Communication is a major part of culture.

Cultural ideas and activities are established and sustained

through communication. Communication, in its different forms, is often heavily influenced by culture.

“Culture is a set of human-made objective and subjective elements that in the past have increased the
probability of survival …and thus became shared among those who …lived in the same time and place.”
(Triandis)

“…the total range of activities and ideas of a group of people with shared traditions, which are transmitted
and reinforced by members of the group…” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/culture?s=t&ld=1093)

“The enduring beliefs, values, activities, and ways of doing things shared within a society constitute its
culture.” (Sean)

Basic functions of culture

1. Culture teaches its members how to survive & adapt to its surroundings.
2. Culture shows its people how to be a part of society.
3. By passing on knowledge, a culture spares its new members the trouble of having to learn everything
by themselves.

Elements of culture
1. History
History “is a diagram that offers direction about how to live in the present” (Samovar et al, 2010).
It is passed from one generation to another. It helps to perpetuate a culture’s worldview. Stories
offer members of a culture a sense of identity, and a set of values & beliefs.

2. Religion
Religion serves many important functions. E.g. social control, conflict resolution, group solidarity,
explanations of phenomena, emotional support, etc. These have an impact on a society’s politics,
business practices, and individual behavior.

3. Values
Values are qualities that allow people to continue their way of life. Values set standards of
desirability, beauty & goodness.

4. Social Organization
Also called social systems or structures. E.g. family, schools, tribes, government, etc. Social
structures provide communication networks. They help people to organize their lives.

5. Language
Human culture would not exist without the capacity of people to use language (Haviland).
Language is the means by which people share ideas, information, and feelings. It allows people
to transmit culture.

Characteristics of Culture
1. Culture is learned.
Children look for meaning in their experiences & surroundings. Many of these meanings are
taught by the culture. Culture can be learned through proverbs, folktales, art, & mass media.
2. Culture is shared.
People within a culture share a set of perceptions and behaviors. Shared elements enable
members to understand each other’s actions. Shared culture also allows members to share a
common identity.
3. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation.
Values, beliefs, and behaviors that are considered important to a society are passed on the
following generation. ‘Social inheritance’ by (Charon). This bonding between past and future
generations is all done through communication.
4. Culture is based on symbols.
“A symbol is anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture”
(Macionis). Communicating culture is done through the use of symbols. Cultural symbols can
come in many forms, e g. dress, gestures, objects, flags, religious icons…but the most important
is language.
5. Culture is dynamic.
A culture does not remain static, but is in a continuous state of reinvention due to some factors,
e.g. environment, war, migration, technology, etc. However, some (Varner) argue that these
changes are mostly front-stage (dress, music, food…) while certain core elements last much
longer (morals, ethics, religious beliefs, attitudes to gender…). Also, cultures tend to resist certain
changes.
6. Culture is an integrated system.
Culture must be seen not in separate units but as an integrated whole. The different parts of a
culture are interrelated. Changing one aspect of a culture will affect the rest.

Worldviews & Culture

● Definitions of worldview
“The worldview of a people is the way they interpret reality and events, including images of
themselves and how they relate to the world around them.” (Peoples & Bailey)

“Worldview is a culture’s orientation towards God, humanity, nature, questions of existence, the
universe and cosmos, life, moral and ethical reasoning, suffering, death, and other philosophical
issues that influence how its members perceive their world.” (Ishii, Cooke, & Klopf)

A society’s worldview acts “as a guide to help people determine what the world looks like and
how they should function within that world.” (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel, 2010)

Worldviews & cultures

Culture supplies most of an individual’s worldview. A worldview includes the ideas about reality that
members of a culture share (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, & McBride). The worldview of a culture functions to
make sense of life experiences…(and) is imposed by collective wisdom as a basis for sanctioned actions
that enable survival and adaptation” (Dana).
- Religion
Culture and religion are tied together. Religion shapes a society’s view of reality. People have an
innate need to believe in something greater than themselves.

- Secularism
The belief that humans can survive without divine forces. Secularists deny the existence of God,
and they favor evolution (in contrast to creation) and science (as opposed to religion).

- Spirituality
Spirituality is the belief that people can find the truth, inner peace, self-worth & meaning in their
lives on their own without religion.

While religion involves an established institution, traditions & hierarchy, spirituality is a personal
quest for answers. For thousands of years religion has formed bonds among people and helped to
preserve their cultures.
“Religious traditions provide structure, discipline, and social participation in a community.” (Kimball)

Religion attempts to answer questions of morality, life & death, suffering, and the universe. It
provides explanations and assigns value to phenomena. Religion also offers guidelines on human
conduct and enables social control.

There have been many religions throughout human history, but the most widely practiced until
today include Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism & Confucianism. Despite their differences, the
world’s great religions share some significant similarities.

