classifying Singularities
There are several types of singularities (points where 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic) in the complex
plane.
▪ Isolated Singular points
▪ Non-Isolated Singular points
Isolated Singular points
▪ Removable Singular points
▪ Pole
▪ Essential Singular points

Classifying Singularities Cts…
Isolated Singularity
𝑧0 is called Isolated Singular point if

• 𝑓 𝑧 is not analytic at 𝑧0 .
• 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic in the deleted neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .
(in this case the function can be expanded in Laurent’s series)
Examples
𝑧 𝑧−3 1
𝑓 𝑧 = , 𝑓 𝑧 = , 𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧−7) 𝑧(𝑧−5)(𝑧−2) 𝑒 𝑧−2

Non-Isolated Singular Points
If 𝑧0 is a singular points and there are other singular points in the

neighborhood of 𝑧0 , then 𝑧0 is non-isolated singular point.
Example
𝜋
𝑓 𝑧 = cot
𝑧

Removable Singular Points
Let 𝑎 is an isolated singular point of 𝑓 𝑧 .

𝑏𝑛
Where 𝑓 𝑧 = σ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛 ∞
+ σ𝑛=1 ; 𝑅1 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝑅2
𝑧−𝑧0 𝑛
If the principal part contains no terms, 𝑎 is called removable singularity.
Example
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 𝑧3 𝑧5 𝑧2 𝑧4
𝑓 𝑧 = = z z − + − ⋯ ) = (1 − + − ⋯ )
𝑧 3! 5! 3! 5!
Singular Points ctd…
Pole
The principal part of the Laurent series has a finite number of terms (say
𝑚), then 𝑧0 is called a pole of order 𝑚. (Note that if b1 = b2 = . . . = 0 and
bm ≠ 0, the pole is still of order m)
If 𝑚 = 1, then 𝑧0 is called a simple pole; if 𝑚 = 2, then 𝑧0 is called a
double pole.
If we can find a positive integer 𝑛 such that lim 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑚𝑓 𝑧 = 𝐴 ≠ 0 , then 𝑧 = 𝑧0

𝑧→𝑧0
is called a pole of order 𝑚.
Examples
𝑧
1. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧−7 ; 𝑧 = 7 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.
1 3
2. 𝑓 𝑧 =𝑧+ + ; 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡, 𝑧 = 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 4, 𝑧 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 5.
𝑧−3 4 𝑧−1 5

Singular Points…
Essential Singular Points

If the principal part of the Laurent series has an infinite number of
terms then z = z0 is called an isolated essential singularity of f(z).
Example
1 1 1
=1 + + 2+…
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧−2 𝑧−2 (𝑧−2)
The principal part consists of infinite number of terms.

𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒛 = 𝟐 is an essential singular point.

SEQUENCE
&
SERIES

Sequence
A sequence is any succession of numbers. A general sequence is denoted by
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , …
Example:
• Harmonic Sequence
1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , … , , … the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term is denoted by 𝑎𝑛 = .
2 3 4 𝑛 𝑛
• Alternating harmonic sequence

1 1 1 −1 𝑛+1
1, − , , - , … , the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term is denoted by 𝑎𝑛 = .
2 3 4 𝑛

Sequence ctd…
Convergent and Divergent of a Sequence
The sequence 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , … is said to be convergent if the limit of 𝑎𝑛 as n increases
can be found.
i.e. lim 𝑎𝑛 exists.
𝑛→∞
If the sequence is not convergent, it is said to be divergent.
Examples
• Fibonacci sequence
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ... Divergent
• Harmonic sequence
1, 1 /2 , 1/ 3 , 1 /4 , ... Convergent
• 1, −1 /2 , 1 /3 , −1 /4 , ... Convergent
Sequence ctd…
• 1, −1, 1, −1, ... Not convergent/Oscillates
3 4 5 𝑛+2
• , , ,… 𝑎𝑛 = is convergent.
1×2 2×3 3×4 𝑛(𝑛+1)

