Agriculture Note

Agricultural Science note master
Grade 10 - 11
Property of Zambezi Regional Council, Directorate of Education, Arts & Culture
Theme 1: General Agriculture
1.1 Agriculture as a career
 A career is a person’s occupation
Identify career paths in agriculture
 agriculture extension officer

 Veterinary officers
 farm managers
 crop protection advisors
 agricultural sales person
 Agriculture engineers
 Farm mechanics
 agronomists
 fisheries officers
State the roles of the above career paths in improving agricultural production in Namibia
Career paths Roles
Agricultural extension officer  Help to develop programmes to recover the eroded soils
 Help farmers to fight crop and animal diseases
 Is a person who gives  Give additional training to farmers about new technologies
information and advice on  Advice farmers on how best to utilize natural resources to ensure
modern farming technique sustainability
 Help to increase the country’s food security
Veterinary officers  Controls the movement of animals by giving the movement

 Is a medically trained person permits
that maintains and promotes  To provide clinical services e.g. vaccination, dosing etc
animal health  To control notifiable diseases by putting animals in quarantine.
 To do abattoir inspections
Farm managers
 A person who plans,  marketing farm produce
organizes and manages the  budgeting and monitoring farm performance
farm activities .  keeping farm records
 acquiring and maintaining tools and implements
 supervising farm workers
 monitoring daily activities

Crop protection advisors  To monitor and assess progress in disease and pest prevention on
 trained to deal with protection farms
of crops in fields and storage  To know about different agricultural products including
pesticides, fungicides and herbicides
 To ensure that all crop products to be imported and exported are
disease free and fit for consumption
Agricultural sales person  To advise farmers about the improved products

 A person who sells products  Selling everyday agricultural inputs and equipment’s
permitted for use in farming
Agricultural engineer  To plan and design infrastructure and equipment within the
 Is a person who is industry
manufacturing and  To test equipment to ensure it is safe and reliable
maintaining farm machinery  To supervise the construction projects
and implements
Farm mechanic  To assemble new equipment and machinery

 They are trained to maintain  To repair machineries and equipment
and repair farm machinery  Advising on new machinery available on the market
and implements  Driving farm trucks and large machinery on the farm
 Installing irrigation systems and pumps
Agronomist  To introduce improved crop cultivars

 Studies the science and  To conduct agronomic research
technology behind using field  To test and select crop varieties that are suitable for Namibian
crops for fuel, food and conditions
materials  Advice subsistence farmers on sustainable farming practices
 To promote cropping strategies
Fisheries officer  To inspect and patrol the rivers, sea

 A person responsible for  To issue permits for movement of fish
conservation and protection of  They inspect all fishing equipment
marine resources  To control and monitor the export of fish to foreign countries
 to control the landing methods at harbors and factories
 To protect the fish resources and habitats
1.2 Ways of improving Agriculture
Define Sustainable Agriculture

 Maximizing profit from natural resources without preventing the future generations to do
the same/conserving natural resources for future use
 It is the production of food that avoids the total depletion on natural resources , which
would deprive future generations of these resources.
Define agricultural research
 It is an investigation and study with the aim of improving the quality of crops and livestock
Discuss examples of agricultural research activities that lead to the improved production of
agricultural commodities in Namibia
Research on improved crop varieties  Increasing grain quality

 Increase drought and temperature tolerance in
crops
 Focuses on increasing the yield per hectare
 Mahangu-varieties such as Okashana1 and
Kangara were specially developed to suit the
Namibian climate
Research on animal feeding  This research is directed towards

supplementary feeding programmes for
animals.
 Improved usage of crop residues as well as
protein and mineral supplements to correct
nutrient deficiencies.
Research on animal health  Diseases and pests can limit livestock productivity
therefore this research improves effectiveness of
existing preventative treatments and enables the
development of new vaccines
 Deals with identification of animal diseases; their
symptoms and parasites and ways of controlling
the spread of diseases and parasites
Research on genetic improvement  Genetic modification allows the improvement

of crops and animal breeds in terms of their
adaptability to harsh conditions, resistance to
pests and diseases and production.
 Focuses on reproductive technology
Agricultural research stations in Namibia:

Livestock production research Plant production research
Sachinga LDC Bagani RS
Alex Muranda LDC Kalimbeza RS
Okapya LDC Mannheim RS
John Pandeni RS Omahenene RS
Sonop RS Okashana RS
Omatjenne RS
Describe the value of education in agriculture and how this contributes to the improvement of
food and cash crop production
 Leads to better knowledge about crop varieties and animal breeds

 Farmers will gain knowledge of how to increase food production by using fertilizers
 Agriculture provides good employment opportunities
 Gives farmers skills to practice modern agriculture
 Enables farmers to save water and use soil and plants sustainably
 Equips farmers with required skills and knowledge to be able to innovate and improve
farming practices.
Discuss ways of adding value to agricultural products for sustainability
 Value addition is a process of changing a raw agricultural product to a more valuable state
Preservation and processing methods
(Culturing, cooking, processing, freezing, hides, cooling, canning, drying)
Culturing - Preserving food by fermentation, when bacteria add beneficial nutrients (protein) to
the food e.g. yoghurt
Freezing - A method of preserving food by lowering the temperature to inhibit the growth of
micro-organisms e.g. meat
Cooking - Heat destroys bacteria and enzymes that cause rotting, after cooking the food is cooled
or frozen e.g. vegetables
Cooling - Food is stored at low temperature in a fridge, storage cold room and ice box etc…e.g
milk
Canning - Heating the food and store in cans/containers e.g sliced carrots

Drying - A method that removes moisture from the food for bacteria, molds and yeast not to grow
e.g. biltong, fish
Discuss how agriculture can bring about the much-needed development and better living
conditions for rural people in Namibia
Small-scale farmers may apply for loans from agricultural banks in order to expand their
production. This can result in establishing commercial farms that leads to job creation in rural
areas. Infrastructures will improve as a lot of people move from their homes to their workplaces.
Explain how government/ ministry of agriculture can help in the development of rural
communities
 Introducing conservancies
 Training farmers in various farming activities
 Providing financial assistance for community projects
 Setting up animal handling facilities within the rural communities
 Subsiding inputs and services
1.3 Environmental influences on Agricultural practices
Explain the effects of the following environmental factors on agriculture:

Four environmental factors
 Temperature – determined by using a thermometer recorded in degrees Celsius

. Rainfall – determined by using a rain gauge recorded in millimeter
 Wind
- Wind speed using a cup anemometer in kilometers per hour,
- Wind direction is measured using a wind vane.
 Humidity – determined by using a wet and dry bulb thermometer recorded in

percentages.
Effects of temperature on plant growth
* High temperature (maximum) (40c and above)

 Enzymes are denatured/destroyed
 Plants will wilt and die
 increase the rate of evaporation
 increase the rate of transpiration
 closes the stomata to reduce water loss limits/reduces photosynthesis
* Low temperature (minimum) 0-15c

 Germination is very slow
 Enzymes are inactive
 Production decrease
 decrease the rate of evaporation
 decrease the rate of transpiration
Optimum temperature (Best for plant growth) 20-30c
 Most/ Ideal for plant growth

 Enzymes are active
 Production increase
 Plant processes occur at normal rate
Solution to temperature
 Apply mulch around the base
 Provide shade for plants
 Grow in greenhouses
 Grow resistant cultivars
Effects of wind on plant growth

- Negative effects:
Strong wind causes soil erosion
- Strong wind increase transpiration and evaporation

- Strong wind causes physical damage to plants (uprooting, breaking branches, leaves
and flower)
- Strong wind spread diseases
Positive effects:

 Wind promotes pollination
 Wind promotes seed dispersals
 Wind promotes transpiration stream
 Wind dries up excess moisture
Solution to wind
 Plant windbreakers
 Mulch the soil surface
Effects of humidity on plant growth

 Humidity: The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
 High humidity leads to low transpiration and evaporation
 High humidity encourages fungal diseases
 High humidity creates the high possibility of rain
 Low humidity leads to high transpiration and evaporation
 Low humidity decrease fungal diseases
 Low humidity causes the wilting of plants
Solution to humidity
 For high humidity, space plants further away
 Low humidity , apply mulch
Effects of rainfall on plant growth

Factors of rainfall and their effects on the growth of plants
Distribution of Rainfall:
 It means the amount of rainfall that occurs in different places,
 They should be a good distribution of rainfall throughout the growing season.
Effectiveness of Rainfall:
 How the rain is distributed during the growing season,

 Some of the water may be lost due to evaporation, run-off and leaching.

 There must be amount of water available to plants during the growing season, soft rain in
form of shower for a considerable period and it must be well spread and allow water
infiltration for plant use.
Reliability of Rainfall:
 Comparing rainfall over a period of time in different areas of Namibia,
 This will give an indication to the farmer to judge whether to trust rainfall in a specific
area for plant growth or not.
 This will enable the farmer to tell what type of the crop to be grown.
Intensity of Rainfall:
 Refers to the nature and duration of rainfall at a specific time and place,
 Nature it may be in the form of heavy thunderstorms or soft rain.
 Duration the period of time it has been raining
 Soft rainfall in form of shower for considerable period is good for plant growth.
 Heavy rain drops cause damage to the plants by breaking their branches.
Positive effects of rain

 Enables plants to grow and produce
Negative effects of rain:
 High rainfall causes leaching
 High rainfall causes soil erosion
 High rainfall causes water logging
 High rainfall causes physical damage to plants
 Low rainfall causes drought to plants
Solution to rainfall
 Practice irrigation
 Practice mulching as it helps to keep water in the soil longer for plants to use

Describe the water cycle and the significance of ground water resources
The water cycle
Explain the water cycle using all the processes involved/explain water cycle by using a labeled
diagram:
 Water Evaporates from the rivers, soil,
 Plants leaves lose water through the process of Transpiration,
 Animals lose water through the process of Respiration,
 This water moves into the atmosphere as Water Vapor,
 And then Condensation takes place to form clouds
 And water falls to the ground as precipitation/rain,
 The water which falls to the ground Drains/infiltrates into the soil,
 Some water Run-off into the rivers, dams, and the process starts again
Significance of groundwater resources
 The water is less likely to be polluted compared to surface water which makes it fit for
consumption
 For irrigation purpose
 For fish farming
 For construction
 It is naturally protected against evaporation\

Describe the importance of water conservation, including the process of mulching and
minimum tillage
Soil moisture can be conserved by:
Mulching is the practice of covering the soil surface with a layer of decomposing materials.
Advantages of mulching are:

 It keeps the soil cool and damp at all times
 Prevents weed growth
 Increases soil fertility
 Prevents erosion
 Improves soil structure
Disadvantage of mulching
 It attracts pests
 Encourage the spread of fungal diseases
Minimum tillage is the process of conserving soil moisture by not digging or ploughing
unnecessary
Advantages of minimum tillage
 Saves labour
 Reduces evaporation
Disadvantages of minimum tillage
 Poor drainage and aeration

 Difficult for plant roots to penetrate the unloosened soil
1.4 Principles of land tenure
Describe the main features of land tenure systems applicable in Namibia
 Rented land
Land is for rent

It is rented for a short time
The agreement is renewed annually

 State land
It is a government land
Normally used for game parks nature reserves, national parks
Government makes decisions
 Leasehold
Land is for rent

It is rented for a long time, not for a period exceeding 99 years
The agreement states the lease fee and period
 Freehold
Land is privately owned

The owner makes decisions
Land can be used as collateral
 Communal land
Land is owned by the community

Includes all land used by the traditional authorities
Describe methods of land use such as:
 Shifting cultivation-an activity of clearing the land for cultivation, when the soil loses
fertility it is left to recover by moving on to another land
Shifting cultivation:
- farmer clear the land by cut down trees and then burn them,
- farmer plant crops for several years until the soil becomes infertile,
- farmer will shift/move to another place where they will clear the land again.
Settled arable land

 this type of land is suitable for growing crops
Enclosed grazing system

 a system whereby animals are kept in fenced areas and provided with food and water
Unenclosed grazing system
 a system whereby animals move freely looking for food and water, at night they are kept
in kraals
Method advantages Disadvantages
Shifting cultivation -allows the soil time to recover -it is tiresome and time consuming
-lowers the risk of pests and -loss of biodiversity
diseases -land become scarce when population
- new land is very fertile increases
-burning adds fertility to the -burning of cut trees leads to climate
soil changes
Settled arable land -high production due to Its expensive in terms of costs of
practicing crop rotation fertilizer used
-
Enclosed grazing system Grass has time to regrow -the system is expensive
-overgrazing and breeding are -demand skills and knowledge to
easy to control manage animals
Unenclosed grazing system -the system is cheap -animal can graze poisonous plants
-overgrazing and breeding are difficult
to control
1.5 IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON HUMAN RESOURCES AND FOOD PRODUCTION
State how different age groups can become victims of HIV/AIDS:
Newborns
Through mother to child transmission if mother is infected:
- during pregnancy,
- during childbirth
- during breastfeeding
Teenagers
- Through unprotected sexual intercourse
- Having multiple sexual partners
- Sexually active
- Sharing needles in drug use with an infected person.
Elderly

- Through unprotected sexual intercourse
- Sharing needles in drug use
- Accidental exposure e.g. car accident
- Taking care of infected children
Discuss the effects of HIV/AIDS pandemic on the turnout and productivity of farm workers
within the agricultural sector in Namibia
 Production of food decreases

 High absenteeism of sick workers
 Loss of skilled laborers
 Loss of active workforce
 Less land is farmed because of not enough workers to do farming
Explain how the impact of HIV/AIDS reduces the output/productivity from a farm
- Food production will decrease

- Workers are too sick to work
- They cannot perform labour intensive activities
Theme 2: Soil
Soil formation
- Soil is formed through the process of weathering
Weathering
- The breaking down of rocks into small particles to form soil.
Identify the agents of physical weathering

(a) Physical weathering
- the breaking down of rocks by natural forces without changing the chemical
composition of the rock.
(i) Water flowing /running water
-Pushing rock over one another, the load of particles carried by water causes abrasion,
small pieces break off to form soil
-Falling water: causes rocks to become very smooth by wearing them away.

(ii) Strong Wind
- Carry stones that are knocked against other stones, making weaker one to break.
(iii)Temperature changes
- Rock expand when it becomes hot and contract, when it becomes cold this process causes
pieces break off to form soil.
(iv)Glaciers: moving ice hit against rocks breaking off, pieces to form soil.
(b) Chemical weathering:
- breaking down of the rocks into soil by changing the chemical composition of the rock
Identify the agents of chemical weathering
- Rain water combine with carbon dioxide form weak carbonic acid. Falls, enter rock,
overtime causes the rock to dissolve.
- Oxygen combine with iron in rock form iron-oxide/rust, weakens rock joints. Rock peels
off to form soil
- Oxygen react with sulfur in rocks weakens rock joint, small pieces if rust peel off, form
soil.
(c)Biological Weathering: breaking down of rocks by the actions of living organisms
Identify the agents of biological weathering
(i) Micro-organism such e.g. bacteria fungi;
-produce organic acid during decomposition;
-that dissolves rocks
(ii) Plant roots
• Grow in cracks of rocks; expand forcing rocks to break off.
(iii) Moving animals
• Hooves break weaker rocks e.g. cattle
(iv)Soil living organisms such as termites, ants

- Make holes/tunnels into the soil making the rocks to break and form soil
Soil profile
State what is meant by soil profile
• This is a vertical cross-section that is exposed when a pit is dug showing different soil
layers e.g. top soil, sub-soil parent material, parent rock.
Describe various soil horizons (layers) in terms of colour, organic matter and texture.
Layerv A: Top soil
• Dark in colour
• Contains lots of humus
• Texture : Mixture of fine and coarse texture
• Usually consist of good crumb structure
• Good drainage and aeration
• Depth ranges from 5cm up to 1m
• Contain many plant roots and soil living organism
• Contain water

Layer B: Sub-Soil
• Light in colour
• Contain less humus
• Poor drainage and aeration
• Few plant roots
• Few living organism
• Contain leached minerals
Layer C: Parent material/weathered rocks
• It lies deeper than the subsoil
• Could be deeper than 1m
• Produces subsoil and top soil
• Very little water
• No humus
• Few roots
• Has coarse and rock particles
LAYER D: Parent rock/bedrock
• Can extend very deep under the ground
• Contain rocks which are intact/unweathered rock
• No roots
• No humus
• Forms the underlying rock, form water table
Soil type
Describe the main characteristics of clay soil, sand soil, and loam soil in terms of particle
size, pore space, water retention, temperature, cultivation and plant growth.

SOIL TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE
Distinguish between soil texture and soil structure
 Soil texture refers to the coarseness and finesse of soil particles when they are felt by
fingers.
 Soil structure refers to the way in which individual soil particles (aggregates) are
arranged in relation to one another.