Similarities Between Religions

1. Speculation
Religion tries to answer questions about where people came from, why we are here, what
happens when we die, why there is suffering, etc. It attempts to help people understand life and
death.

2. Sacred Scriptures
A religion’s body of wisdom are preserved in its sacred scriptures.
Scriptures contain its essential principles & doctrine.

3. Rituals
Rituals consist of symbolic actions that tie its practitioners to the tradition & form a bond between
them. E.g. Christians go to church, Muslims pray five times a day, Buddhists give offerings to
monks, Hindus go to the temple…

4. Ethics
Religion regulates human behavior. A culture’s core values are reflected in its ethical teachings of
right versus wrong.

5. Safe Haven
Many people find a sense of security from their religion. In times of grief, illness or calamity
people have a heightened sense of their own vulnerability, so they therefore seek that which
gives them comfort.

Culture & Context

All communication takes place somewhere under some circumstance. Every human communication is
influenced by the cultural, social, & physical setting. These all add up to create the communication
context. There are three basic assumptions about human communication with regards to context.

1. Communication is rule governed.

People expect their interactions to follow appropriate rules. These rules define what is suitable behavior
for a specific situation. Rules include verbal and nonverbal communication.

2. Context helps specify the rules.

Context (place, time, occasion…) determines which communication rules apply. E.g. For a job interview
you should be dressed appropriately; at a funeral avoid telling jokes; at a party with peers be informal, at
a temple follow the protocol, at the cinema avoid talking.

3. Communication rules are culturally diverse. There are differences in communication among various
cultures. E.g. time, interaction between men & women, language, manners, touching, nonverbal behavior,
small talk …
Communication Rules Regarding Context
Informality vs Formality
● Informality
Some countries, e.g. United States, prefer to be informal. Some examples include addressing
people by their first names, speaking directly, minimizing rituals, etc. Position, age, and status are
recognized yet not emphasized in interactions.

● Formality
Other cultures, e g. Japanese, place a heavy emphasis on appropriate communication based on
the norms of the society. Formality includes addressing people by their last names or with an
honorific title, gestures to show respect, keeping a social distance, etc. Differences in age and
status are openly recognized.

Assertiveness vs Interpersonal Harmony

● Assertiveness
Assertiveness is valued and even encouraged in some cultures, e.g. American, German. It is
recognized as part of individualism and standing up for one’s rights, both of which are highly
valued in some societies. Assertive speech or behavior can sometimes cause uneasiness in
people from other cultures.

● Interpersonal Harmony
East Asian cultures place emphasis on harmonious relations which includes mutual agreement,
loyalty, & reciprocal obligation. They avoid open criticism or verbal confrontation. Bluntness &
aggressive behavior are deemed lacking in civility.

Status Relationships
Egalitarian vs Hierarchical
● Egalitarian
Egalitarian cultures encourage open communication & informal interaction regardless of
differences in age, social status or position. Success and status are seen as attainable to anyone
who works hard. Egalitarianism values the ideas of merit, ability, and equality for all.

● Hierarchical
In other cultures, differences in status are made apparent with the use of protocol to regulate
interaction and communication. Power is held by a few, and subordinates are expected to give
deference as part of the social order of things. E.g. Confucianism provides a specific hierarchical
social structure & guidelines for relations between seniors and subordinates.

Being Competent in Intercultural Communication

Having the ability to interact effectively and appropriately with people from different cultures is
becoming increasingly necessary.

- Intercultural Communication Competence

1. Motivation
One has to be motivated to communicate with people from other cultures. It is natural for us to
prefer interacting with those who are similar to us. As a motivated communicator, one must show
interest, make an effort to talk and understand the other, and try to be understood.
 2. Knowledge
Knowledge in intercultural communication means understanding the rules, norms, and
expectations of the culture of the people with whom you interact.
*Content knowledge: knowing the topics, words, meanings…
*Procedural knowledge: knowing how to use the content knowledge (Morreale,
Spitzberg, & Barge)

3. Skills
Having intercultural skills includes being able to listen, observe, analyze, interpret, and apply
specific behaviors in a way that allows one to achieve goals. Such skills need to be adapted to
the rules of interaction of the host culture.

4. Sensitivity
Sensitivity involves flexibility, patience, empathy, curiosity of other cultures, & openness to
diversity (Pittinsky, Rosenthal, & Montoya). A sensitive intercultural communicator must not be
thrown off (or become disapproving) when encountering customs or behavior that appear strange
or unusual.

5. Character
Character can include such things as personal history, personal choices, & the way of interacting
with others. Trustworthiness is one trait most associated with someone’s character. Showing
‘good character’ can make it easier to communicate with someone of a different culture.