Series
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. For the general sequence
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , … the series is 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯
• The sum of the first k terms is σ𝑘𝑚=1 𝑎𝑚
Arithmetic Series
𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 + ⋯ + [𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑]
1
If A is the sum of the first n terms; 𝐴 = 𝑛 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
Geometric Series
The geometric series 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 +··· +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 having n terms has sum 𝐺,
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
𝐺= , if 𝑟 ≠ 1 and 𝐺 = 𝑛𝑎 , if 𝑟 = 1.
1−𝑟

Power Series
A power series has the form
σ∞ 𝑐
𝑛=0 𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑛
0 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑐2 𝑧 − 𝑧0
) 2
+⋯
where the 𝑐𝑛 s are complex coefficients.
The power series converges if |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
R is called the radius of convergence of the power series.
Examples
1
• 𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = σ∞
𝑘=0 𝑧 𝑘 = 1 +𝑧 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 +⋯= for 𝑧 < 1.
1−𝑧

The Ratio Test
convergence tests, applies only to series of positive terms.

The Ratio Test
Use the ratio test to examine the convergence of the series

Series…
Taylor Series
• When z0 = 0 the series is known as a Maclaurin series.

Series…
• Here are some examples of well known Maclaurin series

LAURENT SERIES
Theorem
If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic on 𝑅1 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝑅2 , then
Where;

Series…
•Laurent Series

Series…
•Laurent Series…
• This first part of this series is clearly a Taylor series if bn = 0 for all n.
• This first part of the series representation is known as the analytic part of
the function.
• The second part (with the negative exponents) is called the principal part of
the function. However if 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are not all identically zero this type of
series is called a Laurent series and converges to the function f(z) in the
annular region 𝑅1 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0| < 𝑅2.

• Determine all possible Laurent series for each function.
1
• 1. 𝑓 𝑧 = around z = 0, and z =1
𝑧−2
1
• 2. 𝑓 𝑧 = around z = 0
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)

Examples
• Find the singular points of the following functions and categorize them.
1
•𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧−2)3
3𝑧−2
•𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧−1 2 (𝑧+1)(𝑧−4)
𝑧
•𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧 2 +4)2
𝑧 8 +𝑧 4 +2
•𝑓 𝑧 =
(𝑧−1)3 (3𝑧+2)2
2 1 1 3
• Classify the singularities of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = − + +
𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧+𝑖 (𝑧−𝑖)4

Examples
If the function 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 is entire, then find the Taylor series expansion of 𝑔 𝑧 at 𝑧 = 0.
1
If the function 𝑔 𝑧 = ; 𝑧 ≠ 1, 𝑧 < 1, then find the Taylor series expansion of 𝑔 𝑧 at
1−𝑧
𝑧 = 0.
1
If the function 𝑔 𝑧 = then find the Taylor series expansion of 𝑔 𝑧 at 𝑧 = 0.
1+𝑧

Examples
• Find the Taylor series expansions of the following functions around zero.
• 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧
• 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
1
• Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = in terms of negative powers of 𝑧 which will be valid if
1−𝑧
𝑧 > 1.
1
• Find the Laurent series expansions of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = ; 𝑧 ≠ 2 at
𝑧−2
𝑧0 = 0.
1
• Find the Laurent series expansions of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = ;𝑧 ∈
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
ℂ{1,2} at 𝑧0 = 0.
•Complex Integration
• Cauchy’s Integral Theorem
• Cauchy’s Integral Formula
• Residue Theory

Complex Integrals
Basic Complex Integration
If f(z) is a single-valued, continuous function in some region R in the complex plane then we define
the integral of f(z) along a path C in R as
න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = න (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
𝐶 𝐶
Here we have written f(z) and dz in real and imaginary parts:

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 and 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦
Then we can separate the integral into real and imaginary parts as
න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 න (𝑣𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
Here we define complex integrals in terms of line integrals over paths in the complex plane.