Describe soil texture in terms of different soil particles; sand, silt and clay
Gravel Greater than 2mm in diameter

Coarse sand 2mm – 0.2 mm in diameter
Fine sand 0.2mm – 0.02mm in diameter
Silt 0.02 mm – 0.002mm in diameter
Clay Below 0.002mm in diameter
Ways to determine soil texture
 Nest sieve test

 Rubbing test
 Sausage test
 Settling test

Settling test
Explain what is meant by soil crumb
Crumb structure - soil particles are bounded together and yet allow air and water to circulate
freely/refers to small crumps of sand and clay with humus.
Explain the importance of forming and maintaining a good crumb structure for optimal plant
growth
- It improves aeration
- It improves drainage to prevent waterlogging
- It improves water holding capacity
- It minimizes the rate of leaching of plant nutrients
- It promotes microbial activities
- Reduces soil erosion
Soil Composition

Describe the components of different types of soil (sand, clay, and loam) in term of mineral
particles, organic matter, air, water and living organisms.
Inorganic materials e.g. mineral particle
- Soil originates from rock weathering

- It is the largest component of the soil which makes up 45%
Air
- Found it pores between the soil particle

- It is an important for respiration for micro-organism and plant roots
- It makes 25% of the soil
Water
- It helps to dissolve plant nutrients before they can be absorbed by plants

- Living organisms in the soil also needs water
Organic materials
- This are dead and decomposed plant and animal materials

- Add fertility to the soil
- Improves the soil structure
- Improves aeration
- Improves water holding capacity
Living organisms
- Form part of organic materials


Soil fertility
It refers to the ability of the soil to support plant growth and produce a lot and healthy products.
Describe the major functions of the following plants nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur
Note: They are needed in large quantity by plants
General effects of the major plant nutrients
 Nitrogen positive effects

- Promote vegetative growth e.g. stem and leaves
- Formation of chlorophyll that gives plant leaves green colour.
Deficiency of nitrogen on plants (negative effects)
 Poor growth rate (stunted growth)

 Leaves turn yellow (leaf chlorosis)
Organic source of nitrogen
 Manure
 Compost
Inorganic source of nitrogen
 Limestone ammonium nitrate (LAN)

 Urea
 Ammonium nitrate
 Phosphorus positive effects (functions)
 Promote root and shoot development

 Seed germination
 Improve disease resistance
Deficiency of phosphorus on plant (negative effects)
 Reduction in the development of seed

 Poor root development

 Stunted growth
 Purple leaves
Organic source of phosphorus
 Manure, compost
Inorganic source of phosphorus
 Single super phosphate

 Double super phosphate
 Bone meal
 Potassium, positive effects (functions)
 Strengthens plant stems and reduce lodging

 Promote quality grain seeds, fruits and stem
 Helps in the absorption of nutrients
Deficiency of potassium on plant (negative effects)
 Brown patches on leaf edges

 Poor development of flowering and fruits
 Stunted growth
Organic source of potassium Inorganic source of potassium

Manure Potassium permanganate
Compost Nitrate of potassium
Potash
Calcium
 Strengthen plant cell wall

 Neutralizes toxic in plants
 Formation of protein
Magnesium
 Promote early flowering and fruiting

 Formation of chlorophyll, that gives plant its green colour
Sulfur
 Facilitates physiological process e.g. diffusion, osmosis, photosynthesis,

respiration etc.,

 For production of protein and chlorophyll
Identify and explain factors affecting soil PH such as rainfall, irrigation, application of
fertilizers, removal of crop residues, bacterial/microbial actions and parent material.
 Too much application of fertilizer e.g. ammonium nitrate make soil to be acidic
 Heavy irrigation/high rainfall: causes leaching of bases/nutrients which are then replaced
by hydrogen ions. This makes the soil acidic.
 Bacterial action produces organic acids during decomposition which makes the soil
acidic.
 Removal of crop residues during harvesting, nutrients used by the crop are not replaced.
The nutrients tend to be replaced by hydrogen ions and the soil tends to be acidic.
 Parent material; the mineral in the rock determines whether the soil will be alkaline or
acidic e.g. if the parent rock contains limestone, the soil formed will be alkaline. If the
parent rock contains granite , the soil formed will be more acidic
Describe the nitrogen cycle in terms of:
- Decomposition by type of microorganisms

- Nitrogen fixation in the roots
- Absorption of nitrogen compounds and their convention to proteins
- The role of type of microorganisms in decay and the return of nitrogen to the soil
or atmosphere.

 Legume crops has root nodules, which contain nitrogen fixing bacteria, these
bacteria have ability to fix nitrogen into the soil, in the form of nitrates.
 Nitrogen fixation by lighting: lighting releases large amounts of nitrogen gas,
which dissolve in the rain water and penetrate the soil
 Nitrogen fixation by bacteria during decomposition/ammonification, form
ammonia, nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrate, again nitrifying
bacteria convert nitrite into nitrate the process is called nitrification.
 Denitrification nitrates are converted into nitrogen that goes back to the
atmosphere
 Nitrates is absorbed by plants , then converted into amino acids and finally into
plant proteins
 Animals feed on plants and they break down protein into amino acids; then amino
acids are converted into animal protein
Explain the negative effects of salt on plant growth
Salt becomes toxic to plants

Too much salt makes the soil acidic or brackish
Plants cannot take up water from the soil
Causes stunted growth
Describe how to make compost from garden refuse and other available organic substances.
Compost is a plant or other organic material that has decomposed
- Collect organic materials such as leaves, sticks, weeds, kitchen waste, vegetable peels,
eggshells and ash
- Lay the sticks on the ground and put a bit of soil
- Put a layer of any of the collected materials and put a layer of soil and add water. Then
repeat the process until it reaches the required size
- Put organic materials into a heap and give it time and space to decay or decompose
- Within three to six weeks it should be ready
Explain the effects of overuse of fertilizers
 Excess fertilizer can pollute water

 Contaminate drinking points e.g. borehole causes anaemia in human
 Promote algae to grow, cover river, kill aquatic life due to lack of oxygen
 Affect soil PH, make soil acidic e.g. ammonium nitrate
 Destruction of crumb structure, result soil erosion

Explain the significance of legumes in maintaining soil fertility
 Legume crops has root nodules; the root nodules contain bacteria(rhizobium);
which convert nitrogen gas into nitrates and fix it into the soil
Soil Erosion and Soil conservation
List the types of soil erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of top-soil by wind or water
Types of erosions
 Sheet erosion
 Gulley erosion
 Splash erosion
 Rill erosion
Describe how to control soil erosion on agricultural land, with reference to humus content
and loss of biodiversity
Keep the soil surface covered through mulching
 Applying organic materials on the soil surface to reduce the splash effect of rain drops,
when organic material decompose they increase the humus content and also contain
microorganisms.
 The grass applied on the surface reduces water runoff to encourage infiltration
Use contour ploughing
 The contour furrows that are formed holds back rain water and encourages infiltration
Wind breakers

 Are planted along the crop fields can reduce the speed of the wind and therefore reduces
soil erosion
Intercropping / strip cropping
 A secondary crop is planted among the rows of the main crops, this crop will then cover
the soil to reduce erosion
Terracing
 A flat area is cut of the slope and crops are planted on this flat area. Stones that will hold
the soil back are placed in front of the wall
Contour ridges
 They are ridges made across the slope of the land, crops are then planted behind the
ridges
Irrigation and soil drainage
Define irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to plants.
Describe the methods of irrigation applicable in Namibia

Explain the need for irrigation and its effects on crop yields and quality
Positive
 Allow crops to grow any time/extends rainy season/improves growth

 Improves crop quality
 Allows specific requirements to be met/gives correct amount of water
 Keeps plant cell turgid
 Increases availability of minerals/nutrients
 Provides water to prevent wilting
 Improves yield
Negative
 Causes leaching
 Soil erosion
Explain what is meant by leaching
Leaching
Is the loss of soluble plant nutrients dissolved in water downward into the soil, and away
from the reach of plant roots.
Discuss the effects of leaching on plant growth
 Nutrients move down into the soil

 Replaced by hydrogen ions
 Makes the soil acidic
 Micro-organisms (enzymes) become inactive
 Plant show deficiency e.g. yellow leaves, stunted growth
Drainage
Define drainage
- Is the removal of excess water from the soil to improve soil aeration
Discuss the necessity of draining waterlogged agricultural land
 Prevent water bone diseases

 Improve soil aeration /improve plant roots respiration
 Prevents root rotting

 Prevents waterlogging
 Promotes microbial activities
 Reduces leaching of nutrients
Describe how soil is drained by means of ditches
 Channel are dug on the surface

 Ditches should be 1 to 2m deep and 80 to 100 m apart depending on soil type
 Ditches should have a down slope towards the end to allow water to drain
Describe how to drain water by pipe drains
 Digging furrows in the ground

 Place the drainage pipe in the furrow /underground
 Pipe with holes
 Open ended pipes with wire mesh to prevent blockage then pave with stones
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Ditches Cheaper to make Weeds grow in ditches
Implements cannot be used
over the land
Not suitable for sand soil as
they keep filling up
Pipe drains Fewer weeds Pipes are expensive
Implements can be used over
the land
Water resource management
State what is meant by water resource management
Water resource management entails the planning, development, distribution and management of
freshwater resources so that they are used optimally.
Discuss sustainable methods of managing water resources
Sustainable ways of managing water resources:
 Drip irrigation – ensures that crops get the right amounts of water without wasting water
on areas that do not need to be irrigated.
 Earth dams – collect enough water for crop irrigation for seasons when there is no rainfall
or during dry spells. Earth dams are also called embankment dams because they are made
simply by creating barrier in existing river.

 Catchment area – an area in the natural environment where rainwater collects and from
where it runs into rivers or streams. The farmers must make sure that the catchment area
gets enough rainwater to fill the dam.
 Pollution control – farmers cannot irrigate their crops with polluted water.
Land preparation and soil tillage
Discuss methods of preparing and tilling the land/soil
Conventional tillage
 The use of mechanical farm implements for land preparation
 It involves primary tillage, which is ploughing; the implements used for primary tillage are
mouldboard plough, disc plough, subsoil plough and chisel plough
 secondary tillage which is harrowing or leveling to make the soil fine
Conservation/minimum tillage
 Tilling and disturbing the soil is done as little as possible
 It involves slashing of weeds and vegetation that grow on the farm, and leveling the soil
with a rake. Which makes greater use of plant residues, as a means of conserving both soil
fertility and water.
No-till/zero till method
 Is a system where no pre planting soil preparation is done.

 Sowing is done directly into undisturbed soil using seed drilling equipment.
 Weed control is done using herbicides
Strip tilling
 It involves minimal tillage because only the area of the soil where the seeds will get planted
is tilled.
Ridge tilling
 The soil is left undisturbed from harvesting to planting, except for fertilizing the soil. Seeds
are planted and crops grow on the ridges.
Mulch tilling
 Is any conservation tillage system that cannot be classified as no till, strip or ridge tilling
 Farmers use sub-soilers or chisel ploughs for deep ploughing.

 The sub-soiler ploughs deep into the subsoil to ensure that crop roots will later develop
deep enough, and in the best possible conditions.
State the advantages and disadvantages associated with methods of land preparation and soil
tillage
Describe reasons for choosing specific tillage methods
 Soil factors – include relief, slope, erodibility, root depth, texture and structure, organic
matter content and mineral composition.
 Climatic factors – deals with the amount and distribution of rainfall, the length of the dry
period, growing season, soil temperature etc.
 Crop factors – include the growing duration, the rooting characteristics, the crop’s water
requirements and seed characteristics.

 Socioeconomic factors – determine which tillage method to choose are farm size,
availability of a power source, family structure and composition, labour situation, access
to cash and credit facilities.
THEME 3: PLANT PRODUCTION
TOPIC: Principles of plant growth.
State the conditions necessary for plant growth and their importance.
 Suitable temperature
-Plants require optimum temperature to grow, if the temperature is too high, plants will wilt and
die, and if the temperature is too low, the enzymes will not be activated.
- Plants grow best within an optimum temperature range between 20-30c
 Water
- Plants need adequate water for all physiological activities to go on, i.e. photosynthesis,
transpiration, and translocation etc.
- Water is needed for proper transportation of nutrients within the plant.
- Little water causes the plant to wilt and die.
- Water helps plants to regulate its temperature.
Light- Light is essential for photosynthesis.
 Air (oxygen)
- Plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for root respiration.
- Plants need fresh, clean air for optimum growth.

- Air is essential for seed germination.
 Nutrients
- Nutrients are needed for plant growth.
 Carbon dioxide
- plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis to take place
 Space
- Adequate space is needed by plants to absorb sufficient light,water,carbondioxide and oxygen.
Explain the absorption of plant requirements from the soil, including the principles of
diffusion, osmosis, the passage of water and dissolved mineral salts through vascular tissues.
PRINCIPLES OF DIFFUSION
This is the movement of ions and gas molecules from the region of higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient.
Nutrients such as glucose move via diffusion through the plant, from the cells with high
concentration to cells with low concentration.
PRINCIPLES OF OSMOSIS
This is the movement of water molecules from the region of higher water potential to a region of
lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane. OR
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from the region of higher water potential to the
region of lower water potential through a semi –permeable membrane.
A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that allows small molecules eg water to pass through
it while large molecules like dissolved salts cannot pass through.
IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS
 Provide water to all plants parts

 Keep cell firm
 Prevent the wilting of plants
 Provide water for photosynthesis
 Absorb water from the soil
 Absorption of nutrients from the soil
Describe the passage of water and dissolved minerals salts through vascular tissues.
 Vascular tissues in plants transport water and nutrients or minerals throughout the plants.
 The vascular system consists of xylem tissues and phloem tissues.

 Xylem tissues transport water and dissolved minerals from the root cells to the stems and
leaves.
 Phloem tissues transport manufactured food (glucose) from the leaves to the stem and
roots.
 Minerals and water are in a solution form in concentration.
 The root hairs are in close contact with the water and dissolved minerals in soil, there is
more water in the soil than in the plant, the soil has a high water potential while the plants
has a lower water potential, water enters the root hairs by osmosis through the cell
membrane into the xylem vessels down a water potential gradient.
HOW WATER IS ABSORBED BY A PLANT
1 Water enters root hairs 2 Water passes across 3 Water is drawn up into
by osmosis the root, from cell to the xylem vessels of the
cell, by osmosis. root, water moves in the
xylem of the stem to the
leaves by transpiration
stream/pull.
4. Water then evaporates
into the air space in
spongy mesophyll of the
leaves/ water vapour
escapes through the
stomata.

Explain the concepts of turgor and plasmolysis
Turgor is when water enters the plant cell, the vacuole swells pushing the cytoplasm against the
cell wall and the membrane stretches.
Importance of Turgor in plant .

 Helps plants to grow,
 stomata opening,
 maintain the shape of plants
 enables plant to stand straight.
PLASMOLYSIS: is when water leaves the plant cell, the cell membrane pulls away from the
cell wall and the cytoplasm shrinks and the cell become flaccid.
Plasmolysis occurs when the plant cell loses more water than it absorbed, the cytoplasm shrinks
and the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall, this will lead to wilting and death of plant.
Describe the structure and function of the root hairs
• Root hairs are tiny, hair –like structures that grow out of the roots that absorb water and
nutrients from the soil.
• They have thin membrane to allow water and nutrients to move through it.
• It has selective permeability to allow only certain minerals to enter the root.
• The vacuole is filled with a salt solution that is more concentrated than the soil and thus enables
water to enter the plant by osmosis.
• Root hairs help to anchor the plant in the soil.
Root hairs consist of a cell wall, membrane, cytoplasm, a vacuole and a nucleus.Figure: A
Structure of a root hair

Describe how water molecules moves from the soil into root hairs
The process of osmosis is responsible for water absorption in plant, usually the cell sap in plant
cell is of higher concentration than the surrounding areas hence it draws water from the
surrounding soil particles into the root hairs
MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH THE VASCULAR TISSUES OF PLANTS.
_ Water enters root hairs by osmosis
_Water passes across the roots from cell to cell by osmosis
_Water is drawn up into the xylem vessels of the roots, water moves in the xylem of the stem to
the leaves by transpiration stream/pull.
_Water then evaporates into the air space in spongy mesophyll of the leaves / water vapour escapes
through the stomata.
XYLEM VESSEL: It transport water and mineral from the roots to the leaves/ rest of the plant.
PHLOEM TUBES: It transport manufactured food in the leaves to other parts of the plant where
it is stored.
HOW DISSOLVED MINERALS ARE TAKEN UP BY PLANTS IN TERMS OF DIFFUSION

AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT.
Minerals are in a solution form in concentration, minerals are absorbed by the root hairs against
their concentration gradient by active transport.
Plant roots takes up minerals through diffusion,

These minerals are then transported through the xylem vessels, along with water through the stems
and to the leaves,
If the mineral concentration inside the plant cell is higher than the concentration outside, then
Energy is needed to move the mineral particles from a lower concentration to a higher
concentration.
This movement of particles through a membrane against a concentration gradient is called active
transport.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT: The movement of minerals from the region of low concentration to a
region of higher concentration, against concentration gradient, using energy.
Explain how the structure of a leaf is related to function
• Leaves are flat with wide surface to enable them to use maximum light for photosynthesis.
• Its thin for easy absorption of carbon dioxide.
• It has many stomata for carbon dioxide to enter
• It has chloroplasts containing chlorophyll that absorbs the sunlight.