- Improving Intercultural Communication Skills

Be aware of your own personal biases, prejudices and attitudes. Understand your own culture.
Evaluate your communication style and tendencies. Learn about other cultures. Develop
empathy for others.

Empathy is a part of interpersonal sensitivity & social competence. It is the ability to perceive
accurately & respond appropriately.

Practice effective listening. Combine active listening with nonverbal communication. Encourage
feedback (verbal, nonverbal, or even silence).

Conversation
Conversation is the exchange of messages between two or three people. It can be face-to-face,
through the telephone, on the Internet…
New technologies have added more avenues for people to have conversations:
E-mail
Chat
Text messaging

● Five Stages of the Conversation Process

#1. The Opening
Start the conversation, usually with a greeting.
A greeting can be verbal, nonverbal, or both.
A greeting should be reciprocated by a similar greeting.
#2. Feedforward
Give the other person an idea of what you will talk about.
Feedforward can set the tone of the conversation, indicate how much time you need, or
avoid being misunderstood.
 #3. Business
The focus or substance of the conversation
It emphasizes your goal of having a conversation.
Your goal could be to learn, to relate, to influence, to help, or to play.
#4. Feedback
One person gives a signal that the business of the conversation is finished. If the other
person does not think the business is finished, the conversation may continue.
#5. Closing
Some of the common things people do when ending a conversation:
Summarize what was discussed.
Let each other know that you have to go.
Refer to future interactions.
Ask for closure.

Maintaining Conversations
In a conversation the roles of speaker & listener are exchanged throughout the interaction. This
exchange (conversational management) is done with verbal & nonverbal cues to signal
conversational turns.

Conversational Turns
● Speaker Cues
Turn-Maintaining Cues: the speaker indicates that he/she will continue talking
Using gestures
Avoiding eye contact
Vocalizing pauses (e.g. ‘er’, ‘um’)

Turn-Yielding Cues: let the listener know that the speaker is finished talking & is now ready to be
the listener
Ask the listener a question (e.g. ‘okay?’, ‘right?’)
Make eye contact

● Listener Cues
Turn-Requesting Cues: the listener indicates that he/she would like to speak
Lean forward, raise your hand, or open your mouth.
Say that you want to say something.

Turn-Denying Cues: the listener indicates the he/she does not want to say anything
Avoid eye contact, shake your head, or grunt.
Say that you have nothing to say.

Backchanneling Cues: to send messages to the speaker without saying anything

-Indicate your agreement or disagreement by smiling or frowning, nodding or shaking
your head, or vocalizations, e.g. ‘uh-huh’, ‘hmm’
-Show your degree or interest or involvement by your eye contact, body position, or
posture.
-Seek clarification by having a puzzled look, intense eye contact, or asking ‘what?’ or
‘who?’

Conversational Turns
Keep in mind that the five steps can have variations, depending on the conversation.E.g.
Sometimes, the opening and the feedforward are combined, or the feedback and closing can be
combined. Each culture has its own turn-taking norms that regulate the proper way that people should
maintain a conversation.
Managing Conversation
To become effective in conversations, one needs to have two levels of interpersonal skills.
- On one level are the skills of effectiveness, e.g. openness & supportiveness.
- The other level are skills that regulate these skills of effectiveness.
● Metaskills
Besides having effective conversational skills, you need to know how and when to use them
since each conversation is unique. Metaskills enable you to apply these skills accordingly for
each situation.

1. Mindfulness
Avoid labeling & categorizing people, objects, places or events.
Be open to new information even if it contradicts your stereotypes.
Be open to different points of view & varying perspectives.
Be careful not to rely heavily on your first impressions (premature cognitive commitment).

2. Flexibility
Examine each communication situation.
Decide on the most appropriate way to speak & behave.
Consider the occasion, the purpose of the conversation, the knowledge or interest of the other
person, the time, your relationship…
You may have to adjust or change your original objectives, plans, or style.

3. Cultural Sensitivity
Be sensitive to cultural differences of people with whom you are having a conversation.
Be open to new ideas & differences among people.
Adjust your communication style accordingly, or find other ways to have a good conversation.
Develop tolerance for other attitudes, values, & ways of doing things.

Skills in Conversational Competence

Conversational competence include openness, empathy, positiveness, immediacy, interaction
management, expressiveness, & other-orientation. The more of these qualities you possess, the better
you will be in conversations.

1. Openness
Be willing to self-disclose, to reveal information about yourself to the other person.
Be willing to listen & react honestly to messages, feedback, & situations that you encounter.
Own your feelings: make it clear that your thoughts & feelings are yours, & don’t shift the
responsibility of your thoughts & feelings to others.