Complex Integrals…
Example
• Obtain the complex integral
• ‫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 𝐶׬‬where 𝐶 is the straight line path from 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 to 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖. (ans. 4+2i)
• ‫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 𝐶׬‬where 𝐶1 is the straight line path from 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖 to 𝑧 = 3 + 3𝑖. (ans. -4+6i)
1
• ‫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 𝐶׬‬where 𝐶2 is the straight line path from 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 to 𝑧 = 3 + 3𝑖. (ans. 8i)
2
• Evaluate ‫ 𝑧 𝐶׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶1 is that part of the unit circle going anticlockwise from the
1
point 𝑧 = 1 to the point 𝑧 = 𝑖. (ans. –(1+i)/3)
1
• Evaluate ‫𝑧𝑑 𝐶׬‬ where 𝐶 is the unit circle.
𝑧

In this Section we consider contour integrals.

Contour Integrals

Contour Integrals…



Theorem
Suppose that F is analytic in a domain D and has a continuous derivative f = F’ in D.
Suppose further that C is a contour lying in D, with initial point z1 and terminal point
z2.
Then,
Note that the right hand side of the above equation is independent of the contour C.
It follows that under the hypotheses of the Theorem above,
we have
for any closed contour C in D.

Cauchy’s Integral Theorem
Suppose that a function f(z) is analytic everywhere within a simply-connected
region then:
ර 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0 Simply-connected Region
𝐶
A region is said to be simply-
for every simple closed path C lying in the region. connected if any closed curve
in that region can be shrunk
to a point without any part of
it leaving a region.
Examples
‫ 𝑧 𝐶׬‬2 𝑑𝑧 = 0 ; where C is the
unit circle.

CAUCHY THEOREM for Doubly connected Region

Proof - CAUCHY THEOREM for Doubly connected Region

CAUCHY THEOREM for Multiply connected Region

Cauchy’s Integral Formula

The derivative of an analytic function
If f(z) is analytic in a simply-connected region then at any interior point of the
region, z0 say, the derivatives of f(z) of any order exist and are themselves
analytic. The derivatives at the point z0 are given by Cauchy’s integral formula
for derivatives:
For every 𝒏 ∈ ℕ

Examples

Cauchy Residue Theorem

Theorem
Suppose that the function f is analytic in a simply connected domain D, except
for isolated singularities at z1, . . . , zk. Suppose further that C is a Jordan
contour in D followed in the positive (anticlockwise) direction and not passing
through z1, . . . , zk. Then

Finding Residue

Examples

Examples

Examples

Examples

Note - 3complex Integration

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Note - 3complex Integration

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMPLEX ANALYSIS AND

If a function 𝑓 𝑧 is failed to be analytic at a point 𝑧0 , but it is analytic at

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 4

▪ Isolated Singular points

▪ Non-Isolated Singular points

Isolated Singular points

▪ Removable Singular points

▪ Essential Singular points

𝑧0 is called Isolated Singular point if

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 6

If 𝑧0 is a singular points and there are other singular points in the

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 7

Let 𝑎 is an isolated singular point of 𝑓 𝑧 .

If the principal part contains no terms, 𝑎 is called removable singularity.

If we can find a positive integer 𝑛 such that lim 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑚𝑓 𝑧 = 𝐴 ≠ 0 , then 𝑧 = 𝑧0

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 9

Essential Singular Points

The principal part consists of infinite number of terms.

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 10

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 11

• Alternating harmonic sequence

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 12

• 1, −1, 1, −1, ... Not convergent/Oscillates

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 14

• The sum of the first k terms is σ𝑘𝑚=1 𝑎𝑚

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 15

The power series converges if |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑅

R is called the radius of convergence of the power series.

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 16

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 17

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 18

• When z0 = 0 the series is known as a Maclaurin series.

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 19

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 20

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 21

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 22

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 23

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 24

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 25

If the function 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 is entire, then find the Taylor series expansion of 𝑔 𝑧 at 𝑧 = 0.

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 26

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 28

Here we have written f(z) and dz in real and imaginary parts:

න 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = න 𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 න (𝑣𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 29

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 30

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 31

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 32

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 33

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 34

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 35

for any closed contour C in D.

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 37

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 38

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 39

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 40

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 41

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 42

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 43

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 44

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 45

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 46

01/09/2023 IS3302 - Complex Analysis and Mathematical Transforms 47