FUNCTIONS OF LEAF
Site for photosynthesis
Exchange of gases
It absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis
Outline gas exchange by diffusion through stomata

• Carbon dioxide enters the leaves and oxygen moves out of the leaves.
• The gases move in and out the leaves through the stomata in the leaves by means of diffusion.
• Each stoma has guard cells around it that allow the stomata to open or close.
Describe the significance of carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis.

• Carbon dioxide is essential to make the reactions with sunlight in the photosynthesis process.
• It combines with water to allow the plant extract the nutrients it needs.
• Carbon dioxide combines with hydrogen atoms to form glucose during photosynthesis.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
The process by which green plants form carbohydrates (food) from carbon dioxide and water in
the presence of light
The chemical equation for photosynthesis
The process of photosynthesis
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the air through the stomata into the air spaces between cells
of spongy layers.
 Water is absorbed from the soil, water moves by osmosis from the roots through the xylem
vessels to the leaves.
 In the palisade cells, Carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of sunlight
absorbed by chlorophyll, to produce carbohydrates (glucose) and oxygen.
 Carbohydrates and Oxygen produced are used for respiration to produce energy.

Describe the importance of photosynthesis for plant growth.
• Photosynthesis helps the plant to convert light energy into chemical energy to sustain its life
processes.
• Glucose produced during photosynthesis is used for the formation of cellulose that makes up
the plant cell wall.
• The energy produced during photosynthesis is used for respiration.
• Extra glucose produced during photosynthesis is the one stored in a form of fruits and
vegetables.
RESPIRATION:
Respiration is process in which oxygen from the air is used to breakdown carbohydrates to
release energy.
Respiration takes place in all living plant cells at all times.
The mitochondria is the site of respiration within the cell.

Discuss the significance of respiration in plant growth
Respiration produces energy needed by plants to form new plant materials (such as leaves) and
maintaining existing once.The balance between respiration and photosynthesis makes the plants
to grow well.
Define translocation.
Translocation is the movement of dissolved food materials made in leaves to other parts of the
plant.
The manufactured food (glucose) is moved through the phloem vessel by active transport.
The diagram above shows how water, minerals and food move in a plant.
Discuss the significance of translocation in plant growth.
It helps all parts of the plant to receive glucose needed for plant growth.
Explain the principles of modification of different parts of plants to form food storage organs
and their relation to the type of food stored
 Some plants have modified parts that are used as storage structures. That means when a
plant manufactures more food than it require, the excess food substances are stored for
future use.

 Storage structures in most plants are: seeds, roots, stems, leaves and fruits.
 Reserve food is stored in a form of starch.
 In maize and beans food stored in the endosperm and cotyledons (seeds)
 Potatoes store food (carbohydrates) in tubers.
 Fruits like mango, paw-paw and watermelons store food in thick fleshy parts of the fruit.
 Carrots store food (carbohydrates and water) in the taproot.
 Sweet potatoes store food (carbohydrates) in tubers.
 Onion store food (carbohydrates and water) in bulbs.
Define transpiration
Transpiration - Is the loss of water vapour from the leaves through the stomata into the
atmosphere.
Discuss the significance of transpiration in plant growth.

• It helps with photosynthesis as water that reaches the leaf is used for photosynthesis.
• It cools the plant down.
• It helps the plant to absorb minerals from the soil.
• It supplies carbon dioxide to the plant that enters the leaf through the open stomata, where the
water evaporates.
TRANSPIRATION PROCESS
Define sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the process in which new plants grow from seeds produced from two
gametes.

• In this process a male and female cells fuse together and grow to become a new plant.
Describe the structure and function of the flower of a maize plant and a bean plant.
Maize plant
Sexual parts of a maize plant
STRUCTURES OF A MAIZE FLOWER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

• Tassel is the male part of a maize plant and is composed of a large number of anthers. The
anthers produce pollen grains falls and carried by wind.
• Cob is the female part of maize plant
It has many ovules inside
A style grows from each ovule at the tip of each cob.
These styles trap pollen grain from the wind.
Collectively all styles are called silk.

STRUCTURES OF BEAN FLOWER AND ITS FUNCTIONS.
BEAN PARTS INVOLVED IN REPRODUCTION

• The anthers contain the pollen grains, the male sex cells.
• Filaments hold the anther.
• The ovary is the female reproductive organ that contains ovules.
• Ovary develops into a bean pond.
• Ovule is the reproductive cell that becomes the seed/beans after fertilization.
• Stigma receives the pollen grains.
• Styles transport the pollen from stigma to the ovary.
• Petal attracts the insect for pollination.
• Sepal [Calyx] holds the parts of the flower together.
[Anther and filament forms up stamen male part of the flower]

[Stigma, style , ovary and ovules forms up the pistil female part of the flower]
Describe the mechanism of pollination in maize plants (wind pollination) and bean plant
(insect pollination)
Define pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. This can be done by insects and
wind.
There are two types of pollination
1. Self-pollination this occurs when a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the same flower or
flower of the same plant.

2. Cross pollination occurs when a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of a different
plant of the same species
Describe the differences between insect
and wind pollinated flowers
Insect pollinated Wind pollinated

Large flower Small flower
Bright petals Dull colour petals
Scented petals No scent
Nectar present No nectar
Firm/small anthers/anther inside Loose/large anthers/anthers outside
Thick stigma inside the flower Feathery stigma/outside the flower
Mechanism of Pollination In Maize Plant (Wind Pollination)
A maize plant has no petals

Therefore it cannot attract insects to itself for pollination
The structure of a maize flower (tassel) and cob is adapted for wind pollination e.g. pollen grain
is light and powdery and can therefore be carried by the wind,
Style can easily trap pollen because they are long and sticky.
State the reason why self-pollination in maize is very unlikely to occur

Male and female part mature at different times
Mechanism of pollination in beans plant (insect pollination)

• When insect lands on the flower to collect nectar, pollen sticky to the hair of an insect.
• When it visits another bean flower the pollen is dropped (left) on the stigma of that flower.
Describe the process of fertilization in a named plant
Define fertilization
- Fertilization is the fusion of the male and female sex cells to form a zygote.
How fertilization occur in a bean plant.
 When pollen grain lands on the stigma,

 it develops a pollen tube inside the style to the ovary
 It enters the ovule[micropyle]
 The male gamete fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote.
 The ovary develops into a bean pod.
 The ovules develop into seeds/beans.

Describe asexual reproduction from stem tubers: Irish potato
Define asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the process in which a new plant grows from a part of a single parent
.e.g. a stem cutting or stem tubers, Such as Irish potatoes and Sweet potatoes.
(Solanum tuberosum) and from stem cuttings: sweet potatoes.

Asexual reproduction in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) [stem cuttings]
• Sweet potatoes develop from stem cuttings.
• Pieces of stem cuttings are planted.
• Cuttings are kept moist before planted.
• Buds or new stems with root develop from the stem.
• Tubers act as storage organs.

1 2 3
Asexual reproduction in Irish potatoes (Solunum tuberosum) [Stem tubers]
 New plants are grown from a stem tuber from a parent plant.
 Buds develop
 Shoots develop from buds
 New plant grows above ground
 Produce starch during photosynthesis
 Stored in new tubers
1 2 3

ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 It grows or mature faster
 Cheaper , no seed cost
 Offspring’s are identical with their parents.
CEREAL CROPS
CEREAL CROPS PRODUCTION IN NAMIBIA.
Explain what is meant by a cereal crop
 Cereal crops are crops that produces grains e.g. maize, rice, millet/mahangu, wheat,
oats, sorghum and barley
Explain what is meant by seed viability
SEED VIABILITY
 Is the ability of the seed to germinate and develop into seedlings/plants when
planted under suitable conditions or
 Seeds that are alive and able to germinate
 Viable seed is a seed that is alive and able to germinate and grow.
Outline the importance of viable seeds
 It can germinate and grow

 Its free from pests and diseases
Determining the germination percentage of the seeds

Collects a sample of seeds
Place the seeds on a petri-dish with a damp paper towel/cotton wool
Leave the petri-dish under a warm condition /suitable condition for 5-6 days
Count the number of seeds germinated after 5-6 days.
Calculations on seeds germination percentage (%)

Calculate the percentage of seeds germinated by dividing the number of seeds placed in the
dish multiplied by hundred.
% viable seeds= number of seeds germinated/number of seeds placed in the dish x 100
Discuss factors that determine plants spacing and planting depth of cereal crops
Water availability: in areas with enough soil water or where rainfall is high, seeds can be
planted closely together as there will be no competition of water or
In areas with less soil water or less rainfall, seeds should be planted far apart to avoid
competition of water

Soil type: in clay soil, seeds can be sown closely together; the soil can hold water for a
longer period or
In sandy soil, seeds can be sown further apart because water drains faster leading to
competition of water and nutrients
Soil fertility: The higher the fertility of the soil, the closer the spacing can be, soil with low
fertility needs wider spacing.
Describe the methods employed in the cultivation of one of the following crops
MAIZE
Describe the soil and climatic requirement of maize crop
Soil requirement of maize

 A deep, well-drained soil/ well aerated
 A fertile loam soil
 Soil pH of 5.5 – 7.0
Climatic requirement of maize

 High temperature/ optimum temperature
 A lot of sunshine
 Rainfall of about 450 mm – 900 mm per annum.
Describe the seedbed preparation

 Clearing/removing stones
 Digging/ploughing/cultivating the soil
 Harrowing/leveling the soil to a fine tilth.
 Application of fertilizers/manure.
Sowing/planting time
After the first rain in summer, (October-December).
Planting space
 Inter row: 1-2 m
 In row: 30-60 cm
Planting depth
 2-6 cm deep
Define seed rate: the total number of seeds to be planted per hole in kilograms (25kg/ha).
Planting methods for maize

 Using a planter /machine (planting in rows).
 Using hands (by broadcasting).
APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS (ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS)

Describe the fertilizer requirement of maize
 Basal dressing: application of fertilizers before sowing/planting. During winter before
planting, incorporate 300-400 kg of superphosphate/ha. Apply 400 kg/ha of NPK (2:3:2)
 Top dressing: application of fertilizer after planting/ germination. Apply more or less 120
kg/ha of LAN with six weeks after planting or any fertilizer containing nitrogen.
Describe the recognition of crop maturity, harvesting and storage
Crop maturity Harvesting method Storage conditions
 When kernels are  Using hands.  Store in dry place.

hard/dry.  Using a combine  Free from pests.
 When silk turns brown. harvester/ machine.  Store in a cool, well
 When cobs hang ventilated place.
downwards.  Clean place.
 When grains are hard.
 When leaves turns
brown.
Explain reasons for the suitability of cereal crops to local conditions
Millet/sorghum
 Drought resistance/adapted to extreme heat and drought experienced in the area;

 Has a short growing period as Namibia/the area receive seasonal rainfall;
 It does not require more water/regular rainfall during the growing season
Maize
 It require high temperature experienced in the area

 It requires a lot of sunshine/cloudless sky making it suitable as Namibia receives so much
sunshine;
 Require high rainfall thus grow well in North-eastern Namibia where rainfall is higher;
 Prefers alluvial soil (clay) found in North-east of Namibia where it is mostly planted.
Rice/wheat
 Prefers alluvial soil (clay) found in North-east of Namibia where it is mostly planted
 Requires a lot of water making it suitable to grow in the area as it receives high rainfall
 Requires cooler temperatures experienced in the area
 Requires a lot of sunshine/cloudless sky making it suitable as Namibia receives so much
sunshine.

SUITABLE CULTIVARS
Explain what is meant by a cultivar
Cultivar is the variety of crop that has been developed for its desired characteristics.
Cultivar is a variety of a plant produced by selective breeding for its needed characteristics.
Identify specific cultivars of a chosen crop
Cultivars of maize grown in Namibia

 Kalahari Early Pearl (90-105 days to mature).
 Potchefstroom Pearl (125-105 days to mature).
State reasons for choosing a particular cultivars
 Short growing period/mature early.

 High yield.
 Good quality products.
 Resistant to pests and diseases.
 Adapted to local conditions/adaptability.
 Resistant to drought.
Crop Protection
 Pest control
Weeds, insects and other pests, plant diseases and mineral deficiency frequently limit the
development of crop plants; this causes a reduction in the yield and quality of the produce. The
losses due to pests, diseases and weeds are very substantial mostly in tropical and sub-tropical
countries, where high temperature and humidity in these areas facilitate the rapid and constant
multiplication of the pests and diseases more than in temperate countries. To reduce these pests,
weeds and diseases to a lower population, crop protection has now become one of the key
aspects of crop cultivation.
Describe the following types of pest and the nature of the damage they cause:
a. Biting and chewing: These are insect pests whose mouth part is adapted for biting and
chewing by possessing strong mandible and maxillae (mouth-parts) which enable

them to bite and chew plant parts. Examples include: termites, grasshoppers, leaf
worms, army worms, locusts, beetles, etc.
Army worms in action
Picture by: Simaimbula R
Mouth part of a Biting and Chewing insect pest.
Damage caused:
The damage caused by the biting and chewing insects includes: making holes in the leaves or
stems; semicircular holes along the edges of the leaves; discolouration on the surface or the

edges of the foliage/ leaf and flower petal; severed stems and leaves; and plant wilting hence
reducing the process of photosynthesis.
1. Piecing and Sucking:
The mouthparts of sucking insects are developed for piercing and sucking. These pests damage
plants by inserting their mouthparts into plant tissue and removing juices. Heavily infested plants
become yellow, wilted, deformed or stunted, and may eventually die. Their mouth parts are
pointed like a needle very sharp and adapted to pierce and then suck out cell sap or juice in
plants. e.g aphids, mealy bugs.
aphids
2. Boring pests:
Boring insects are serious pests that can severely endanger plant health and kill it. Many of
the boring insects that attack crops are in the insect order Coleoptera or beetle family
of insects. These pests have a mouth mainly adapted to create a hole or tunnel inside the stalk
or fruit and even seeds of a plant. The damage caused by these pests is such that they tunnel
and feed under the bark inside the stem, destroying water- and sap-conducting tissues.

3. Soil pests.
Soil pests are harmful pests which include snails, sciara fly, nematodes and eel worms. During
their life cycle, all these organisms have one or more stages in which they parasitise on the plant
roots. In addition to this 'underground' damage they also cause damage to above-ground parts.
These pests reside in the soil. They cause so much damage especially the roots of crops, mainly
tomatoes, these pests cut off the connective tissues like xylem and phloem vessels.
Describe the methods of controlling pests, weeds and diseases including: Biological, chemical
and cultural.
(a). Biological: this is a method in which pests, weeds and diseases are controlled using other
living organisms. Mainly natural enemies or control agents are introduced.
Birds are a natural enemy of the cutworms so a farm with a healthy bird life may not suffer from
the damaging effects of the cutworms. However, birds may tend to be pests on the other hand.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Easy to control specific organisms At times the enemy may eat crops instead
Effective Does not remove the pests entirely
Cost effective in the long term Expensive to start
(b). Chemical method. This is a method of controlling pests using chemicals called pesticides.
Pesticides are any chemicals that kill, repel or prevent pests, weed and diseases from the any
damage.

herbicides: these are chemicals used to kill weeds
insecticides: these are chemicals used to kill pests
Examples:
 Non- selective herbicides/pesticides- these affects a wide range of weeds.
 Selective herbicides/pesticides- kills some plants but not others.
The ways in which different types of herbicides affects weeds
 Systemic herbicides/ pesticides: the chemicals are absorbed into the plant sap and move
throughout the plant, through the vascular system. This disrupts normal growth and
function which then kills the weeds or pests.
 Contact herbicides/pesticides: these are toxic to plant tissue with which they come into
contact. The chemical enters the stomata by diffusion causing the plant to gradually die.
Soil Sterilents: these are applied to the soil and prevent the emergence of weeds for some time.
They are absorbed by the roots of the plants and enter plant tissue and kill the weed.
Quick or rapid effect
Guaranteed efficient and effectiveness It is expensive to buy chemicals
Large areas are covered within a short time Labour intensive in applying chemicals on
large fields
Easy to use May result in pollution of water and soil,
making them unsuitable for use
Prevents the return of pests Can result into chemical resistant for pests
Kills specific pests It kills beneficial insects
Boosts the growth of plants as they are free Excessive use of chemicals may lead to poor
from damage crop yield

Cultural method: this is method of controlling pests, weeds and diseases using traditional and
locally available environment friendly means. This may include methods such as, crop rotation,
deep ploughing, careful selection of varieties to grow, etc. This helps in reducing pests through
preventing a buildup of a number of pests over a period of time and sometimes breaking their
lifestyles
It is environmental friendly as it cannot cause Pests cannot be eradicated completely at once
any pollution to the environment
No much costs encountered Effective only for a single type of pest.
Safe for most crops Detailed knowledge of pest and crops is
needed.
Describe integrated pest management as an ecosystem based strategy which focuses on long
term prevention of pests or their damage through a combination of techniques
Integrated pest management. IPM is a combination of all well-known pest, weed and disease
control methods. This method is based on a strategy to prevent the loss of both crops from pest,
weed and disease attack. IPM uses information about the pest, weed and disease and the
environment to plan that includes all the known methods. The aim of IPM is to minimize at the
lowest cost and with the least amount of damage to the environment, properties and people.
Promotes sound structures and healthy crops Are extremely complex and require a high
level of understanding to utilize
Promotes sustainable bio-based pest Involves a lot of time
management alternatives
Reduces environmental risk associated Are sometimes more costly than traditional
with pest management by encouraging the methods of spraying pesticides
adoption of more ecologically benign control
tactics.