2. Empathy
Empathy is to understand another person’s feelings, to look from their point of view.
Avoid giving judgmental or evaluative responses.
Let the other person know you understand & that they can continue speaking.
Use eye contact, stay physically close, & use gestures to show your interest in the other person.
3. Positiveness
Convey positive attitudes to the other person.
State positiveness about the communication situation.
Phrase your statements properly & choose the right words.
Positive stroking: acknowledge the importance of the other person.
 4. Immediacy
Create a sense of togetherness with each other by conveying interest, attention, liking, or
attraction for each other.
Maintain posture, use eye contact, stay physically close, smile, call them by their name, give
feedback, compliment them…
Do consider the differences between cultures in this regard.

5. Interaction Management
Both contribute to a satisfying conversation.
Neither one feels ignored.
Together, you provide equal turns to speak & listen.
Minimize interruptions
Deal with nervousness or communication apprehension.

6. Expressiveness
Communicate that you are genuinely involved in the conversation.
Own your thoughts & feelings, encourage openness, & provide feedback.
Practice active listening, avoid cliches, address mixed messages, use nonverbal language &
gestures to convey your interest & attention.

Other-Orientation
While some people talk mostly about themselves & their interests and give little attention to the other
person, there are those who communicate attentiveness & interest in the other person. Other-orientation
is demonstrating interest, consideration & respect for the other person. Maintain eye contact, ask the
other person for suggestions or clarification, express agreement, avoid unnecessary interruptions, &
express your appreciation. However, among all these qualities, flexibility is most important. You cannot be
open all the time, and neither should you show empathy or positiveness for every situation. The
importance and use of these qualities also vary between cultures, so do consider those differences and
know how to adapt.

Preventing & Repairing Conversation Problems

In conversations, we either anticipate a problem & try to prevent it, or we may try to excuse ourselves
after committing a mistake. A disclaimer is used to avoid conversational problems. An excuse is for
repairing conversational problems that have already occurred.

● Preventing Conversational Problems

A disclaimer is a statement that tries to make sure that you will not be misunderstood & that what
you say will not make you look bad. Five common types of disclaimers are hedging,
credentialing, sin licenses, cognitive disclaimers, & appeals for the suspension of judgment.

- Types of Disclaimers
1. Hedging
Hedging is to separate you from what you say. Even if your listeners reject what you say,
they will not reject you. E.g. “I may be wrong here, but...”, “I didn’t read the entire book,
but…”, “That’s what I was told…”

2. Credentialing
Credentialing is to argue that you should not be disqualified for what you’re about to say.
E.g. “Don’t get me wrong, I’m not prejudiced…”, “I’ve been compelled to say this…”
 3. Sin Licenses
A sin license asks the listener if the speaker can say or do something that is normally not
accepted by convention. E.g. “I know this is not the place to discuss this, but…”, “I
wonder if you could allow me to…”

4. Cognitive Disclaimers
To use a cognitive disclaimer is to stress that you are in full control of yourself. E.g. “I
know I may sound crazy when I say this…”

5. Appeals for Suspension of Judgment

Ask the listener to listen to you first before making a judgment.
E.g. “Before you say anything, let me…”, “Hear me out first…”

● Repairing Conversational Problems

We may try to justify or defend ourselves if what we said was received negatively. One common
method is the excuse. The excuse is used in conversation & all forms of communication.

An excuse is an explanation or an action that lessens the negative impact of a message & helps
to maintain a positive image for yourself. There are three kinds of excuses.
1. I didn’t do it type
You claim not to have made a statement or done an act of which you are accused. E.g. “I
didn’t say that”, “I wasn’t even there”, “I only just heard of it”

2. It wasn’t so bad type

You argue that the statement or behavior was not really as bad as others may think. E.g.
“I only copied one answer”, “It’s not that serious”

3. Yes, but type

You claim that circumstances led you to say or do something. E.g. “I didn’t mean to hurt
her feelings”, ”I’ve had a bad day”

- Motives for Making Excuses

The major motive of making excuses is to maintain our self-esteem & to project a positive
image of or to ourselves. It can be used to reduce stress or negative reaction caused by
our words or actions. Excuses may also help maintain interpersonal relationships even
after a negative interaction.

- Good & Bad Excuses

- People who are good excuse-makers use excuses in moderation, avoid blaming
others, & acknowledge their responsibility.
- People who are bad excuse-makers make excuses too often, blame others, &
refuse to accept responsibility for their failures.
- Some people use unnecessary excuses for their own benefit, e.g. to gain
people’s favor.
- Perhaps, the best excuses are apologies. Acknowledge some responsibility. Ask
for forgiveness. Suggest that things will be done better in the future.
- On the other hand, the worst excuse is simply to say “I didn’t do it” because it
fails to take any responsibility & offers no assurance that the same failure will not
happen again.