DISEASE CONTROL
Describe the mode of infection, harmful effects, prevention and control of one plant disease
A disease refers to any sickness that affects the normal functioning of an organism. Diseases can
be grouped according to the organism that causes them namely: bacteria, fungi, and virus.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Bacteria are said to be very small single celled organisms. Bacteria differs in so many ways some
are beneficial for example the nitrogen fixing bacteria which are more beneficial for plant
growth. Some other bacteria are used to make yoghurt and beer. However, there are some
bacteria that can cause diseases to crops and humans. The table below shows some common
examples of bacterial diseases.
DISEASES MODE OF INFECTION HARMFUL EFFECTS PREVENTION

Bacterial The bacteria lives in moist soils. The bacteria block the xylem No chemical control method
wilt They move through roots to the and phloem in the stem exists. The infected plant
stem of the plant. preventing the movement of must be removed
both water and manufacture immediately.
food and the plant eventually Cultural control method is the
dies. best e.g. crop rotation.
Bacterial The bacteria are found in crop The leaves of the plants Plant resistant varieties.
Blight residues and can be transmitted develop yellow spots that Rotate the crops.
through seeds. turn brown reducing Use clean seeds only.
photosynthesis.
Black rot The bacteria survive in seeds, The leaves of the plant go Use only clean seeds,
once a plant is infected, the brown and then black and Use clean transplanted
bacteria move between plants in the plant may die. seedlings.
splashes of water. Use crop rotation and cultural
The bacteria also move through methods.
transplanted seedlings.

FUNGAL DISEASES;
A Fungus is a small, spore-producing organism that decomposes organic materials.

Damping off. Soil- borne. The fungus Seeds and seedlings rot Do not plant old seeds
can be carried in tools and beneath the soil. Plants Do not overcrowd seedlings.
any soil that is moved. germinate but after a while Plant seeds at a
they become soaked and fall recommended depth and
over then die. distance apart.
Downy Soil borne. The fungus Plant leaves develops a Grow resistant varieties
mildew spends winter in the soil yellow to white stripes Do not plant sorghum near
and then infects seedlings covered in a white downy sugar cane.
planted in the soil. layer.
Maize and A fungal disease of cereals The tassels and ears of Plant resistant varieties
sorghum in which parts of the ear cereals are deformed and Fertilize soil well
smut change to black powder kernels do not form on cobs. Treat seeds with a fungicide
Plants have stunted growth (a chemical that destroys
and some yield fungus).
VIRAL DISEASES;
A virus is a very small agent or parasite that is able to multiply (reproduce itself) within the cells
of living organisms or hosts. The following are a list of viral diseases.
DISEASE MODE OF INFECTION HARMFUL PREVENTION

EFFECTS
Mosaic Virus Mosaic Virus is transported by Plant leaves change Plant resistant variety
aphids and affects mostly sugar colour, become Control aphid biologically by
cane, maize, and sorghum. stunted unable to encouraging ladybird beetles.
produce and can even
die.

Maize streak virus Transmitted between crops by Stunted growth in Plant early
insects, e.g. leaf hoppers; they plants Apply NPK
lay infected eggs on maize Remove all infected plants.
leaves and when they hatch they
feed on the crop and infect it.
Rosette virus Aphids spread this disease by Leaves turn yellow Plant resistant variety
feeding on an infected plant then resulting into stunted Crop rotations help.
move to another healthy plant growth. Destroy all the debris or crop
hence infecting it. remains after harvest.
WEED CONTROL
Identify a named weed species affecting crops in Namibia
A weed is a plant that grows where it is not wanted and mostly tend to be in a competition with
cultivated crops.
Investigate and describe its harmful effects and the mode of spread
EXAMPLE HARMFUL EFFECTS MODE OF EXPLANATION

SPREAD
Dandelion Compete for: Nutrients, water, Wind Weeds that are spread by the wind
sunlight, resulting to poor yield. are light and easily blown or carried
away.
Mangroves Compete for: Nutrients, water, Water Such weeds float on water and are
sunlight, resulting to poor yield. carried somewhere else.
Downy thorn Compete for: Nutrients, water, Animal digestion Such seeds have a hard cover so as to
apple sunlight, resulting to poor yield. pass through the animal’s digestive
tract and be excreted
Black jack Compete for: Nutrients, water, Catching on clothes Such weeds are spread by catching on
sunlight, resulting to poor yield. and skin of people the fur and clothing of animals and
and animals. humans respectively.

Spotted Compete for: Nutrients, water, Mechanical means Such weed seeds explode and scatter
knapweed sunlight, resulting to poor yield. to far directions.
Effective Does not remove the pests entirely

Cost effective in the long term Expensive to start
(b).Chemical method. This is a method of controlling pests using chemicals called pesticides.
Pesticides are any chemicals that kill, repel or prevent pests, weed and diseases from the any
damage.
Herbicides: these are chemicals used to kill weeds
Insecticides: these are chemicals used to kill pests
Examples:
 Non- selective herbicides/pesticides- these affects a wide range of weeds.
 Selective herbicides/pesticides- kills some plants but not others.
 Systemic herbicides/ pesticides: the chemicals are absorbed into the plant sap and move
throughout the plant, through the vascular system. This disrupts normal growth and
function which then kills the weeds or pests.
 Contact herbicides/pesticides: these are toxic to plant tissue with which they come into
contact. The chemical enters the stomata by diffusion causing the plant to gradually die.
Soil Sterilents: these are applied to the soil and prevent the emergence of weeds for some time.
They are absorbed by the roots of the plants and enter plant tissue and kill the weed.
Quick or rapid effect
Guaranteed efficient and effectiveness It is expensive to buy chemicals

Large areas are covered within a short time Labour intensive in applying chemicals on large fields
Easy to use May result in pollution of water and soil, making them
unsuitable for use
Prevents the return of pests Can result into chemical resistant for pests
Kills specific pests It kills beneficial insects
Boosts the growth of plants as they are free from Excessive use of chemicals may lead to poor crop yield
damage
Cultural method: this is method of controlling pests, weeds and diseases using traditional and
locally available environment friendly means. This may include methods such as, crop rotation,
deep ploughing, careful selection of varieties to grow, etc. This helps in reducing pests through
preventing a buildup of a number of pests over a period of time and sometimes breaking their
lifestyles.
It is environmental friendly as it cannot cause Pests cannot be eradicated completely at once
any pollution to the environment
No much costs encountered Effective only for a single type of pest.
Safe for most crops Detailed knowledge of pest and crops is
needed.
Integrated pest management. IPM is a combination of all well-known pest, weed and disease
control methods. This method is based on a strategy to prevent the loss of both crops from pest,
weed and disease attack. IPM uses information about the pest, weed and disease and the
environment to plan that includes all the known methods. The aim of IPM is to minimize at the
lowest cost and with the least amount of damage to the environment, properties and people.
 Promotes sound structures and healthy crops 1. More involvement in the technicalities of the
 Promotes sustainable bio-based pest method
management alternatives  IPM needs to be planned

 Reduces environmental risk associated  IPM demands more attention and dedication
 Requires expertise of various field
with pest management by encouraging the
 All those involved in the IPM needs to be educated
adoption of more ecologically benign and trained which often requires much time.
control tactics.
2. Time and energy consuming
 Application of IPM takes time.
 Much time is needed in planning itself.
 As IPM strategies differs from region to region, a
separate plan is required for each region.
 The expected results of intervention may take long
time to be achieved.
Challenges in IPM:
 Financial constraints in initiation of the IPM
 Lack of involvement of the expertise
 Inadequate research on pests
 Lack of supportive government and policies
 In developing countries where traditional farming is
still practiced, farmers are unknown to the concept of
IPM as well as IPM seems difficult to practice
DISEASE CONTROL
A disease refers to any sickness that affects the normal functioning of an organism. Diseases can
be grouped according to the organism that causes them namely: bacteria, fungi, and virus.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Bacteria are said to be very small single celled organisms. Bacteria differs in so many ways some
are beneficial for example the nitrogen fixing bacteria which are more beneficial for plant
growth. Some other bacteria are used to make yoghurt and beer. However, there are some
bacteria that can cause diseases to crops and humans. The table below shows some common
examples of bacterial diseases.

Bacterial wilt The bacteria live in moist The bacteria block the xylem No chemical control method
soils. They move through and phloem in the stem exists. The infected plant
roots to the stem of the preventing the movement of must be removed
plant. both water and manufacture immediately.
food and the plant eventually Cultural control method is
dies. the best e.g. crop rotation.
Bacterial Blight The bacteria are found in The leaves of the plants Plant resistant varieties.
crop residues and can be develop yellow spots that Rotate the crops.
transmitted through seeds. turn brown reducing Use clean seeds only.
photosynthesis.
Black rot The bacteria survive in The leaves of the plant go Use only clean seeds,
seeds, once a plant is brown and then black and Use clean transplanted
infected, the bacteria move the plant may die. seedlings.
between plants in splashes Use crop rotation and
of water. cultural methods.
The bacteria also move
through transplanted
seedlings.
FUNGAL DISEASES;
A Fungus is a small, spore-producing organism that decomposes organic materials.

Damping off. Soil- borne. The fungus Seeds and seedlings rot Do not plant old seeds
can be carried in tools and beneath the soil. Plants Do not overcrowd seedlings.
any soil that is moved. germinate but after a while Plant seeds at a recommended
they become soaked and depth and distance apart.
fall over then die.

Downy mildew Soil borne. The fungus Plant leaves develops a Grow resistant varieties
spends winter in the soil yellow to white stripes Do not plant sorghum near
and then infects seedlings covered in a white downy sugar cane.
planted in the soil. layer.
Maize and A fungal disease of The tassels and ears of Plant resistant varieties
sorghum smut cereals in which parts of cereals are deformed and Fertilize soil well
the ear change to black kernels do not form on Treat seeds with a fungicide (a
powder cobs. Plants have stunted chemical that destroys
growth and some yield fungus).
VIRAL DISEASES;
A virus is a very small agent or parasite that is able to multiply (reproduce itself) within the cells
of living organisms or hosts. The following are a list of viral diseases.
DISEASE MODE OF HARMFUL PREVENTION

INFECTION EFFECTS
Mosaic Virus Mosaic Virus is Plant leaves change Plant resistant variety
transported by aphids colour, become Control aphid
and affects mostly stunted unable to biologically by
sugar cane, maize, produce and can even encouraging ladybird
and sorghum. die. beetles.
Maize streak virus Transmitted between Stunted growth in Plant early
crops by insects, e.g. plants Apply NPK
leaf hoppers; they lay Remove all infected
infected eggs on plants.
maize leaves and
when they hatch they
feed on the crop and
infect it.

Rosette virus Aphids spread this Leaves turn yellow Plant resistant variety
disease by feeding on resulting into stunted Crop rotations help.
an infected plant then growth. Destroy all the debris
move to another or crop remains after
healthy plant hence harvest.
infecting it.
WEEDS
A weed is a plant that grows where it is not wanted and mostly tends to be in a competition with
cultivated crops.
EXAMPLE HARMFUL DISPERSAL EXPLANATION

EFFECTS
Dandelion Compete for: Wind Weeds that are spread
Nutrients, water, by the wind are light
sunlight, resulting to and easily blown or
poor yield. carried away.
Mangroves Compete for: Water Such weeds float on
Nutrients, water, water and are carried
sunlight, resulting to somewhere else.
poor yield.
Downy thorn apple Compete for: Animal digestion Such seeds have a
Nutrients, water, hard cover so as to
sunlight, resulting to pass through the
poor yield. animal’s digestive
tract and be excreted
Black jack Compete for: Catching on clothes Such weeds are
and skin of people spread by catching on
and animals. the fur and clothing

Nutrients, water, of animals and
sunlight, resulting to humans respectively.
poor yield.
Spotted knapweed Compete for: Mechanical means Such weed seeds
Nutrients, water, explode and scatter to
sunlight, resulting to far directions.
poor yield.
Describe biological, cultural and chemical weed control
Various methods of weed control
CULTURAL CONTROL
• Use of clean seeds- Crop seeds should be free from weed seeds.
• Early planting- plant crop earlier before weeds emerges.
• Good crop cover- correct spacing, easy to apply mulch this over shadow the weeds.
• Mulching- a mulch prevents weed from growing.
• Crop rotations- some weeds grow well with certain crops but not with others
• Burning
• Seedbed preparation-this ensures that weeds are removed and no weed seeds are allowed to
germinate and be transplanted.
MECHANICAL CONTROL:
This refers to any physical activity that removes or prevents weed growth.
• Cultivation practices such as ploughing-help to burry weeds.
• hand weeding- pull out weeds with hands cannot damage the crops.
• Harrowing- will destroy any weed seedling that have germinated and emerged since ploughing.
• Burning-Controlled fire can be used to remove weeds that have accumulated in an area.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

-introduce pests that destroy the weeds.
-Using bacteria or viruses that cause diseases in the weeds only.
-Introducing living organisms like grazing animals to feed on weeds.
CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL
HERBICIDES: THESE ARE CHEMICALS USED TO KILL WEEDS

Examples:
• Non- selective herbicides- these affects a wide range of weeds.
• Selective herbicides- kill some plants but not others.
• Systemic herbicides: the herbicides is sprayed on the plant leaves
It is absorbed into the plant system and move through the plant vascular system.
It is translocated throughout the plant, this disrupts normal growth and kills the plants.
• Contact herbicides: these are toxic to plant tissue with which they come into contact. The
chemical enters the stomata by diffusion causing the plant to gradually die.
• Soil Sterilents: these are applied to the soil and prevent the emergence of weeds for some time.
They are absorbed by the roots of the plants and enter plant tissue and kill the plant.
Discuss the cost and effectiveness of the methods of weed control.
• Not all methods of weed control are the same in terms of cost and time

THEME 4: LIVESTOCK HUSBANDRY
4.1 Principles of livestock production
4.1.1 Livestock anatomy
Describe the structure of the digestive system of a named ruminant and a named non-
ruminant (not poultry)
Digestive system of ruminant
Parts and functions
Mouth
: Consists of lips, teeth and tongue
: Food is cut and chewed by teeth (mechanical digestion)
: Mix food with saliva
Oesophagus/Gullet
: A tube that connects the mouth and the rumen
: Transport food from the mouth to rumen

Rumen
: Food is churned/mixed/soaked in the digestive/gastric juice
: Bacteria/micro-organisms digest/break down cellulose
: The process of microbial digestion is by fermentation
Reticulum
: Food is rolled into bollus
: Objects such as wires are taken out of food
: Food is regurgitated back to the mouth for final chewing
Omasum
: Food is churned and squeezed separating water from food
Abomasum
: Is the true stomach where the normal process of digestion is carried out by digestive juice
containing enzymes (chemical digestion)
: Gastric juices in the abomasum are acidic
Liver
: Produce bile which is stored in the gall bladder
Gall bladder
: To store bile
Bile
: To emulsify/break down fats into fatty acid
: To neutralize poisonous substances in food
: Help food to be more alkaline to enable the pancreatic enzymes to break down carbohydrates,
fats and proteins
Pancreas
: Produces pancreatic juice which contains enzymes that further digests food into soluble
substances

: These juices contain enzymes such as:
Amylase digests starch into glucose
Lipase digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Protease digests protein into amino acids
Small intestine (consists of duodenum and ileum)
Duodenum
: Produces enzymes that breaks down food into soluble substances (the form in which food can
be absorbed and used by the cells of the body)
Ileum
: Walls of ileum have glands that secretes intestinal juices
: These juices contains enzymes that finalizes the process of digestion
: The walls of the ileum also have a large number of finger-like projections called villi that
increase the surface area for absorption
: The finger-like projections absorb the nutrients into the blood stream.
Caecum
: Contains bacteria that digests undigested cellulose in ruminants
Large intestine
Colon
: Absorb water from the undigested food materials into the blood stream
Rectum
: Stores faeces temporarily before they are passed out through the anus
Anus
: A passage way for faeces

Digestive system of a non-ruminant
For all the parts not mentioned here refer to ruminant animal
Mouth
: Consists of lips, teeth and tongue
: The teeth break down food (mechanical digestion)
: The tongue mixes food with the saliva which contains enzymes
: The tongue rolls food into bolus for easy swallowing
Oesophagus/gullet
: A muscular tube that runs from the mouth and leads to the stomach
: Moves food from the mouth to the stomach through peristalsis
Stomach
: The stomach is a sac-like organ that store food
: The stomach is lined with glands that secretes gastric juices which contains hydrochloric acid
and the enzymes pepsin which is mixed with food

: From the stomach food is in form of chyme
: the chyme passes through a ring of muscles called sphincter which control the amount of chyme
going into the upper part of the small intestine called duodenum
Duodenum: walls of duodenum do not have any glands but receives secretions from the liver and
the pancreas
Describe the structure of the reproductive system of a named farm animal (not poultry)
The reproductive organs of bull
Parts and functions
Scrotum
: A bag hanging outside the body in which testis are contained
: Provide the right temperature for sperm production
: To protect the testis
Testis

: To produce sperm cells/male sex cells
: To produce a male hormone called testosterone
Epididymis
: A coiled tube that surrounds the testicles
: To store mature sperms
Sperm duct/vas deferens
: Starts from epididymis and connects to the urethra
: Transport sperms to the seminal vesicle
Glands
: Includes seminal vesicles, prostate and Cowper’s glands
: To produce fluid
: Fluids provides nourishment for the sperms
: Fluids also help the sperms to swim
Urethra
: Passage of semen and urine
Penis
: Deposit semen into the vagina during mating
: For passing urine
The reproductive organs of a cow

Parts and functions
Ovary
: To produce egg cells/ova/female sex cells
: To produce female hormones that includes Oestrogen and progesterone
Oviduct/fallopian tubes
: An organ where fertilization take place
: Tube through which an egg cell moves during ovulation
Uterus
: Where the fertilized egg cell (zygote) implants itself
: Where the zygote develops into the fetus and grow until birth
Cervix
: To prevent disease causing organisms from entering the uterus
: To separate the uterus from vagina
Vagina
: Place where sperms are deposited during mating
: Is a passage through which the fetus comes out during birth
Vulva
: It guides the penis into the vagina during mating

: It also contains the exit point of urine
4.1.2 Livestock Physiology
Describe the processes of digestion and absorption in the alimentary canal of a ruminant and
non-ruminant
Ruminant animal
Process of digestion
Definition: Digestion-is the process in which insoluble food eaten by animals are broken down
into soluble compounds which can be used by the cells of the body.
Mouth
: The mouth consists of the lips, teeth and tongue
: In the mouth food is mixed with saliva from salivary gland
: The teeth break down the solid part of the food (mechanical digestion)
: The food is rolled into a ball-like structure called bollus by the tongue
Oesophagus/Gullet
Oesophagus-is a muscular tubal that starts from the back of the mouth and leads to the stomach
: Transports food by peristalsis from the mouth to the stomach through the contraction and
relaxation of the muscles
Rumen
: Food is churned/mixed in digestive juices
: Micro-organisms such as bacteria break down cellulose
: The process of microbial digestion is by fermentation
Reticulum
: Objects such as wires or nails are taken out of food
: Food is rolled into bolus

: Food is regurgitated back to the mouth for final chewing and grinding
Omasum
: Churning and squeezing of food takes place here
: Separate water from food
: Fine digested food is then pushed to the abomasum
Abomasum
: Digestion is carried out by digestive juices containing enzymes
: This is the true stomach as the digestion of food here is similar to the way food is digested in
the stomach of a non-ruminant animal
: Hydrochloric acid creates suitable medium for pepsin
: Hydrochloric acid destroy germs
Digestion in the small intestine
: Digestion in the first part of the small intestine (duodenum) is done by means of digestive
juices containing enzymes secreted by the pancreas and the liver
: The pancreas produces pancreatic juices containing enzymes that digest proteins, carbohydrates
and fats
: While the liver produces bile which is stored in the gall bladder and helps the food to be more
alkaline to enable pancreatic enzymes to break down carbohydrates, proteins and fats
: Bile also emulsifies/breaks fats into fat acids
: The second part of the small intestine is the ileum
: The walls of the ileum produce intestinal juices containing enzymes that finalizes the digestion
of food
: The enzymes digest proteins, carbohydrates and fats
: The end products of digestion are amino acids, glucose, fatty acids and glycerol
The process of absorption

: Once the food has been completely digested, it is now in a soluble form that the animal’s body
can use
: These soluble end products are absorbed into the body through the blood in the ileum
: The walls of the ileum is made of millions finger-like projection called villi
: The villi increase the surface area in which food is absorbed
Digestion in caecum
: Caecum has no basic function in non-ruminant
: In herbivores such as rabbits it helps to digest cellulose
Digestion in the colon-large intestine
: Water from semi-solid products are reabsorbed by the blood stream
: The solid products are passed to the rectum as waste products
The rectum
: The waste products called faeces are stored here until they are passed out of the body through
the anus
The anus
: The faeces are passed out of the body through the anus
The processes of digestion and absorption in the non-ruminants
Mouth
: In the mouth digestion involves the chewing of food by the teeth
: Mixing food with saliva
: Food is then swallowed and move through the oesophagus to the stomach

: The chemical digestion is done by enzymes from the pancreas and enzymes from gastric juices
from the stomach
: These enzymes break down food such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats into glucose, amino
acids, fatty acids and glycerol
The process of absorption
: Soluble substances are absorbed through the villi in the ileum of the small intestine into the
blood stream
: Absorption of water occurs in the colon which is the large intestine
Explain the significance of micro-organisms and enzymes in the digestive system of ruminants
Micro-organisms
: Are bacteria found in rumen
: They break down cellulose/plant cell walls
: Into simple sugar/smaller substances for easy absorption
Enzymes
: Are biological catalysts
: They speed up chemical reactions
: They break down large insoluble food substances into soluble food substances for easy
absorption
Describe the role of the male and female hormones in the reproductive systems of farm
animals
Male hormone
Testosterone
: Encourage sexual urge/male characteristics
: Aid sperm production
: Allow the mature male to grow bigger in size than the female

: Helps with the male features e.g. shape and height
Female hormones
Oestrogen
: Working of the oestrus cycle/aid ovulation
: Promote female characteristics
: Promote repair of the uterus lining
Progesterone
: Prepares uterus for embryo/implantation
: Stops release of eggs/ovulation
: maintains uterus lining
: Stimulate the development of the udder
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
: Stimulates the development of follicle
: Stimulates Oestrogen production by follicles
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
: Aid with ovulation
: Stimulates the production of progesterone by each corpus luteum
Describe the oestrus cycle, signs of heat, heat periods and gestation
Oestrus cycle- the interval between heat periods
Stages of the oestrus cycle:
1. Proestrus (lasts 1-3 days before the cow comes on heat)

2. Oestrus (the heat period of the cow)
3. Metoestrus (lasts 3-4 days directly after oestrus)
4. Dioestrus (lasts 12-15 days in the middle of the cycle

Signs of heat
: Drop in milk production
: A cow stands when mounted
: Presence of clear mucus
: Swelling and reddening of the vulva
: Restlessness
Gestation period – refers to the period of pregnancy from fertilization until birth.
Gestation period of different animals
Animal Gestation period in days

Cow 280
Pig-sow 114
Sheep/goats-ewes 150
Discuss the advantages of artificial insemination
Artificial insemination – refers to the process in which a farmer uses semen that was collected
from a bull and place it into the uterus of a cow using an insemination gun in order to achieve
conception.

Advantages of AI Disadvantages of AI
Semen from exotic bulls can be used It is expensive process
It is safer for female as there is less harm Requires skilled inseminator
It is cheaper than keeping a bull Difficulty to identify oestrus periods
Semen can be used even after the death of the Requires cooling facilities to store semen
bull
Prevent the spread of venereal diseases in
animals
Describe the processes of fertilization and birth in a named farm animal (not poultry)
Process of fertilization
: The process through which the male and female gametes fuse and form a zygote
: It takes place in the oviduct/fallopian tube
: The zygote which later develops into an embryo and implanted into the uterus of female for
further development
Process of birth
: Uterine walls contracts
: Cervix loosens/relax/widens
: The amniotic sac bursts and releases amniotic fluid
: The calf comes out through the vagina, with the front legs first
Define lactation
Lactation – refers to the period when the female animal produces milk.
Explain the importance of colostrum
Colostrum – refers to the first milk produced by the mother immediately after giving birth
Importance of colostrum
: Rich in protein and milk fats
: Contains antibodies which help increase immunity of a calf against diseases

: It is a laxative that helps the calf to expel its first dung
Explain what is meant by weaning
Weaning – refers to a transition from milk diet to a solid diet
Or
When the young animal stop suckling milk from the mother and move to solid diet.
Explain how breeding cycles can be managed to increase yield from farm animals
: Importance of keeping records
: Calves to be born the same time to exploit the market
: Calves should be born during the rainy season when there is enough grass
: To make sure that cows have food to produce milk
: Animals must be in good condition for mating
: Cows are mated three months after birth
4.1.3 Livestock Nutrition
State the sources and functions of the following nutrients: carbohydrates, protein, fat,
vitamins, minerals, fibre and water
Food nutrients, functions and sources
Nutrient Functions sources

Carbohydrates : Provide the animal with energy Concentrate feeds: corn, sorghum,
: Energy storage wheat
Roughages: ordinary hay
Proteins : For growth Soya beans, sunflowers, lucerne, fish
: For reproduction and production meal
: Repair worn out tissues
Fats and oils : Major sources of energy Oilseed cakes, fish meal, soya beans
: Energy storage

Vitamins : NB Are needed to maintain health Most vitamins are supplied by green
: Vitamin A helps animals to resist diseases and for feeds
healthy eyes Vitamin D is supplied by direct
: Vitamin C keeps animal’s skin in good condition sunlight
: Vitamin E to maintain fertility
Minerals : NB Are needed for normal growth and Mineral licks
development
: Calcium and phosphorus are needed for bones and
teeth formation
: Iron forms an essential part of haemoglobin
Fibre : Prevent constipation Maize stalk
: Aid bowel movement Hay
Silage
Dry grass
Importance of water
 Dissolves food substances

 Absorption of nutrients
 Regulating body temperature
 For metabolic process
 Helps in digestion process
 Helps with excretion of waste products
 To transport food substances
Differentiate between the types of animal supplementary feeds: concentrates, roughages,

including their formulation, quality and dangers of contamination
Concentrates – contains a high percentage of digestible nutrients but low in bulk e.g. cake and
cotton meal
Main reasons for concentrate feeding are:
: To improve livestock productivity
: To promote better utilization of roughage in ruminant animals
Types of concentrates
 Carbohydrate-rich concentrate e.g. cereal grains, corn, barley, wheat and oats
 Protein-rich concentrate e.g. soya bean meal, cottonseed meal, peanuts, cotton seed and
sunflower seeds
Formulation of concentrates

 By making a base mix, that can be fed to all animals you save time and money.
 Two thirds of the mix is made from grains like paddy, maize, sorghum and millet.
 One third of the mix should be rich in protein and fats. Mill the base mix into a coarse
flour.
 Depending on the type of animal, you then need to add a few other ingredients
Roughage
 contains a high percentage of bulk but low in nutrients e.g. hay and green fodder, silage
Roughages are also known as fibre
 Prevent constipation
 Aid bowel movement
Quality and dangers of contamination of animal feed
Contaminated feeds can lead to:
 Abortion
 Death of a calf shortly after birth
 Birth defects in calves
 Diarrhea
Prevention of feed contamination
 Control of the micro-organisms or diseases

 Testing of feeds whenever there is a decline in performance and heath of animals
 Management of contaminated feeds by diluting the contaminated feeds with clean feeds
before use
Discuss the importance of supplementary feeding
 Increase the fertility of an animal

 Increase the amount of products like meat, milk, eggs
 Shorten the time for next mating
 For growth and development
 Prevents deficiency diseases in animals
Describe the change in nutritive value of forage with age
Note: The nutritional value of forage declines with age
 Young forage at early growing stage has a high nutritive value, high protein and highly
palatable

 During the growing season the nutritive value decreases, the forage becomes drier and
less palatable and fibre content increases
 Annual grasses lose their nutritive value fast with age
 Perennial grasses keep their nutritive value throughout the growing season
Describe the nutritional content and feeding practices, including the importance of a
balanced ration, maintenance ration, production ration and the importance of adequate water
supply
 Balanced ration-is a mixture of food containing all the essential nutrients the animal
needs in the right amount.
Importance of balanced ration
 It is needed for normal growth

 For development of its body
 Keeps the animal health
 It is required for reproduction
 It is also needed for production
Maintenance ration
 a ration that contains sufficient nutrients for the animal to stay in good health and to keep
all its body processes functioning without losing weight
Production ration
 -s extra food given to an animal for additional output or to produce more products such as
milk, meat, eggs, offspring
Importance of adequate water supply
 Dissolves food substances

 Absorption of nutrients
 Regulating body temperature
 For Metabolic process
 Helps in digestion process
 Helps with excretion of waste products

 To transport food substances
Outline the suitability of different rations to the ages of development of livestock
Class of livestock Type of feed

Young animals : Still active growing
: Need extra proteins to grow and calcium for bone
formation
Pregnant animals : Need extra proteins to produce the fetus
Nursing mothers/lactating : Need more proteins, carbohydrates and calcium for
milk production
Mature animals : Need less protein, more carbohydrates and fats to
maintain good health
Working animals such as oxen : Need more carbohydrates for energy to do work
Describe the symptoms of nutrient deficiency in farm animals and describe appropriate
corrective measures for nutrient deficiencies in farm animals
Nutritional/deficiency diseases-are diseases caused by lack of certain nutrients in an animal’s

ration
Nutrient Symptoms of nutrient Corrective measures

deficiency
Calcium and phosphorus : Weak bones and general : Supply animals with mineral
weakness lick
: Slow growth
: low milk production
Vitamin E : Low fertility : Supply animals with oilseed
: Placenta does not come out cake
after birth
: Difficulty in standing and
walking
Vitamin K : Slow blood clotting : Injecting an animal with
vitamin K
Vitamin A : Decreased appetite : Injecting an animal with
: Reduced growth vitamin A
: Watery eyes and poor night : Supply good quality fodder
vision mixture
Vitamin D : Abnormalities in bone : Injecting an animal with
formation vitamin D
4.1.4 Pasture and range management

Explain what is meant by the term pasture and range management
 Pasture is grazing land for livestock

 Range management is the use of grazing land to ensure consistent livestock production
while conserving resources
Discuss the methods of pasture and range management, including their advantages and
disadvantages
Extensive grazing system
: Animals graze in large open areas where they look for their own food
: These areas can be enclosed, such as a very large camp on a farm or unenclosed as in the rural
areas
: Animals are free to move where they want and sometimes looked after by herd boys
Advantages and disadvantages of extensive grazing system
Advantages Disadvantages
Cheaper as the area is not fenced Easy spread of diseases
It is easy for livestock to find fresh pasture It may result into poor grazing management
Overgrazing may result due to overstocking
Intensive grazing system
 Animals are enclosed in small camps

 And are provided with feeds and water
 Pests and diseases when detected on animals are taken care of
 Pasture is not overgrazed as it is well taken care of
Advantages and disadvantages of intensive grazing system
Production is high Very expensive in terms of buying fencing
materials
Animals are well fed high standard of management is required
Control pests and diseases
Rotational grazing

 Animals graze in one camp until the grazing is finished
 They then move to another camp to allow the camp to recover/regrow
Advantages and disadvantages of rotational grazing
Allow camps to recover/regrow Expensive to buy fencing material
Prevent overgrazing/selective grazing Expensive to buy feeds and medicine
Control pests and diseases High standard of management is required
Always food available
Improve the productivity of veld
Continuous grazing
 Animals graze anywhere they want to
Advantages and disadvantages of continuous grazing
Animals are free to search for food at all Can lead to overgrazing
times
Pasture never have chance to recover
Zero grazing
 Animals are not allowed to graze in paddock

 The farmer cuts the grass or buys and feed the animal
Advantages and disadvantages of zero grazing
All grass on pasture can be utilized Expensive to purchase feeds
Pests and diseases are controlled More labour may be required in cutting grass
Less energy used by the animal Animals may be forced to eat grass that has
lost value
Type of feed can easily be changed by the
farmer

Describe the vegetation of grazing lands in Namibia, including grasses and legumes for
grazing and bushes for browsing
: In Namibia the vegetation for grazing is made up of perennial and annual grass materials
: The vegetation consists of a mixture of palatable and unpalatable grass
Examples of grazing grass are:
 Finger grass
 Pinhole grass
 Guinea grass
 Shrubs, trees and bushes for browsing
Examples of bushes are:
 Blackthorn
 Sickle bush

Describe one local grass species and one other pasture plant including their methods of
propagation and establishment
 Methods of propagation
Buffalo grass: planted by using seeds
 Methods of establishment
Note: pasture establishment refers to the growing and cultivation of grass
Method
 Planting of grass is done during rainy season

 Plough the land to a depth of 20-30cm
 Harrow to level and create a fine tilth
 Add general compound fertilizer/mix seeds with fertilizer
 Cover the seeds with soil
 Immediately apply water
Define stocking rate, carrying capacity and describe the dangers of overstocking
Stocking rate

: The number of animals which can be kept on the pasture
 In most economical way;

 Without any deterioration to the animals
Formula for stocking rate
Number of animals
Stocking rate = --------------------------------
Area/ha
Dangers of overstocking
 Can lead to overgrazing

 Cause soil compaction
 Lower the productivity of an area
 Lead to poor quality of meat/milk
 Result in low income
 Spending more money on buying medicines and feeds
Carrying capacity
 Is the maximum number of animals a particular area of land;

 Is able to support without deteriorating of the veld
Formula for carrying capacity
Area/ha
Carrying capacity =---------------------------------
Number of animals
Describe improvement of pasture by the use of fertilizer, lime and drainage
Use of fertilizer
 Adds nutrients to the soil

 Improve quality of grass
 Provide more food for animals
Use of lime
 Used to raise soil pH/neutralize/decrease acidic

 Flocculate clay soil/improve clay structure
 Supply calcium
Use of drainage
 Remove excess water from the soil

 Makes plant roots to respire
 Promote microbial activity as they need oxygen
Describe the value of non-grass species to the pasture and livestock
 For browsing
 Act as plant cover to reduce soil erosion
 Legumes fix nitrogen into the soil
 When they decompose, they add nutrients to the soil
Beef breeds of cattle in Namibia
History of beef cattle in Namibia
 Cattle have been indigenous (common) to Namibia.

 The Khios people moved from Northern Africa to Southern Africa with their herds of
cattle before Jan Van Reinbeck arrived at the cape in 1652
 A large herd of cattle owned by Herero was recorded in 1760 when Jacobus Coetse
crossed the Orange River.
 Afrikaner breed was imported from Cape Town between 1830 and 1868.
 Farmer’s association was founded by commercial farmers in Otavi (1917) Witvlei (1926)
Otjikondo (1930) and Gobabis (1943).
 Meat production in Namibia is one of the best important sectors contributing to the
economy of the country.
Identify the most important breeds of beef cattle
Indigenous breeds in Namibia.

 Afrikaner
 Bonsmara
 Sanga
 Simbra
 Nguni
 Tuli
Imported breeds:
 Brahman (India)
 Hereford ( Britain)
 Sussex( Britain)
 Simmentaler (Switzerland)
 Brown Swiss(Switzerland)
Characteristic of each breed
Brahman
o Medium sized animals /steel gray in colour.

o Mountainous animal.
o Adapted to semi-arid conditions.

Afrikaner
o Good grazers.
o Drought resistant/ very strong.
o Slow in maturing and quick to fatten.
o Adapted to dry conditions.

Bonsmara
o Are huge animals/very strong.

o Drought resistant.
o Utilize bush veld.
o Mainly red in colour.

Hereford
o Colour pattern is red with white face and under line.

o Popular crossed with zebu bulls to produce improved breeds.
Nguni
Simmentaler

Simbra
Describe the general characteristics of beef cattle.
 Well adapted to dry conditions and poor grazing

 Withstand heat and resistant to pests, parasites and diseases
 Produce good quality meat
 Should be fertile
 Long and strong legs
List the cattle breeds recommended by the ministry of agriculture
 Afrikaner
 Bonsmara
 Brahman
 Simmentaler
 Simbra
Discuss reasons for the recommended breeds in Namibia
 Adapted to harsh local environment

 Resistant to ticks, diseases and other biting insects
 Adapted to walking longer distances, to search for grazing and water
 They have a long life span
 They are drought resistance
 They are very fertile breeds
 Good mothering ability
 They are heat tolerant with short hairs

Feeding
Balanced diet – food that consists of all the essential nutrients given in the right and correct
amount to the animal
Outline feeds required at each stage of beef cattle

Stages Feed required function
1. Gestation period ( period Production ration Enables animals to produce products
between pregnancy and birth) such as meat, milk or eggs.
2. Lactation period ( period Production ration for the production of milk
between birth and weaning)
3. Calf Colostrum Is the first milk, it is rich in proteins
and contains antibodies that fight
against diseases.
4. Ready for marketing Production ration Enables the animals to produce
enough products.
5. Oxen Maintenance ration Keep the animal health and function
normally.
6. Heifer Steam - up ration Extra food given the heifer.
Nutritional requirements for a cow before and after calving (giving birth)
 Before calving – a pregnant cow needs extra protein.

 Lactating cow- needs extra protein, carbohydrates, and fats.
 Getting ready for marketing- needs few protein, more carbohydrate and calcium for meat
production.
Importance of supplementary feeding
 Increase the fertility of the herd.

 Increases the amount of products like meat, milk etc.
 Shorten the time for the next mating.
Examples of supplementary feedings

 Roughages
 Concentrates
 Cultivated pastures
 Mineral licks
Handling of animals

Different handling processes in beef cattle farming:
Explain the reasons for carrying out different handing practices in beef cattle farming
 Calculating age it is determined by counting the total number of permanent teeth in

animals
 Earmarking - marks or signs are put on the animal’s body for identification purposes
when cattle are stolen or go astray.
Forms of marking animals
 ear notching,
 ear tags
 tattooing
Is done on the inside of the ear or the bottom lip
 Branding.
- Can be done with a hot iron or freezing branding.
Describe place where iron should be pressed onto the animals.
 First owner, on the left hind leg

 Second owner, on the left shoulder.
 Third owner, on the left side of the neck.
NB if the animal has more owners, the same process is followed on the right side of the animal.
 Dosing – helps to control internal parasites using a dosing gun.

 Immunization/ vaccination- help to prevent incoming diseases by giving a vaccine
using needle and syringe.
 Dipping-forms part of controlling external parasite using cattle deep.
 Dehorning
- Removing horns of an animal, this helps to prevent animals from hurting each
other during fighting.
- To get better quality hide (one without marks) when an animal is slaughtered.
- For easy handling.
Equipments used for dehorning animals.
 Castration – helps to control breeding by removing the testicles of male animal.
Methods of castrating cattle

 Bloodless method using a burdizzo pincers and rubber ring applicator.
 Blood method using sharp knife.
The role of beef cattle in Namibia

Explain the contribution of beef cattle farming to the economy of the country
 Local consumption.
 Export ( meat and live cattle)
 Abattoirs and tanneries help to create jobs for Namibian people.
Discuss the importance of beef products such as meat and hides (leather)
 Dung used to make compost manure

 Meat/beef used for food
 Skin/hides/leather to make handbags, belts and shoes
 Bones, blood, and intestines to make bone meal and fertilizers
 Horns and hooves to make glue
Health and diseases
Identify diseases and parasites affecting cattle in Namibia
Diseases
 Foot and mouth disease

 Red water
 Heart water
 Tuberculosis
 Lung sickness
 Brucellosis
 Anthrax
Parasites
 Round worms
 Ticks
Describe symptoms, causes and control of one of the common diseases and one of the
parasites listed above

Distinguish ways in which diseases are spread
Way in which diseases are spread

1. Air borne diseases
Are spread by coughs and sneezes
2. Water –borne diseases
Are spread by animals drinking water polluted by feaces or urine from infected animals
(bilharzias)
3. Contagious diseases
Are spread by an animal touching/contact another infected one
4. Infectious diseases
Is a disease caused by very small organisms such as viruses, bacteria and protozoa.
5. Vectors
Are organisms that transmit diseases from one animal to another, without having the
diseases themselves e.g ticks, tsetse flies, mosquitoes and mites
Ticks suck the blood of animals to transmit the disease
6. Nutritional disease
Is a disease caused due to result of lack of an essential nutrient in the diet of an animal.
E.g. rickets and goiter
Legislation about diseases
Discuss legislations about animal diseases with specific reference to notifiable diseases and
animal movement
 Diseases must be reported to the veterinary office immediately

 The farm or area where the disease is suspected will be put under quarantine
 All animals in the farm or area have to be vaccinated
 No animal or animal products can be exported or move to other areas
 Infected meat or carcasses should not be consumed
 Safely burning/burying deep the animal that dies
Explain importance of record keeping in beef cattle
 The farmer must know how successful his livestock enterprises is

 Problems areas can be noted easily
 Helps the farmer to maintain efficiency standards
 Mistakes cannot be repeated in the future
 It helps in planning or decision making
 Enables farmer to know the financial position or check whether the farm is profitable
 Estimate future results /budgeting
Describe examples of beef cattle records

 Animal register: you record all animals gained or lost, also the supplementary feed given
to animals e.g calving register, livestock register, calf register and drug register
 Record sheets: is a form that stores information about key events or activities in the
management of cattle within a given period of time.
 Ear tagging: is a plastic or metal disc that provides individual identification of livestock
 Computer technology: is a computer software used to keep records of all activities on the
farm
Marketing
Identify countries that import beef or beef cattle products from Namibia
European Union (E.U) countries

 France , Germany , Ireland , Norway Portugal and Spain
Other countries
 Angola
 South Africa
 USA
 China
 Iran
 Zimbabwe
 DRC
 England/united kingdom
State Requirements for exporting of beef/beef cattle products to regional and international
markets including European markets
 Animals and animal products to be exported should be free from diseases

 Abattoirs to comply with E.U standards
 A special permit is needed to export live animals
 All animals need to be clearly marked.
Explain how the veterinary cordon fence affects the beef industry
 Better market opportunities for communal farmers

 Communal farmers will also export their animals
 Better pricing of cattle/ cattle products
 Easy/free movement of animals
 Increase the spread of diseases
 EU countries might stop importing beef from Namibia

Theme 5: Livestock and Crop breeding
Monohybrid inheritance
Define the following terms:
- Inheritance : the genetic characteristics passed from parents to offsprings
- Chromosomes: * Proteins strands / threads,

*Found in the nucleus of a cell
*Carry the genes
- Gene: A unit of heredity which determines the characteristics of the

offspring.
- Allele: One or more alternative forms of a gene.
- Homozygous: These are identical / same genes e.g. HH
- Heterozygous: These are different genes e.g. Hh
- Dominant: A strong gene that determine the characteristics of the offspring.
- Recessive: - A weak gene that does not determine the characteristic
-Unless if parents contributed recessive genes for a particular

characteristic.
- Genes carried by the parents but do not show in the offspring.
Explain the meaning of genotype and phenotype and assess their importance in livestock and
crop breeding
 Genotype: - The genetic makeup of a plant or an animal,

- The genes that it carries in its cells
- Invisible characteristics
 Phenotype:- The external appearances of a plant or an animal

-Visible characteristics e.g. Eyes, Height etc.

Genetic crossing results (Calculations)
How many characteristics are passed from parents to offspring?
Crossing two homozygous plants/animal
F1 Parents phenotype: Black X Brown
Parents genotype: BB X bb
Gametes: B B b b
Fertilisation:
Offspring genotype: Bb Bb Bb Bb
Offspring phenotype: - All Black
– All heterozygous genes
– Ratio = 4 : 0 or 1 : 1
– Percentage = 4/4 x 100

= 100%
Crossing two heterozygous plants/animal
F2 Parents phenotype: Black X Black
Parents genotype: Bb X Bb
Gametes: B b B b
Fertilisation:

Offspring genotype: BB bb Bb Bb
Offspring phenotype: - 3 Black and 1 Brown
– 2 Homozygous (BB and bb) 2 heterozygous (Bb and Bb)
– Ratio = 3 : 1
– Percentage = 3/4 x 100

= 75%
Importance of phenotype and genotype
 Phenotype: Help to select animals for breeding purposes. E.g. Size, Color ect.
 Genotype: It influences the appearance of an individual animal.
Describe reproductive technology that can be used to increase variation, improve

characteristics, improve resistance to drought, pests and diseases and develop new breeds of
plants and animals
 Artificial insemination in animals ; is a process of inserting semen of a male animal into a

uterus of a female animal to make sure that fertilization takes place
 Mutation breeding ; refers to the process of exposing seeds to chemicals or radiation in
order to create desired genetic change purposely in plants
 Crossing; it is obtained when two different breeds of animals, species cultivar or varieties
of plants are selected to mate to produce offspring
 Artificial selection( selective breeding) ; when humans select specific animals and plants
to breed for a specific purpose, is a technique used to improve livestock and crop
characteristics
 It includes methods in which genes from one plant/animal are copied or transferred to
another plant/animal in order to change the genetic makeup of that specific plant/animal.
 It also involves incorporating or deleting certain characteristics into or from that specific
plant /animal.
 It also aimed at modifying (changing) the genetic makeup of an organism by including
genes or genetic materials that may increase desirable characteristics in the organism.
Characteristics that can be improved by reproductive technology in plants and animals
 Improves resistant to drought

 Resistant to pests and diseases
 Hardness and appearance in crops and animals

 Leads to the development of new breeds of plants/animals
Selection: Choosing best plant or animal to breed with.
Discuss the role of artificial selection in the production varieties of livestock and crops of
economic importance
 It may result in high resistant to drought animals/plants

 Animals/plants resistant to diseases and pests
 Results to animals/plants adapted to local conditions
 Improves appearance in animal / plants
 Results in animals/plant that possess desired quality and taste
 Produce animals/plants that can be hardy in terms of climatic conditions
Describe how breeding can improve:
- Yield/production: Crossing animals that are highly fertile will increase

production
- Diseases resistance: Crossing animals that resist to diseases and pests
- Hardness: Crossing strong animals that can survive hardy climatic
condition
- Appearance: Through crossing best animals/plants
Discuss the possible consequences of using genetic engineering in livestock and crop breeding
Genetic modification
 It involves changing the genetic makeup of animals/plants
Examples of genetically modify an animal/plant
 Take a gene from an embryo, resistant to certain diseases,

 Insert that gene into the animal’s own genes
 The result will be the characteristic held in the genetic code from a disease-resistant animal
/plant
 Therefore, the genetically modified animal also becomes tolerant to certain diseases
Positive consequences of genetic modification in animals/plants
 Results in fast growth

 Increased production / yield
 Produce animals/plants adapted to local conditions

 Produce animals/plants that have better quality taste products
 Used to produce vaccine in animals
Negative consequences of genetic modification in animals/plants
 Causes diseases to humans and animals that consume GMP

 It may result to incurable diseases in animals
 It can also lead to mutations
 Causes environmental hazards and danger to human can occur
Factors to consider when selecting animals for breeding purposes
 High fertile
 High productivity
 Size/Large animals
 High growth rate
 Good conformation
 Disease resistant animals/plants
 High number of offspring
Theme 6: Community – based natural resource management (CBNRM)
6.1.Explain what is meant by conservancy

 A conservancy is a communal or freehold area that has resources that are utilized and managed
by the community in order to earn a sustainable living.
 A group of commercial farmers/ areas of communal land on which members pool resources
for the purpose of conserving and using wildlife sustainably
Discuss the history of community-based natural resource management in Namibia

 This concept was started in the Kunene region in the mid1980s. This was done because the
numbers of the wild animal was decreasing drastically due to poaching, South African
Defense Force.
 In 1996 the Nature Conservation Amendment legislation gave communal residents the
opportunity to manage wildlife as a common property.
 In 1998, the first 4 communal conservancies were gazetted. By 2003, 29 conservancies had
been gazetted.
 Today Namibia has 83 conservancies.
Discuss the importance of conservancies to commercial farmers in our country.
 They get incentives from game in their farms.

 The dividents go to individual farmers.
 They enjoy the right of exclusive ownership over wildlife inside their farms.
 Sustainability of natural resources.
 Stocking of different game species on their farms to improve on tourism.
Discuss the importance of conservancies to areas of communal land in our country.
 Sustainability of natural resources

 Communal farmers have certain rights to wildlife.
 Employment creation.
 Communal farmers enjoy the utilization of natural resources
 They obtain income from wildlife through troph hunting and joint venture with tour
operator.
Discuss the role of farmers in conservation of wildlife resources
 Farmers who own land or use communal land in conservancy protect the wildlifein
the area because the wildlife can earn money for the farmers.
 Farmers are willing to farm their crops and /livestock in mixed operations with the
conservancy.
 Farmers maintain the natural rangeland to support big game(wild animals), which
then also supports smaller indigenous species and the ecology of the whole area
Identify three conservancies in different regions from the updated list of registered
conservancies in namibia
a. zambezi
 Mashi
 Sobbe
 Dzoti
 Wuparo
 Balyerwa
 Bamunu
 Salambala
 Sikunga
 Lusese
 Nakabulelwa
 Kabulabula
 Kasika
 Impalila
b. kavango east
 Shamungwa
 Muduva nyangana
 George mukoya
 Joseph mbambangandu

c. kavango west
 Maurus nekaro
d. otjizondjupa
 Nyae nyae
 N=a jaqna
 Otjituuo
 Ondjou
 Ozonahi
 African wild dog
 Okanatapi
 Ovitoto
e. !naras
 !Khob !naub
 !Han/Awab
 !Gawachab
 //Gamaseb
 Al-Ais hot springs
f. Omaheke
 Eiseb
 Omuramba ua mbinda
 Otjombinde
g. Ohangwena
 okongo
h. Oshikoto
 king nahale
i.Oshana
 lipumbu ya tshilongo
j. Omusati
 Uukwaluudhi
 Uukolonkadhi Ruacana
 Sheya Shuushona
k. Kunene
 Ombombo
 Kunene river
 Torra
 Ombazu
 Okanguati
 Epupa

 Otjitanda
 Marienfluss
 Orupembe
 Etanga
 Ongongo
 Okatjandja kozomenje
 Okongoro
 Sanitatas
 Okondjombo
 Otjiu-west
 Otjombande
 Otuzembe
 Ombujokangu
 Okangundumt
 Orupupa
 Otjikandaviror
 Otjambangu
 Puros
 Ozondundu
 Omatendeka
 Sesfontein
 Anabeb
 Ehi-Rovipuka
 =Khoadi-Hoa
 //Huab
 //Audi
 Okamatapi
 Doro !nawas
 Uibasen twyfelfontein
 !Khoro !Goreb
 Sorris sorris
l. Erongo
 Otjimboyo
 Ohungu
 Tsiseb
 =Gaingu
m.Hardap
 Huibes
 Oskop
n. khomas
 There is no conservancy in this region

Explain the principle behind the law relating to ownership of registered conservancies over
– huntable game animals and birds
 The area has to be gazetted as a conservancy
 There should be an agreement between the community and the ministry of
environment and tourism
The area should be clearly defined
 Clearly defined distribution plan of income and benefits to all community in the
conservancy
 Clearly drawn game utilization plan in coraboration with the ministry o
environment and tourism
 Huntable permits should be obtained from the ministry of environment and tourism
Discuss the government’s conditions of acceptance for the establishment of conservancies

for communal use
 Defined membership
 A representative management committee
 A legally recognised constitution
 Clearly defined distibution plan
 Defined boundary
 The committee is able to manage funds
 Area not a declared game park
Describe the requirements for communal farmers to apply for permits to use protected and
specially protected game and forests in their local areas
 By law the ministry of environment and tourism offers quotas to conservancies on the
number of game to be hunted per year
 Communities need to apply for permits which should be approved by the ministry of
environment and tourism these may include :
 (a) trophy hunting
(b) utilisation of game
(c) selling of venison (butchery)
(d) keeping birds
Compare and contrast between the function of the conservancies and wildlife councils in
namibia
Conservancies Wildlife council

A specific community is represented and A region is represented and operates at a
operates at local level representing specific regional or district level and represents the
community region
Community – level institution Government – level institution but does
include community leaders and conservancy
committee members
Conservancy benefits from management People outside conservancy benefit from
mangement
Can enter directly into agreements with Cannot enter into agreements with private
private sector sector , but may coordinate tourism
development plans on a regional scale
Conservancy decides how to spend and Wildlife council decides how to spend and
share wildlife reveue and benefits share wildlife benefits and revenue
Revenues can be used for community Revenue can be used only for area
projects or household developments
6.2. Conservation of community forestry in Namibia.
Explain the meaning of Community forests and the role of Traditional Authorities in forest
management.
An area whose forest resources are under the community’s rightful management (the
community manages the forest resources).
Role of Traditional Authorities in forest management.
Is the deciding body who supervises the forest management committee and judge
violations?
Describe the main steps for the establishment of community forests by interested communities
in Namibia.
Initiation phase (step) 1

In this phase or step.
 Awareness is created
 Consultations are completed.
 Community forest is registered.
 The community begins to organize itself.
Application and declaration phase.

 Here the land is mapped and its current usage is recorded.
 The edges of the desired community forest are indicated and approved (mark
boundaries)

 An assessment of the community and the forest or wooded area is done to record
the needs of both.
 Objectives set and activities planned.
 Community distribution plan for both benefits and costs and community come to
an agreement.
 Once all of these tasks been completed a community forest declarations is applied
for.
Implementation and monitoring phase.

 This phase is impossible only if the area is declared a community forest.
 An inventory is created on the need of the area.
 An integrated forest management plan is developed and implemented.
 Implementation, monitoring and updating are ongoing tasks.
Discuss the benefits obtained by the communities from well managed community forests.
Well-managed community forests result in poverty reduction.

Improvement in rural life.
Importunities for communities to re-enforce their traditional rights to the land.
An opportunity for community based decision making and
Conflict resolution.
Discuss the requirements for communities to obtain rights to register community forests.
Agreement by community.
Forest management committee.
Identify stakeholders.
Mark boundaries.
MAWF should recognize.
Apply to Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forest.
Rules and regulations.
Apply for gathering.
Discuss the causes and consequences of the loss of biodiversity including causes and problems
of deforestation.
The causes and consequences of the biodiversity.
Loss of reduction in size of habitat:

The habitat is where the species lives. If this habitat is threatened, so are species.
Over-exploration: If more of a species are removed than can be replaced naturally the
species will be threatened.

Alien species invasion: alien species use the resources the species require and/or kill and
destroy the species and pollution: Water and air pollution cross boundaries, possibly
affection species far from where the pollution occurred.
Climate changes: Worldwide climate changes are threatening species.
Population growth and related over consumption: More people means less space for
other species.
Illegal wildlife trade.
Species extinction.
Consequences of biodiversity.
Changes in ecosystem functioning.

Decreased resource availability.
Change in nutrient cycles.
Change in soil contents.
Change in water cycles.
Change in weather patterns.
Food supplies will become more vulnerable to diseases and pests.
Loss of species variation.
Acid rain will increase.
Polluted city air and smoke will be common.
More areas will become inhospitable.
Causes and problems of deforestation.
Chopping down trees for fuel.

Chopping down wood for commercial use.
Clearing land to plant crops.
Clearing land for livestock to graze.
Clearing land for urbanization and build homes.
Forest fires.
Consequences of deforestation.
An imbalance in the climate.

Soil erosion
Floods
Wild extinction.
Discuss the role of farmers in conservation of forest resources.
Control over how a wooded area or forest is used.

Farmers and community members will look after forests well if they have some influence
over how the trees and used.
They can see that the forests are a source of economic benefit.

Farmers should use the following solutions to prevent deforestation in the wooded areas of their
farms or communal land.
Chop down trees only when completely necessary and after consultation with the
community and conservancy committee.
Never remove an entire forest or wooded area.
Replace every cut tree with a new young tree.
Never burn off patches of wooded areas to improve hunting opportunities.
Never over – exploit any forest – dwelling plants or animals.
6.3. COMMUNITY – BASED TOURISM
Describe ways in which communities can benefit from the tourism industry to promote
social and economic development.
Increased employment.
An inflow of income into the area.
Rural development,
Skills training for community members.
Infrastructure development and
Protection of the environment.
Explain how tourism provides opportunities for income generation for local
communities and the promotion of entrepreneurship.
How does tourism provide opportunities for income generation for local communities?
Income from hunting.

craft making
Show traditional villages.
Tour guides.
How does tourism promote entrepreneurship?
Communities can engage in craft production to produce crafts and sell them to
tourists.
Showing traditional villages.
Communities can set up small vegetable gardens and sell to the lodges
Sell Thatched grass to lodges
Sell meat to lodges
Sell firewood to tourists
Set up community kiosks along the road for tourists to buy.
They can set up car wash to wash tourists ‘cars/ tyre repair for tourists

Describe how tourism helps to provide knowledge and skills to rural residents as
they engage in tourism – related activities.
Acquire new skills to perform their jobs.

The technological skills needed to run an office.
Interact online with clients and make bookings.
Interpersonal skills e.g, greeting guests, dealing with enquires, taking tourists on
game drives or leading groups of hunters.
THEME 7: FARM STRUCTURE AND MACHINERY
Fencing
Describe the types of fence suitable for different purposes and the use of hedges and
windbreaks
Hedges
 Is a line
 Of closely spaced
 Shrubs and tree species
 Planted to form a barrier/ or to mark the boundary of an area/ living fence
Windbreak
 Usually made up of one or more row of trees or shrubs materials
 Provide shelter from the wind
 To protect soil from erosion
Fences’
Anything that acts as a barrier to prevent or keep out people / livestock/predators from a
protected area
Uses
 To control livestock movement and straying animals

 Helps in controlling breeding
 Protects farm boundaries, homesteads, crop fields, orchards and plantations.
 Used to conserve natural resources e.g. soil, mines, aquatic places and games parks.
Types of Fences
(a) Barbed wire

Advantages
 Its durable ( last longer )
 It’s easy to strain because of barbs
 Effective control of livestock because they cannot pass through due to barbs
Disadvantages
 It’s expensive
 People can be easily injured by barbs during straining
 It’s difficult to handle because of barbs
(b) Plain wire
Advantages
 It’s cheap than the barbed wire or diamond mesh.
 It’s easy to handle, no barbs
Disadvantages
 Animals can easily pass through it’s since no barbs to harm/ injure them.
 It’s difficult to strain no barbs to hook the wire strainer

(c) Diamond mesh
Diamond mesh consists of plain wire that is interwoven to give a diamond-shaped mesh
pattern.
Advantages
 Gives better security if correct wire thickness is used and present small livestock to pass
through it.
Disadvantages
 It’s more expensive than the barbed and plain wire
 It’s difficult to set up.
(d) Electric fence

 Consist of one wire connected to electricity to give shocks to animals/ people when they
want to pass through.
Advantages
 It offers maximum security against thieves, animals such as hyenas, lions, or leopards.
 It facilitates rotational grazing without need to put paddocks.
Disadvantages
 Electricity is expensive to install and manage
 Animals/ people may be killed if the voltage is not controlled.
( e ) Live Fencing-involving planting shrubs or herbaceous plants e.g. sisal , hedge or

bougainvillea flower plants around gardens, homesteads, orchards, offices etc.
Describe the methods of fence construction and the cost of treating fencing posts
Method of fence construction
 High
 Strong enough
 Type of a fence / e.g. diamond mesh
 Strong gate
 Lock with a padlocks/ supports
 Droppers
Cost of treating fencing posts
Fencing materials to be treated Product to be bough

 Wooden post  Creosote
 Metal post  Paint
 Wire  Paint
 wall fence  Cement/ Paint
Describe procedures of treating wooden post for fencing
 Soak poles in creosote solution

 Leave them in the solution
 You may also apply creosote using a brush

 After treatment, allow creosote solution to drain and dry before placing the posts in the
ground
 You may use any other chemicals or oil to treat the poles
 Treatment of the poles with creosote should be done in a well ventilated area/ or outside
the building as the chemicals is harmful to people.
Describe procedures of treating wooden post for fence
 Soak poles in creosote solution

 Leave them in the solution
 You may also apply creosote using a brush
 After treatment, allow creosote solution to drain and dry before placing the posts in the
ground.
 You may use any other chemicals or oil to treat the poles
 Outside the building as the chemicals is harmful to people.
FARM TOOLS AND MACHINERY
Simple farm tools
Tool Use Maintenance Examples
Saw Is use to make precision cuts Oil the blade regular.

across the grain of the wood. Sharpen the blade regular.
Is used for rougher work , Store in a dry place.
such as cutting trees or poles Hang it on a wall when not in
use.
Hammer Is used to knock nails or  Keep the hummer clean

staples into wood. and dry at all times.
Is used for heavy work such  Use clean sandpaper to
as breaking up rocks or sand the head
knocking metal posts into the occasionally to prevent
ground. rust from damaging it.
 Wipe down wooden
handle with linseed oil
to prevent cracking.

Screw-  Is used to turn screws,  Keep the tips in their
driver in woodwork or in original shape.
cement plaster.  Do not use the
 Is used for screwing in screwdriver for an Keep
or loosening screws the tips in their original
with single grooves. shape.
 Do not use the
screwdriver for any
other task except for
what is made for.
 Check that the
screwdriver is not worn
before starting a task.
File  Is used to remove  Keep files dry and clean
rough edges of metal at all times.
or wood, and to shape  Do not use a file on a
the surface of metals. surface that is too hard
 Is used to remove rust  Do not use a file on an
or to reduce the oily surface , as this may
thickness of a clog the teeth.
material.
Spanner  I used to grip onto  Do not use the spanner

nuts and tighten or for any other task except
loosen them. tightening or loosening
 A shifting spanner is nuts and bolts.
adjusted to fit different  Regularly oil any
sizes of nuts moving parts of a
 The size and type of shifting spanner
spanner is determined
by the job that it will
be used for.
Describe the use and maintenance of hand tools for cultivation….

Advantages and Disadvantages of hand tools for farming
 They are relatively cheap to buy  It is hard work using hand tools
 They require no fuel  Manual workers may suffer from
back pain and arthritis
 They are simple to maintain  People with disabilities struggle to
use hand
 It is easy to use those tools  It takes a long time to prepare the
land.
Use and maintenance of hand tools
 Store all tools and implements under cover so that they are protected from sun and rain.
 Keep all tools and implements clean. Damp soil left on a tool or an implement such as
mouldboard plough will cause the metal to rust.
 At the end of the working season, or when they are not going to be used for some time,
grease and repaint the tools and implements.
 Oil all parts that metal moves against metal.
 Nuts, bolts and screws should be checked regularly to see that they are tight.
 Always take your tools back to the tool shed after use. Never leave them lying around
outside.
 Only use a tool for its intended purpose. If you use it for the wrong purpose, you can
damage it.
 Safety rules should be followed at all times. This reduces the chances of accidents on a
farm.
FARM MACHINERY
Machinery for primary cultivation
The main functions of the various ploughs that are used in primary cultivation are to:
 Loosen
 Turn the soil, and incorporate manure or compost into the soil
 Break up hardened areas of the soil, thereby allowing for better infiltration and aeration.
 Bury crop residue and weeds
 Expose soil pests to air and sunlight

Identify farm machinery and equipment, such as ploughs, harrows, planters and combine
harvesters.
Disc Plough
 A disc plough turns the upper soil inwards during soil tilling, and cuts up crop remains
and unwanted weeds.
 It leaves a rough surface.
HAND CULTIVATION
 This plough is also called a renovator or rototiller for small-scale farmers.

 It can plough the soil to a depth of 25 cm.
Planter
 Planter is a machine for planting seeds at the correct distance and depth. It speeds up the
planting process. Blades in the front cut furrows in the soil, before a seed drops out of a
bin into the furrow. Then the furrow is covered with soil. A similar process is used in
both automated and manual planters.

Combine harvester
 A combine harvester harvests grain such as maize, wheat and sorghum. It combines three
jobs. Cutting and gathering the grain, loosening the grain from the stems and cleaning the
grain. The grain is delivered into a waiting truck and the chaff is pumped back into the
field. These jobs used to take a lot of human labour.
Harrow
 Are used to break up the surface of the soil ad smooth out any large clod. A harrow does
not dig as deeply as a plough does: only the surface is turned. A harrow may be used on a
field after ploughing to break the soil on the surface into finer particles.

Water supply
Tools and fittings
Identify and explain the use of the following:
The pulley
 A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim. A rope or cable is threaded through the pulley.
Two or more pulleys make it possible for a small effort to exert a large force. A pulley
form part of a tripod that is necessary when working on a borehole. They are using an
auger which is attached to drill rods in order to reach deep into the hole.

Block and tackle
 Is a system of two or more pulley with rope or steel cable threaded through them. This
system can help a person to lift or pull heavy loads. The longer the pulling rope, the
greater the weight you can lift.
Pipe spinner
 A pipe spinner is called a pipe wrench. It is an adjustable steel spanner for using on metal
pipes. It can lock onto the pipe and turn it. This is necessary if you are screwing one pipe
into another. A pipe spanner is used to twist a nut off a bolt. It is also used for working
with fitting and joins metal pipes.
Vice grip

This plumbing tool is also known as pipe-vice. It is designed to hold onto a pipe securely so that
you can cut the pipe. A vice-pipe is necessary if you are welding or cutting pipes. A pipe vice
can be fitted onto a workbench or onto a mobile tripod.
Pipe fittings
Identify and explain the uses of different fittings used in water installation
Part Functions
 Threaded metal piece For tap risers and bringing the water
underground to the tap.
 Connector piece Connects two pipes in opposite
directions.
 Nipple Joins two pipes and allows a continuous
water flow.
 Reducer Joining pipes of different diameters
 T- piece Joining more than two pipes
 Elbow Joining pipes on a bend.

A water tap
Fitting a water tap washer
1. Remove the adjusting nut using a spanner and remove the head gear with the washer
attached.
2. Remove the retaining nut of washer
3. Put a new washer and tighten the retaining nut.
4. Put back the plunger and washer in to body.
5. Put back the head gear and adjust nut and tighten.

Water pumps
Identify different water pumps used for supplying water to farmers
The motor-driven pump
 A water pump can pump water from any water source, such as a borehole, a river or a
dam. Although it is possible to install a water pump at each work station, this can be
expensive.

 A single pump can be hitched to a tractor and moved around the farm as and when it is
needed. The most common motor-driver pump is the centrifugal pump, which is powered
by an electric or diesel motor.
The basic parts of a motor-driver pump…

The submersible pump
 The submersible pump is a motorized centrifugal pump that runs on electricity.

 These pumps are used inside boreholes and in surface water bodies, such as river or
dams.
 A submersible pump is easier to start and maintain than a wind pump over a borehole.

The hand pump
 A hand pump is powered by human energy.

 Some pumps are operated by hand and some by foot.
 It requires no fuel and is cheap compared to motorized pumps.
 Hand pump increase production compared to rain-fed cropping or carrying buckets of
water.
 Manual pumps are not suitable for commercial agriculture
The basic parts of a hand pump and their function
Part function
Pump handle This is the handle that gets pushed up and
down to make water come out of the spout.
Piston rod or pump rod This is a solid bar that is pushed up and down
depending on the movement of the pump
handle. It moves in the opposite direction to
that of the pump handle.
Cylinder This holds water and the piston
Piston A circular disk or cylinder that fits tightly in a
tube and creates pressure when it is pulled up
or pushed down.
Piston check valve This valve controls the flow of water above
the piston

Valve seal ( sealing washer or O-ring ) This seal or washer helps to seal around the
check valve to ensure that pressure is
maintained and no water leaks around the
position.
Foot valve This valve seals the bottom of the cylinder
and controls the movement of water from
underground source into the cylinder
The hydram pump
 The hydraulic ram pump is a remarkable simple and economical pump.

 If you are near a river that runs fairly steeply downhill, it is worth installing a hydram
pump.
 It is powered by the energy of the water and uses no fuel or electricity.
 It works day and night and can be built cheaply from parts available in hardware shops.
 However, a hydram pump cannot pump water from a borehole.

The main parts of a hydram pump
The functions of the basic parts of a water pump
Parts function
Inlet pipe This carries water into pump from the water source
Strainer or filter The start of the pipe usually has a strainer or filter to
prevent large part particles and rocks being pulled into
the pump.
Water outlet or spout This is the discharge pipe where the water comes of the
outlet.
Valve or tap This controls the flow of water out of the outlet.
Outer casing/ housing This is the hard outer shell of the pump that protects
the internal parts from rust and damage.
Motor This is a power source that drives the pump. It is
powered by an energy source, for example, electric
power, hydraulic power.
Impeller This is a disk that rotates and has a series of fins. As
the impeller turns, it displaces the water and creates
flow.
Maintenance of water installations
Explain the necessity of regular cleaning and maintenance of water installations
 Water is not wasted through leaking

 Electricity or fuel is not wasted by inefficient pumps
 Pumps last longer and do not break unexpectedly
 Stored water is kept clean, thereby preventing illnesses such as diarrhea

Describe the cleaning and maintenance of water installations
 Each item in a water installation should be checked for damage and dirty regularly.
 Any signs of damage wear or dirty must be corrected immediately.
 Damaged or leaking pipes should be repaired or replaced to prevent water leaking out of
the pipes and also to prevent dirty or pollution getting into the water still in the pipes.
 Taps should be replaced if they leak.
 Any signs of mould or mildew must be removed immediately as they can cause health
problem.
 Before doing any maintenance or cleaning work on a pump, read the instruction manual.
 If a pump uses electricity, remember to turn the pump off and disconnect it from the
power source before you do anything else.
 To clean a storage tank, lay the tank on its side. Take the lid off and spray the inside with
water. Add bleach and mix. Allow the tank to stand for a while and then drain the
mixture out.
Theme 8: Agricultural Economics
8.1 Principles of Agricultural Economics:
State the meaning of the term agricultural Economics
 Agricultural economics is the interaction between the producer (farmer) and the consumer
(buyer)
Discuss factors of production such as
The four factors of production are:
a) Land
b) Labour
c) Capital
d) Entrepreneurship
For production to take place the producer must:
A. Plan
B. Control
C. And ensure their availability
How each factor is used in production?

Land:
- All types of agricultural production require land.

- Land is limited
- Therefore a farmer can increase the land for farming unit through land reclamation e.g.
draining swamps, cleaning virgin land, fertilising the existing land, to make more land
available and suitable for farming.
Labour
- Most activities on a farm require human effort

- The coming out of activities such as clearing land, planting, harvesting crops, keeping
livestock and transportation of goods, relyon humans
- Through some tasks can be mechanised, human skills required to drive and operate
machinery.
- In rural areas labour force consists only of a family members and sometime people from
neighbouring village, may help when necessary.
- On large farms, labour is hired on full or part time basis depending on the type of farming
operation.
- Workers need to be respected and motivated and made to feel part of the farming team.
- Skills of the labour force are also very important.
- Skilled workers do the work faster and more effectively.
- There should be division of specialisation.
Capital
Capital is what the farm uses to produce products
This is divided into two forms
1. Capital goods: This includes tools, machinery, seed fertiliser, chemicals and feeds for
livestock. Its used to increase production and reduce the need for labour, e.g. tractor for
ploughing.
2. Money Capital: Money saved and not spent by the farmer and the money can then be used
to increase production by buying capital goods e.g. disc plough
Entrepreneurship
- An entrepreneur is a person who organises and manage a business (farm) and who takes
financial and managerial responsibility for that business
- Entrepreneurship is the practice of risk taking and managing for the benefit of the business.
- Good management can be achieved by selling objectives aimed at archiving goals or
targets.
- The manager need to think ahead by initiating plans on how need could be met.

- Implementation is also important, to ensure that decision and plans are carried out as
planned.
- There must be proper control by keeping records and accounts as well as checking to ensure
that objectives are met.
- Proper budgeting need to be done to ensure profitability of the business
- Workers need to be motivated to their bests
- Conducive working conditions and good wages can increase the moral of workers to
perform better.
Explain the principles of supply and demand, diminishing returns, risks and uncertainty, and
choices facing the farmer decision making based on understanding economic factors.
The principles of supply is defined as the quality of commodity producers (suppliers) can offer to
sell at a given price and time.
Principle of supply
- When the price of the product increases the quality supplied will also increase.
- When the price of the product decrease the quantity supply also decrease the quantity
supply also decrease.
The supply curve
Figure 15.3 a) A supply curve for wheat
- Expected price
- Production cost

- Weather condition
- The quantity of product available for sale
This is defined as the quantity of product that consumers are willing and able to buy at a given
price during a given period of time.
Principle of demand
- When the price increase demand will decrease

- When the price decrease demand increase the factors that determine the demand of the
product
- Consumer income
- Population size
- The price of the commodities
- Price of substitute goods
- Taste and preference of consumers
Demand Curve
Quantity of wheat
Figure 15.3 b A demand curve for wheat
The law of diminishing returns
- This is where the return from an enterprise can no longer justify the inputs.
- If a variable input is constantly increased while all other input remains the same.
- A point will eventually be reached where the amount of additional input generated by
increasing the variable input starts to decline.

Risk and uncertainty in farming
 Risks can be defined as a chance of losing or gaining/ something may go wrong in

production.
 Uncertainty mean doubts about/ not sure of unexpected that you cannot predict the
outcome.
Risk factors that cannot be controlled are:
 Fire
 Flood
 Drought
Risks factors that can be controlled are:
- Wind : by constructing Windhoek

- Pest: By using pesticides correctly
- Disease: by knowing the type of organism causing disease and treat it with the right
medicine.
Measures taken to minimise risks and uncertainty
- Diversification: Farmer needs to have more than one enterprise at once.

- Choose the most suitable farming business: The farmer must first weigh all risks of the
various farming enterprises.
- Flexibility: There must be a room for flexibility in case risks and uncertainties occur i.e.
type of inputs used should easily use for another farming enterprise e.g. house for pigs can
be used for sheep if pigs fails.
Opportunities and choices facing the farmers
- Consider the best option that will give maximum returns.

- Evaluate all the costs involved in the product e.g. (beans, maize)
- Choice of any product results in the loss of something else.
- Farmer chooses to grow maize rather than millet, due to high demand for maize on the
market. The farmer will lose the money he could have received if could grow millet.
- The opportunity lost is the price lost per producing something
- Sometimes if may happen that you lose an opportunity that could be more profitable than
the one you choose it is always important that all factors be taken into consideration before
choice is made.

Decision making based on understanding economic factors.
Decision should be based on:
 The prevailing economic situations,

 Costs involves in the production process
Discuss the influence of family size and a balanced national population on agricultural
economics
- A balanced population means that there is a balance in the ages of the people.
- A country with all old people or all very young people will struggle to maintain an
agricultural economy.
- This is because to work on a farm, needs to be young and strong.
- There needs to be balance in the population to ensure there are enough people of working
age, and enough people to replace them in future.
- For subsistence farmers, a balance is needed between having a large house hold with many
people to help with agricultural activities.
8.1.2 Farm Records and accounts
Note: Farm records is a way of keeping information so that it is not lost or changed /collection of
data (information) that shows all what is happening on the farm (production activities and
inventory tools and equipment.
State types of farm record
1. Financial record
- Financial side of the business
- Income and expenditures
2. Production records
- Types of crops
- Dates of planting and harvesting
- Dates of calving, gestation, conceiving
- Number of animals

- Yield
3. Inventory records
- Tools
- Equipments
- Machinery
Outline the reasons for keeping farm records.
- To check if the enterprise is profitable or not

- It enables the farmer to detect problems on the farm
- Find solutions on the time of the enterprise
- It helps in planning ahead, due to past record
- Helps for insurance purpose
- Helps to share inheritance
- Help to get information for wages
- Enable the farmer to know about production
- Help the farmer to make decisions
- Prevent previous mistakes
- Help the farmers to get bank loans
Describe how to keep farm records
- The choice of a record- keeping is influenced by the expected use of the records.
- The number of livestock, for example, will determine how records can be stored on the
farm.
- The following records system can be used:
(i) The farmer records the information by hand on a piece of paper and file it.
(ii) Computerised records system.
- This system requires information to be recorded on a computer
NB: The farmer should choose a system that works best for the farm and is easily to understand.
Explain financial accounts relating to farming enterprises e.g. crop production including
inputs and yields, cost and returns and calculating profit and loss.
Note: Financial accounts are simply records indicate money value of the enterprise in terms of
cost and returns annually.
Three financial records in crop production
- Fixed costs
- Variable cost
- Production cost

Note: Fixed cost do not change from year to year e.g. clearing land for growing maize or
groundnuts on the same area the cost remain the same.
Other examples are:
- Wages for regular labour

- Depreciation on machinery
- Repairing machines
- Rent of buildings and offices
Variable costs: They vary or change according to scale of production e.g. if the farmer decide to
grow more of a given crops, he/ she should be prepared to speed more to buy seeds.
Other examples are:
- Casual labour
- Seeds
- Fertilizers
- Chemicals
Production records: These records give detail of what has been produced on the farmer to calculate
profits or loss.
Table 10.2
Crops 2ha Output yield Value of output Value of input
1.Vegetable 2ha 6000 N$600 N$480

2.Orchard 1ha 1200 N$750 N$560
Total N$1750 N$1044
Calculating profits / loss
Total cost of output minus total cost of input
= P/L N$1750-N$1044
= P= N$706
Example the differences between fixed and variable costs and state examples for each
Fixed cost do not change from year to year e.g cleaning land for growing maize or groundnuts on
the same area the cost remain the same.
Other examples are:
- Wages for regular labour

- Depreciation on machinery
- Repairing machines
- Rent of buildings and offices
Variable costs: They vary or change according to scale of production e.g. if the farmer decide to
grow more of a given crops he/ she should be prepared to spend more to buy seeds
Other examples are:
- Casual labour
- Seeds
- Fertiliser
- Chemicals
Compare grow and net margin
- Gross margin is the amount of money remaining once the variable costs have deducted
from the overall output of the enterprise
Gross (total) Income- gross (total) variable costs= gross margin
- Net margin refers to company’s profit margin after all its expenses have been accounted
for such as operating expenses, interest and taxes.
Example of gross marging
Date Money going Valuable N$ Money coming Value N$

out(variable cost) in (gross
income)
Seeds Total crop sales
Fertilizer crop for farm
Transport consumption
Casual labour Total variable Total gross
pesticide cost income
8.1.3 Farm budgeting
State the types of information for budgeting including prices of inputs, outputs and expected
yield.
Budget is an estimate income and expenditure of an intended farm
Explain a budget
- Detailed quantitative plan

- To estimate financial return/ income/ yield

- Includes what to produce and how much
- Estimate cost of input and expenditure
Note: Information needed on the budget are:
- Prices of inputs
- Prices of output
- Prices of expected yield
Explain the preparation of budgets as an aid to planning and control.
Steps to consider when preparing a budget
- Estimate how much to produce (expected yield)

- List all inputs needed to produce the expected yield
- Estimate the cost of intended inputs
- Determine the value of expected returns and expected inputs
- Sum up the value of expected return and inputs
- Subtract total expected inputs from total expected return
Importance of a budget
- Help a farmer to forecast profit and foresee losses

- Used in decision making especially when deciding on project.
- Assists in making effective farm changes
- It aids planning and control to the farmer
- Control the flow of money
- Estimating yield and income
Calculating the gross margin obtained from specific crops e.g. maize or animals e.g. poultry
Gross margin: The term refers to profit/ money remaining after deduction of variable costs from
overall output of business/ enterprise.
Formula to calculate gross margin
Total gross income- total variable costs

8.1.4 Marketing of agricultural produce
Classify marketing agents and their functions
There are also different agents or institution that can be used to market agricultural produce
- Wholesales – to transfer goods from producers and sell them in bulk to retails or other
wholesales
Farm products and transforming them into a farm suitable for consumption example is
Hartlief Namibia, for meat products
- Retailer- They sell agricultural products directly to consumers
- Some retainers, such as butcheries, may also carry out processing activities
Explain various ways in which marketing channels pose problem in agricultural production
- A Marketing channels is the route taken by the ownership of goods as they move from the
producer to the consumer.
- Sometime marketing channels can pose problems in agricultural production
- When a lot of channels are used to market a perishable product, the product the product
might not be acceptable to the consumer anymore
Typical problem posed by market channels of agricultural goods are:
 Transportation
- Farmers in many cases do not have the proper transformation means for their products
- As a result they have to rely on conventional modes to transport their agricultural goods
- This leads to a delay in the produce reaching the market.
- Which result in low price for the producer

Agriculture Note

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Agricultural Science note master

 A career is a person’s occupation

Identify career paths in agriculture

 agriculture extension officer

Career paths Roles

Veterinary officers  Controls the movement of animals by giving the movement

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Agricultural sales person  To advise farmers about the improved products

Farm mechanic  To assemble new equipment and machinery

Agronomist  To introduce improved crop cultivars

Fisheries officer  To inspect and patrol the rivers, sea

1.2 Ways of improving Agriculture

Define Sustainable Agriculture

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Define agricultural research

Research on improved crop varieties  Increasing grain quality

Research on animal feeding  This research is directed towards

Research on genetic improvement  Genetic modification allows the improvement

Agricultural research stations in Namibia:

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 Leads to better knowledge about crop varieties and animal breeds

Discuss ways of adding value to agricultural products for sustainability

Preservation and processing methods

(Culturing, cooking, processing, freezing, hides, cooling, canning, drying)

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1.3 Environmental influences on Agricultural practices

Explain the effects of the following environmental factors on agriculture:

 Temperature – determined by using a thermometer recorded in degrees Celsius

 Humidity – determined by using a wet and dry bulb thermometer recorded in

Effects of temperature on plant growth

* High temperature (maximum) (40c and above)

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* Low temperature (minimum) 0-15c

Optimum temperature (Best for plant growth) 20-30c

 Most/ Ideal for plant growth

Effects of wind on plant growth

- Strong wind increase transpiration and evaporation

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Effects of humidity on plant growth

Effects of rainfall on plant growth

 How the rain is distributed during the growing season,

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Positive effects of rain

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The water cycle

Significance of groundwater resources

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Soil moisture can be conserved by:

Advantages of mulching are:

Advantages of minimum tillage

Disadvantages of minimum tillage

 Poor drainage and aeration

Describe the main features of land tenure systems applicable in Namibia

Land is for rent

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Land is for rent

Land is privately owned

Land is owned by the community

Describe methods of land use such as:

Settled arable land

Enclosed grazing system

Method advantages Disadvantages

1.5 IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON HUMAN RESOURCES AND FOOD PRODUCTION

State how different age groups can become victims of HIV/AIDS: