A Research Perspective On Student Learning and University Teaching

The Psychology of Education Section of
The British Psychological Society

Vernon-Wall Lecture
Anniversary Edition
Noel Entwistle FBPS Susan Hallam MBE Jo-Anne Baird

Professor Emeritus of Education, Emerita Professor of Education and Professor of Educational Assessment,
University of Edinburgh Music Psychology, University of Oxford
UCL Institute of Education
ISSN: 0263-5895
ISBN: 978-1-85433-817-4
First published in Great Britain 2022 by the British Psychological Society.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society. All rights reserved.
ISSN: 0263-5895 ISBN: 978-1-85433-817-4
Produced by the Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society.

The Psychology of Education Section of
The British Psychological Society
Vernon-Wall Lecture
Anniversary Edition
Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition 1

Editorial
Wendy Symes & Andrew Holliman
W
ELCOME to this very special This special edition of the Vernon Wall
edition of the Vernon Wall Lecture comprises the papers accompa-
Lecture! 2021 marked the 40th nying the talks given at the Vernon Wall
anniversary of the Vernon Wall Lecture celebration event. These papers, like the
Series, and in 2019 the Psychology of Educa- talks at the celebration, focus on how
tion Section Committee decided to mark research within their respective fields of
the occasion by holding a special event interest have changed since the time of
at the annual conference in September the original lectures, both in terms of
2021. The purpose of the event, entitled focus and research methods. Whilst it
‘Psychology of Education: Where have we seems some questions have been answered,
got to, and where are we going?’ was to others remain. Of particular importance
reflect on the achievements of Psychology are the continuing barriers to research
of Education over the past 40 years, and to influencing policy, and the need for mean-
consider future directions for theory and ingful collaboration with teachers in order
research in our field. to help shape effective practice, which
Inaugurated in 1981, the Vernon Wall appears to be a key challenge for the
Lecture Series was started in recognition Psychology of Education.
of the contributions made by Professors We hope that these papers will continue
Philip Vernon and William Wall to the the conversation started at the Vernon Wall
Psychology of Education. A lecture in their celebration event, in particular, in relation
honour has been held at the Psychology to where we are going as a field, and what
of Education Section annual conference lessons from the past we can take with us.
ever since, the content of which forms the
basis of the Vernon Wall Lecture annual Wendy Symes & Andrew Holliman
publication. In order to mark the 40th anni-
versary, we invited one previous speaker Andrew Holliman
from each decade to present on the past, Editor
present, and future state of the area of BPS_PES_Editor@bps.org.uk
Psychology of Education that formed the
basis of their original Vernon Wall lecture.
Three speakers agreed to participate,
including Noel Entwistle who gave the very
first Vernon Wall Lecture, Susan Hallam
who gave the 29th Vernon Wall lecture in
2009, and Jo-Anne Baird, who gave the 37th
Vernon Wall lecture in 2018. The event was
very well attended and resulted in lively
discussion and much food for thought.
We are extremely grateful to our speakers
for the time and support they gave to the
celebration, which enabled it to be such
a success!
2 Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition

A research perspective on student learning
and university teaching
Noel Entwistle
Ways in which research into university teaching and student learning originated and developed over
a forty-year period are illustrated by following a single line of research conducted by the author and
his colleagues. The early research drew heavily on established psychological concepts, such as ability,
motivation, and personality, to predict degree outcomes using inventories with statistical analysis.
Subsequently, this approach was combined with in-depth interviews with individual students, which
provided insights into distinctive approaches to learning and studying. The nature of academic
understanding was also explored with students who explained the techniques they had used to
remember what they had understood. Later, the research on student learning was expanded to explore
the influences of teaching, and of the whole teaching-learning environment on students’ levels of
knowledge and understanding, and on their feelings. Finally, problems in conveying research findings
to university teachers are considered and directions of future research are suggested.
F
OR THE celebration of the series of academic performance in general terms.
Vernon-Wall lectures, the contributors It also used cluster analysis to identify
were asked to think back to the talk differing characteristics among successful
they had given earlier and consider how and less successful students (Entwistle &
their research approaches, or those in their Brennan, 1971; Entwistle & Wilson, 1977),
field, had been changing since then. I gave as well as conducting a series of inter-
the first Vernon-Wall lecture in 1981, which views with individual students (Entwistle
gave me a forty-year research span to weigh et al., 1974). The second study was influ-
up how my line of research had changed enced by the research of Marton and
over those years. The title of my talk then his colleagues in Gothenburg (Marton,
– Learning from the student’s perspective – has 1976). They had abandoned the accepted
much in common with the research I have quantitative psychological methods and,
been carrying out since, although my instead, carried out in-depth interviews
approach has been gradually moving away with individual students. The findings had
from wide-ranging surveys using invento- a marked influence on many researchers
ries, towards the use of in-depth interviews in the field and, subsequently, on how
with individual students. university teachers thought about teaching
The research I presented in the and learning. The underlying theme in
Vernon-Wall lecture was based on two my lecture was the importance of recog-
large-scale projects carried out at Lancaster nising the advantage of using complementary
University between 1968 and 1978, with research methods – both quantitative and
a marked contrast between the methodol- qualitative.
ogies used. The first study drew heavily on
concepts established in the psychological Approaches to learning
research carried out by Ausubel and Bruner In my 1981 lecture, I showed how Marton’s ways
in the USA and used factor analysis to iden- of interviewing and analysing transcripts could
tify aspects of student learning related to provide convincing evidence about the ways

Noel Entwistle
students go about their learning. His funda- Measuring approaches to learning and
mental discovery, in my view, was not that studying
there were two contrasting learning processes. The two dichotomies emerged from interviews
Ausubel had described the distinction between within experimental settings which involved
meaningful and rote learning in the late 1960s, typical educational tasks for students, but with
but what Marton identified was the importance sample sizes that were quite small. It was thus
of students’ intentions when facing an academic impossible to identify differences among educa-
task. These intentions fundamentally affected tional contexts or differing subject areas. To do
the ways they approached their learning, and this required large samples across a range of
so affected what they came to understand academic disciplines, using quantitative tech-
or remember. Focusing on the details in the niques. Our research team in Lancaster thus
article, rather than on the meaning of the set about creating an inventory which could
whole, was seen as a surface approach tending capture the distinctions among approaches to
towards the reproduction of facts and details in learning and learning styles across disciplines.
the answers given. Looking for the meaning of Extracts from our earlier student interviews,
the article, in contrast, led to a deep approach and and from Marton’s, were used to produce items
towards a personal understanding (Marton, for scales covering the defining aspects of deep
1976; Marton & Säljö, 1984). In retrospect, this and surface approaches, as well as holist or
distinction may seem obvious, but the effects serialist styles. These formed the basis for an
of students’ intentions had rarely been consid- Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI) which
ered in previous research. Bringing intentions also included items describing differing
to the fore allowed a convincing sequence of forms of motivation – need for achievement
intention, process, and outcome to be more and fear of failure – and the differing ways of
clearly established. studying found in our previous study. Factor
In the second project at Lancaster, analyses of the ASI identified four main study
Ramsden (1981) interviewed students in orientations – meaning, reproducing, achieving,
differing disciplines and detected contrasting and non-academic study behaviour (Entwistle
deep and surface approaches in all the depart- et al., 1979; Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983).
ments, although the actual learning processes Later, a revised version of the inventory
differed between the humanities and sciences. (RASI) was produced with three main factors
This difference echoed a dichotomy identi- – deep and surface approaches to learning, and
fied by Pask (1976a; 1988) which described different levels of strategic approaches to stud-
contrasting learning strategies and styles of learning. ying, with associated forms of motivation –
Some students, when faced with an academic interest in ideas, fear of failure, and achieving
task, focused immediately on seeking their (Tait et al., 1998). The strategic approach
own understanding (comprehension learning), contained items describing organised stud-
while others developed understanding, step- ying, time management, alertness to assessment,
wise, building up an understanding from and monitoring effectiveness, as well as achieve-
the specific details (operation learning). When ment motivation. By the end of this project,
students used one or other strategy consistently, we had a much clearer idea about the nature
it was described as a style of learning – holist or of a deep approach through which students
serialist. The nature of science requires consid- were seeking their own understandings of
erable serialist learning, whereas the human- topics, as shown below in Table 1.
ities depend more on holist learning. Either
style can lead to a form of understanding, but Students’ perceptions of academic
the combination of both is often necessary to understanding
reach a full understanding. The use of complementary research
approaches continued after my move to

A research perspective on student learning and university teaching
Table 1: Characteristics of a deep approach.

Seeking meaning
Intention – to understand ideas for yourself
Holist process – looking at the broad picture
Relating ideas to previous knowledge and experience
Looking for patterns and underlying principles
Serialist process – being cautious and logical
Checking evidence and relating it to conclusions
Examining logic and argument cautiously and critically
Monitoring understanding as learning progresses
Engaging with ideas and enjoying intellectual challenge
Edinburgh in 1978. My research groups sought and developed understanding,

continued to use and develop inventories, with the interviewer gently probing their
often backed up by student interviews, responses to encourage increasingly
but in the 1990s my research focus began detailed descriptions, which could become
to change. I had previously seen ‘under- part of an ongoing discussion. Additional
standing’ from the teacher’s perspective, data was also obtained, in both written
as the most desirable outcome of learning, and interview form, by asking a class of
but the nature of understanding itself was final-year psychology students to answer
much less clear. I began wondering how the question ‘What is understanding?’ –
students themselves perceived and expe- firstly, in terms of their own experience,
rienced ‘academic understanding’. It was and then by making use of their specialist
clear that this would require a specially psychological knowledge. The students
designed research strategy, so I developed were well able to describe ‘understanding’
an interview technique that avoided the from their own experience, but mostly
traditional formality, and the restricted struggled to make any connection with the
range of predetermined questions, and concepts they had met in their courses.
provided instead, a more open and reflec- A typical interview response was:
tive, even conversational, style of inter-
viewing. Students coming to their final ‘Understanding? Oh! (pause) – I don’t
exams at Edinburgh University recognised know. It’s one of those big concepts we can’t
they would have to demonstrate their own deal with. The concepts we learn about are
understanding, and this provided an ideal all very small scale, very focused aspects
opportunity to explore the topic. In a pilot such as ‘attention’, which obviously will
study, twelve final-year students from have a role in understanding. I think
three contrasting disciplines agreed to be ‘understanding’ is too general a term: it’s
interviewed and recorded. The interviews made up of lots of different aspects, which
began in a relaxed manner by focusing themselves aren’t even well understood.’
on a piece of recent academic work the (unpublished).
student had completed, such as developing
revision notes or working on a coursework Analysing the essays and interviews, we were
essay, leading on to more abstract ideas able to identify a series of descriptive cate-
around the nature of understanding. The gories, summarised below, which indicated
questioning focused on how the students a range of such aspects of understanding:

Noel Entwistle
‘Understanding’ was experienced as a feeling of In revising, one strategy we identified involved

satisfaction, although that feeling varied in its visualising the connections among the main
expression from the sudden ‘aha’, as confusion aspects of a topic and then drawing a ‘mind-map’
on a particular topic was replaced by insight, to which could be remembered and used to guide
a less dramatic feeling associated either with being exam answers:
able to follow a lecture or appreciating the nature
of the discipline itself. This feeling was derived ‘I can see that virtually as a picture, and I can
from a recognition of the meaning and signifi- review it, and bring in more facts about each
cance of the material learned. It also emanated part…Looking at a particular part of the diagram
from a perception of coherence and connectedness, triggers off other thoughts. I find schematics, in
and what might be called provisional wholeness flow-diagrams and the like, very useful because a
– ‘completeness’ recognised as being only tempo- schematic acts a bit like a syllabus, it tells you what
rary. And associated with that wholeness, was a you should know, without actually telling you
belief in the irreversibility of the understanding what it is. I think the facts are stored separately…
achieved – once it had been firmly established. and the schematic is like an index, I suppose.’
The feeling of ‘coherence and connectedness’ led (Final-year chemistry student, Entwistle &
students to express confidence about explaining Entwistle, 1991, p.219)
– a belief that they could provide a satisfactory
explanation of what they had understood, either ‘My mind-map keeps me going with the structure,
to themselves or to others. They also recognised that in the sense that it is basically visual – a pictorial
understanding provided them with flexibility in representation of what I want the whole answer to
adapting and applying ideas and information have in it…As I wrote, it was almost as though
effectively. It was this confidence, both in being I could see [the ideas] all fitting into an overall
able to provide a convincing explanation and to picture. You’re developing what you know and
adapt ideas flexibly for use in varying and novel playing it in a slightly different way to fit the
contexts which distinguished ‘understanding’ question set. Following the logic through, it pulls
from ‘knowledge’ in the students’ descriptions. in pictures and facts, as it needs them…and
(Entwistle & Entwistle, 1991, p.211). suddenly you know where you’re going next…
Then you follow it through various options it’s
Students tended to be focused on developing offering…so this goes to this, goes to this, and
their understanding during revision, but as the you’ve explained it to the level you’ve got to.
exams came closer, some students were more Then, it says “OK, you can go on to talk about
likely to focus on learning details, which they further criticisms in the time you’ve got left.”’
felt examiners would be looking for in their (Final-year Zoology student, Entwistle,
marking: 1995, p.50)
‘After I’d been reading all the books for three or The full analysis of the transcripts indicated
four weeks after the Easter holidays, I understood that a substantial proportion of students used
things perfectly well…If you understand it, that’s visualisation, both in their minds and through
the most important thing. But I knew that under- integrative diagrams. This process was initially
standing wouldn’t help me in the exam: when described as creating a knowledge object (Entwistle
you’re under pressure, you’ve got to remember & Marton, 1994) and a framework for under-
things quickly and get the facts down…So, I took standing (Entwistle, 1995). These terms drew
my lecture notes and actually memorised them, attention to the use of visual imagery in bringing
not verbatim, but memorised the themes and the together and remembering, in a structured
questions that were brought up at each point.’ form, the main elements of a topic or concept,
(unpublished). which were also found in subsequent studies
with students taking history, economics, and

education (see Entwistle, 2018, pp.120–148). a written explanation, which he described as

In another study using a similar research dialogical concept mapping. Its use was explored
approach, Hay (2010) reported results from with his collaborators (Hay et al., 2008), by
a final-year neurology student who provided asking students at the beginning of their
an insightful explanation of how visualising course (and again later on) to draw their
inter-connections between aspects of a topic own concept maps of specific topics, and to
had helped her to reach a satisfying level of provide written interpretations of their maps.
understanding: These explanations were then discussed with
other students and with the teacher. University
‘Reading and re-reading and going to different academics involved in the research reported it
sources of information, patterns become familiar, to be useful for encouraging students to think
helping you make sense of new things that you about ways of improving their understanding
haven’t met before…getting to see why this ques- (see Hay, 2018, p.319).
tion is important while another one is not, or that Another aspect of understanding was
this theory is more likely than another. Then…I described by Pask (1976b). He suggested that
have to be able to see the ideas in my visual the demonstration of understanding could
space…according to how I know them, how I can only be accepted as thorough if students were
picture them, and which ones are closer to me or able to explain the steps through which their
further away…Then, in the end, I come to realise understanding had been developed. Under-
how everything is really related and I’m able to lying Pask’s view seemed to be a conception
connect everything together – but this cannot of ‘understanding’, not as an object fixed in
happen until much later and, when it comes, it long-term memory, but as a recollection of
is not as if I were looking for it – it just happens!’ previous learning activity in reaching that
(Hay, 2010, pp.172–279). understanding. Of course, that recollection
may well be supported through storing a
Looking at such findings from a theoretical ‘mind-map’ in memory which guides a logical
perspective, they seem to fit in with Marton’s explanation of an understanding in an essay or
(2015) variation theory of learning, which an exam, as we have seen.
suggests that learners need to discern critical
features of a topic or concept and recognise Revising the approaches to studying
how these vary in relation to each other, before inventory
integrating them into personal frameworks for Returning to the quantitative research
understanding. described earlier, the Approaches to Studying
Inventory had proved effective in identifying
In everyday studying, the student is being required marked differences in students’ ways of
to recognise the salience of critical features within studying and indicating how these affected
the topic, based on previous knowledge, and seen the quality of their academic performance
in relation to the new aspects presented. The (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983). But by the late
whole set of possible interrelationships have then 1990s, additional research evidence on student
to be brought together, simultaneously, within learning indicated that a revised version of
what Marton (2015) describes as an arena of the inventory was necessary. An Approaches and
focal awareness…Students may use a mind map Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) was
to supplement their internal arena as they explore thus developed containing three sections –
variation and interconnections among the crit- conceptions of learning, approaches to studying, and
ical features. (Entwistle, 2018, p.144). preferences for different kinds of teaching. Items in
the first section distinguished learning seen
Hay (2008; 2018) also explored the classroom as either ‘reproducing knowledge’ or ‘trans-
potential of supporting visualisation with forming taught material’. The second section

Noel Entwistle
Table 2: Means of cluster centroids relating to students’ ratings on academic progress.

Cluster means
Sub-scales 1 2 3 4 5 6
(N = 1284) (206) (246) (299) (215) (183) (135)
Deep Approach
Seeking meaning 16.4 12.3 14.8 12.8 13.9 10.1
Relating ideas 16.1 11.8 14.4 13.6 14.2 10
Use of evidence 16.5 12.7 15.1 13.7 14.7 10.8
Interest in ideas 16.6 9.7 14.4 13.6 13.9 8.4
Surface Approach
Lack of understanding 8.9 11.2 13 9.8 13.4 13.9
Lack of purpose 6.1 8.7 8.9 7.5 11.3 12.3
Syllabus-boundness 10.2 14 14.3 14.3 15.6 16.9
Fear of failure 10.6 11 16.2 10.4 16.9 14.9
Strategic Approach
Organised studying 14.3 12.8 13.9 9.7 9.9 8.8
Time management 15.2 13.5 14.4 8.4 9 8.2
Monitoring effectiveness 15.8 13.2 15.3 11.8 13.1 10.2
Achievement motivation 16.7 14.8 15.5 11.9 11.5 10.6
Preferences for ways of teaching
Encouraging understanding 16.9 12.6 14.8 14 14 10.6
Transmitting information 16.2 17.8 18 17.1 17.6 18.4
Self-rating of academic progress 6.6 6.1 5.8 5.5 4.6 4.4
(Based on Entwistle et al., 2000, p.42)
was a revised version of the earlier inventory, similar characteristics, although it is only
which has been used widely by researchers and fully effective with large samples of students.
university teachers (Richardson, 2000; 2005; In a major research project described later,
Tait et al., 1998; Teixeira et al., 2013). The cluster analysis was used with a sample of over
final section allowed researchers to analyse a thousand students across a range of univer-
links between study approaches and prefer- sities. We were able to identify up to 18 sepa-
ences for two contrasting teaching methods rate clusters, although with some duplication
– encouraging understanding or transmitting infor- among them. A six-factor solution is used in
mation. A large-scale study using this inventory Table 2 to illustrate the differences among
confirmed the three expected factors – deep, clusters in a decreasing order of perceived
surface, and strategic approaches – while a k-means academic progress. The contrast between clus-
relocation analysis identified the patterns of ters 1 and 6 shows the expected pattern of
scores on the inventory scales of students with relationships, both for study approaches and
differing self-ratings of their academic progress preferences for different ways of teaching,
(Entwistle et al., 2000). but some aspects of specific clusters are worth
The great advantage of using cluster anal- pointing out. For example, students in Cluster
ysis is that it brings out the various combina- 1 had strong preferences for each approach to
tions of attributes of groups of students having teaching, perhaps indicating that they could

Table 3: Main concepts used in describing ways of enhancing university teaching.

Teaching-learning environment describes the whole set of teaching, learning support, assessment
and administrative arrangements, as well as the facilities and resources provided within a degree
course, with a particular focus on aspects expected to influence, most directly, the quality of
student learning.
Constructive alignment captures the ‘goodness-of-fit’ between the aims of a course and the
teaching-learning and assessment procedures followed, while ‘constructive’ indicates that the aims
focus on developing conceptual understanding and ways of thinking and practising in the subject
(Biggs, 1996).
Ways of thinking and practising in the subject (WTPs). Initial work suggested that a term was
needed to cover not just approaches to studying, but also the thinking processes and subject-
specific skills that staff are seeking to develop in their students (McCune & Hounsell, 2005).
Approaches to learning and studying describes the ways of learning and studying derived from
previous research, with the main aspects being deep and surface approaches to learning, and
differing levels of strategic approaches to studying (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983; Marton, 1976).
Threshold concepts. This aspect emerged in discussions with economics teachers during the project
to describe concepts and theories that students found difficult, particularly when these acted as a
threshold to further learning (Meyer & Land, 2005).
Inner logic of the subject and its pedagogy. This term describes the very specific ways in which
teaching approaches are organised within disciplines to develop an appropriate range of knowledge
and thinking skills (Entwistle et al., 2018).
(Adapted from the Introduction to the ETL Project available at https://www.etl.tla.ed.ac.uk).
make use of both comprehension and opera- ways of Enhancing Teaching-Learning Envi-
tion strategies in their learning, while the drop ronments in Undergraduate Education (Houn-
in ratings of progress in Cluster 2 is related to sell & Entwistle, 2005). This ‘ETL’ project
low scores in interest in ideas and higher scores was designed to involve university teachers
in three of the four surface approach scales. throughout the whole research process. It
Overall, the patterns indicate that weaknesses began with wide-ranging interviews with
in some aspects of studying can be supported course leaders from eleven universities in
by strengths in other areas. This suggests that four subject areas – electronic engineering,
enabling students to see their patterns of scores biological sciences, economics, and history,
in relation to the theoretical background from before assessing students’ study approaches
the research could help them to judge where and experiences of teaching.
improvements in their study strategies could Reviewing the literature, and having discus-
be made. sions with course leaders about ongoing find-
ings, enabled us to identify several new or
Exploring the influences of teaching- redefined concepts which were proving valuable
learning environments on students’ in describing key aspects of teaching-learning
quality of learning environments likely to affect the quality of
Looking at the preference of students for student learning. The defining features of
differing ways of teaching led to a much these are shown in Table 3.
broader exploration of the effects of whole In looking at the teaching arrangements
teacher-learning environments on the quality in the selected course units, the focus was
of student learning. A substantial grant on the ‘inner teaching-learning environments’,
from the Social Science Research Council meaning the part of the environment that
provided funding for a large-scale study of students directly experienced, as distinct from

Noel Entwistle
Figure 1: An ‘inner teaching-learning environment’ within electronic engineering.
(Based on Entwistle, 2018, p.215).
the broader institutional and external aspects A simplified example of the ways in which
that have only indirect effects. Figure 1 shows the research findings were presented to the
the various learning activities provided for collaborating teachers can be seen in Table
students in electronic engineering and the 4, using single items from each of the scales
contributions these were expected to make to to focus on specific aspects of the students’
the students’ learning. aspirations, approaches to studying, and
Evidence of students’ approaches to experiences of the teaching-learning environ-
studying and experiences of teaching came ment. Modules on analogue electronics were
from two inventories, the first, given at the selected from three different universities, and
start of the course, was a Learning and Studying the table shows different patterns of responses
Questionnaire (LSQ) based on the inventory between the beginning and the end of the
research reported in the previous section. course, and also between the three universi-
Towards the end of the module, an Experiences ties. The links between study approaches and
of Teaching and Learning Questionnaire (ETLQ) experiences of the teaching-learning environ-
was completed, containing a shortened version ment can be seen by comparing the changes
of the LSQ and sections describing experi- for each course between responses in the top
ences of teaching and self-ratings of knowledge section (student characteristics) with the lower
gained, academic progress, and interest and enjoy- one (perceptions of teaching). Some quite
ment on the course. These questionnaires are marked differences emerged in the analysis
available on-line at the project website at www. and, along with other evidence, were used to
etl.tla.ed.ac.uk and are free to use in other suggest which aspects of teaching might be
research. enhanced in the following intake of students

Table 4: Aspirations, approaches to studying, and experiences of teaching.

(Based on shortened SLQ/ETLQ individual items).
Percentage agreement with items

Items (abbreviated)
University A B C
Group size
N= 94 68 54
Aspiration before the module and subsequent attitude
I want to study the subject in depth 87.2 77.9 61.1
I sometimes wonder why I ever came here 5.2 14.7 29.6
Approaches to studying at the beginning and end of the module
I usually set out to understand Beginning 95.6 87.5 81.2
(Deep approach) End 72.1 82.5 75
Trouble making sense of things Beginning 25 40 43.7
(Surface approach) End 61.8 55 34.4
Generally put in a lot of effort Beginning 60.3 77.5 53.1
(Effort) End 51.5 60 40.6
Systematic and organised study Beginning 65.9 62.5 46.9
(Study organisation) End 44.1 47.5 50
Experiences of the teaching-learning environment
Pace of presentation in lectures was easy 25.3 46.9 72.5
Amount of work required was easy 33.3 34.7 52.5
Teaching fitted in with learning 72 67.3 97.5
Most of the material was interesting 45.3 34.7 82.5
Plenty of examples were provided 66.7 51 95
Staff were patient in explaining 81.3 81.6 92.5
Feedback given made things clearer 63.7 30.6 47.5
(see Subject Area Report for Electronic Engineering approaches to studying being slightly lower.
at www.etl.tla.ed.ac.uk). Academic progress, however, showed a rather
Based on the whole sample of two different pattern, with the strongest relation-
intakes of students, Table 5 shows corre- ship being with low levels of surface approach.
lations between the eight inventory scales Looking at students’ experiences of teaching,
and students’ self-ratings of knowledge gained, the strongest links with knowledge acquired
academic progress, and interest and enjoyment. came from teaching for understanding, congru-
The levels of the correlations tended to be ence in course design, and supportive feedback
higher when analysed by subject area, but on coursework. Scores on interest and enjoy-
the general patterns were similar to those for ment were most strongly linked to teaching
the whole sample. Substantial correlations for understanding, but also with the other
were found between all three approaches three teaching variables. It was, however,
to studying and the three student ratings of only weakly linked to student support, perhaps
outcome, particularly with knowledge acquired, because such support can come in at least two
and interest and enjoyment, with strategic different forms; being involved in productive

Noel Entwistle
Table 5: Correlations of achievement ratings with study approaches and experiences of teaching.
(N = 4538 students from two intakes) Student ratings of
Knowledge Academic Interest &
Scale scores
acquired progress enjoyment
Approaches to studying
Deep approach .38 .29 .39
Organised effort (Strategic) .29 .33 .28
Surface approach -.33 -.39 -.37
Experiences of teaching
Course design congruent with aims .46 .29 .47
Teaching for understanding .48 .27 .54
Staff enthusiasm and support .36 .18 .45
Set work with supportive feedback .45 .28 .39
Student support .23 .07 .23
(Based on Entwistle, 2018, p.221 – analysis by J. Hounsell).
Table 6: Aspects to consider in a curriculum review to encourage deep approach.

Aspects to consider with the purpose of
Course content and structure:
Linking to faculty & departmental goals explicitly making the aims clear to staff and students
Identifying threshold concepts and implications ensuring time to explain such concepts
Ensuring congruence across the curriculum keeping teaching components in line with aims
Incorporating professional applications in syllabus making the subject matter explicitly relevant
Selecting textbooks and learning materials being readable and encouraging understanding
Teaching:
Differentiating essential knowledge from other allowing study time to be used efficiently
Explaining principles and concepts thoroughly making critical features and linkages clear
Exemplifying ways of thinking and practising showing how professionals think and act
Encouraging problem-based thinking actively engaging students in the processes
Using post-graduates or senior students as tutors reducing authority and distance
Assessment:
Arranging progressive course work with feedback encouraging development of understanding
Providing regular tests with diagnostic feedback providing information on academic progress
Using concept-based questionnaires for feedback explaining the use of effective study processes
(Based on Entwistle, 2009, p.107; developed from Eizenberg, 1988, p.186).

discussion with other students or just being & Entwistle, 2013; 2019). As with the earlier
shown what to do by others. research into students’ understanding, the
The ETL research provided additional interviews were conducted in a relaxed
ways of describing the interactions between manner, and provided insights into students’
teachers and students and suggested implica- experiences. The first case study showed
tions for enhancing teaching within specific that students adopting a surface approach
subject areas (Hounsell & Entwistle, 2005; could strongly resent attempts by teachers
Hounsell & Hounsell, 2007). A more gener- to broaden their understanding, while other
alised set of suggestions to consider, perhaps students felt comfortable with such teaching
as a curriculum review, is shown in Table 6. and appreciated the freedom it allowed. The
Of course, these suggestions reflect tradi- second study developed these ideas further
tional forms of university education and, as by seeing how students’ fixed ideas of how
curricula and teaching methods change in they wanted to learn and study, interacted
response to external events, particularly the with the type of teaching they experienced.
Covid epidemic, implications drawn from the From both studies, the idea of a meeting of
earlier research findings have to be treated minds emerged, with some students showing
with caution. Although the pattern of inter- a warm appreciation of the role of the
actions found in teaching-learning environ- teacher in their learning. The strength of
ments are likely to correspond substantially feelings about learning experiences, both
with those discussed earlier, new research positive and negative, can be seen in the
will be needed, within the contexts created following three extracts from the transcripts:
by revised curricula and different teaching
approaches, to provide contextually sound ‘I prefer to rely on the author’s and tutor’s
advice to teachers and students in current ideas: they’re correct. If I deal with new infor-
and future circumstances. mation, I reproduce both the structure and
the phrasing. I know that there should be
Emotions aroused during teaching and a logic that runs through the papers and
learning tutor’s thinking, but I still can’t see clearly
The introduction of a scale of ‘interest and what’s her perspective. I know there is some-
enjoyment’ as a learning experience in the thing there, which I’m expected to present
ETL project reflected a growing interest in the exams, but I’m not clear about it.’
in teachers’ and students’ emotions in (Karagiannopoulou & Entwistle, 2013,
relation to learning and teaching (Karagi- p.90).
annopoulou, 2010; Postareff et al., 2017;
Rowe et al., 2013; Trigwell et al., 2012). ‘[The tutor] keeps my interest alive by
The interview studies described earlier had presenting, not only the content, but what
focused mainly on the experiences of students matters for her. It’s experiences, personal
as they sought academic understanding, but understanding, knowledge – it’s all there.
it is clear that ‘good teaching’ depends on Teaching is about her relationship with the
emotions and feelings as well (Ballantyne et subject. Such tutors make me feel that studying
al., 1997). Karagiannopoulou (2010) carried this subject is worthwhile. I’m following her
out interviews with psychology students perspective to join such explorations and let
which illustrated the emotional reactions of myself see, through her eyes, the issue at hand.’
some students with a new open-book exam (unpublished).
format. She then explored the interplay
between students’ aims and approaches to ‘I always try to make sense of the information
learning, and their feelings about different to draw my own conclusion, irrespective of
approaches to teaching (Karagiannopoulou whether tutors ask us to get into more depth

Noel Entwistle
Figure 2: Heuristic model of influences on student learning.

or not. [I try] to take a critical stance on the feelings.

material: the germ of it can be found in tutor’s The students’ characteristics are divided
thinking, which is ‘feeding’ mine. This gets between the essentially cognitive aspects (on
me into more thinking. You start with the the left) and to those more related to motives
tutor’s perspective, bring in previous knowl- and feelings (on the right). Certain parts of
edge and experiences, and that gets you to a the overall teaching-learning environment
different end point from where you started.’ are more directly related to the actual subject
(Karagiannopoulou & Entwistle, 2013, content than others, and these are indicated
p.91). along the lower left-hand side of the model,
while influences from the rest of the learning
In other research, dissonance between environment are shown on the right. The
students’ learning intentions and perceived features underlying each concept shown in
approaches to teaching have been found the ‘boxes’ could be explained more fully
to create tension, negative feelings, and but that would interfere with the overall
confusion (Lindblom-Ylänne, 2003), as well pattern of influences being presented. The
as possible disengagement from attendance box labelled ‘Teaching that encourages
and studying (Coertjens et al., 2016; Postareff thinking and understanding’ can be seen
et al., 2017). Where there is consonance and as an example of how the various elements
a feeling of a meeting of minds, independent emerge to explain the term in more detail.
thinking and deep approaches to studying Most of the terms are self-explanatory
are likely to be strengthened (Karagiannop- but two of them may need to be explained.
oulou & Entwistle, 2019). The idea of there being an inner logic of
the subject and its pedagogy was used in the
A heuristic model of the influences on ETL project to emphasise the need to draw
student learning implications for teaching for each specific
This article has described a specific subject area, while the term throughline was
‘line of research’, one among the many used in a Teaching for understanding project
approaches to relating student learning at Harvard (Wiske, 1998) to emphasise that
to teaching and learning environments. the main aims of a course should be made
The problem for university teachers is that clear to students, not just at the beginning
there is overlapping terminology among of a course, but also in relation to each main
the vast array of concepts promulgated. topic that is introduced.
Even within my own line of research, The main intention of the heuristic model
a substantial number of ‘contextualised is to demonstrate the pattern of influences
concepts’ have been used, but these can on student learning. And this could be used
be clarified by using heuristic models. Seeing as a starting point for discussion about how
such a ‘mind map’ (Figure 2) may help well the differing teaching and learning activ-
to make sense of the many interacting ities encourage the forms of understanding
factors influencing the quality of student and ‘ways of thinking and practising’ required
learning. The diagram outlines the rela- of students within a degree course.
tionships between students’ approaches to
studying in the top half of the model and Psychology in educational research:
their conceptions of the teaching provided Purposes, methods, and implications
in the lower half. The band across the The emphasis on contextualised concepts
centre is used to stress the importance and individual interviews throughout most
of individual students’ perceptions of of this article may seem far removed from
meaning and relevance and task requirements the mainstream of psychological research.
in affecting their learning, studying, and But educational researchers generally seek

Noel Entwistle
to explain the behaviour of individuals in And the constructs and the methodologies
a university setting: and that is surely at the used in such articles will create barriers for
heart of what psychology seeks to do. Main- university teachers in other disciplines, who
stream psychology tends to depend for its will usually be unfamiliar with them (see
scientific focus on experimental designs, Entwistle et al., 2019).
using tightly defined constructs, and precise The contextualised concepts described
statistical analysis. Educational researchers in this article are mainly couched in terms
find experimental designs impossible to that are more readily understood than main-
adopt in most university settings, but do use stream psychological constructs. However,
tightly defined concepts and statistical anal- their definitions tend to be ‘fuzzy’ – using
ysis, where appropriate. They may, however, descriptive language, rather than being
also use individual interviews for looking tightly defined. Many of the constructs are
more closely into how students experience derived from student interviews with anal-
their teaching-learning environments, and yses that identify categories of description.
this will provide a better appreciation of Although the evidence for these categories
students’ feelings about those experiences. in published articles may be restricted to
As Bantock (1961) argued, research can only only a few quotes for each category, there
have marked effects on educational practice, is usually more evidence than can be shown
if it involves: in the restricted length of academic arti-
cles. Students’ comments are interpreted
An imaginative projection into what the within the context of the whole range of
phenomena concerned mean, a meaning a student’s responses and using the complete
which can only come from inside the activity set of interviews. Such research may seem
to be studied…[It depends on] a sympathetic to stray too far from the scientific ideals
understanding of our fellow beings, on finding of psychology, but similar findings from
meaning in their activities, on grasping intu- a succession of small-scale studies, and from
itively how they feel, what their plans are, a variety of contexts, make the conclusions
what they are driving at…the feel of the ‘whole reached more convincing.
person alive’. (Bantock, 1961, pp.168, 170,
177). Conclusion
Both in this article and in the original
Two main methodologies in research into lecture, there was continued emphasis on
learning and teaching are dominant and may complementary research methods – quantitative
be seen as incompatible. The first involves and qualitative. Quantitative analysis was
the investigation of consistent relationships strongly represented in the earlier research,
among aspects of studying, approaches to with the scales being based on the defining
learning, and the outcomes of learning, with features of each construct, but also on factor
the intention of being able to explain find- analysis of the items to ensure that items in
ings to an academic audience. The other each scale were homogeneous. These scales
involves providing advice to students on made it possible to show the relationships
how to learn more effectively and helping between student characteristics and differing
teachers to identify the most effective ways approaches to teaching. They also featured
of helping students. This approach will in the identification of groups of individuals
depend, to some extent, on being sympa- through cluster analysis which showed how
thetically aware of the ‘whole person alive’. academic success could come about from
Of course, these two purposes are not neces- differing patterns of characteristics. Overall,
sarily incompatible, but journals in the field the quantitative research provided a strong
generally require technically erudite articles. basis of generalised findings that has influ-

enced the ways in which student learning methods of presentation they prefer, they
and university teaching are now understood. will also need guidance on how best to use
The contribution of qualitative methods that freedom. Research can help to guide
comes from being used to probe the feelings these changes, but it will be important for
and experiences of students and teachers, researchers to recognise the limitations of
as well as in identifying new contextualised generalised conclusions and be prepared
concepts describing aspects of learning and to work in collaboration with university
teaching. This research approach also draws teachers during the research process to
attention to student’s individual experiences ensure that the inner logic of the subject and its
of studying, revising, and taking exams which pedagogy is fully taken into account. Providing
have suggested additional ways of helping opportunities for teachers to discuss find-
students. It also provides an additional dimen- ings and their implications with researchers
sion to our overall understanding of student would ensure a better take-up of new ways of
learning – the sense of the ‘whole person thinking about teaching and learning, but
alive’ within a specific educational context. the descriptions of the findings would need
Students are becoming increasingly aware to use accessible terminology to make such
of the responsibility of teachers to make stud- discussions fruitful. Only then can research
ying enjoyable, as well as academically sound, findings be effectively incorporated in the
and research findings help teachers to judge planning of the new modes of teaching and
the likely reactions to differing approaches learning that are beginning to emerge.
to teaching. Universities are now having to
adapt curricula and teaching approaches in Noel Entwistle FBPS
response to the effects of the Covid epidemic Professor Emeritus of Education,
and social pressures. If the changes give University of Edinburgh.
students more freedom in choosing the
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Transitions and the development of
expertise: Update 2021
Susan Hallam
Recent research relating to the development of expertise has tended to focus on very high level expertise or the
many factors which are important in its development. In formal educational contexts the model of domain
learning is particularly relevant for understanding learning. Conceptual change research has evolved from a
focus on misconceptions to exploring issues related to professional development. Research on epistemological
beliefs, metacognition, self-regulation, and beliefs about the nature of intelligence has clarified several issues.
Change between learning environments continues to be challenging for some learners with the groups at risk of
not fulfilling their potential remaining relatively stable. A key issue for those engaged in educational psychology
is how to influence policy which can negatively impact on expertise development, particularly in relation
to structured ability grouping, the curriculum and assessment procedures the latter ensuring that a large
proportion of children are doomed to failure.
I
N RECENT years there has been consid- a multiple hurdle approach as most likely
erable change in the nature of research to predict the level of expertise attained by
on the development of expertise. In elite performers. Focusing on playing chess,
1993, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer de Bruin et al. (2014) suggested a reciprocal
claimed that the number of hours of delib- relationship between motivation, enjoyment,
erate practice determined the level of exper- and practice with intelligence and practice
tise attained and that general intelligence both making a contribution, while analysis
or talent was not important. Following this focusing on reading expertise indicated
assertion, the idea that time spent engaging a substantial genetic influence (Plomin et
in a domain determined the level of success al., 2014). Research with prodigies supported
gained popular attention in the press, particu- this showing that all had high IQ and working
larly in the USA. Perhaps in response to this, memory scores (Ruthsatz et al., 2014). Consid-
in 2014 the journal ‘Intelligence’ produced ering creativity, Simonton (2014) showed
a special issue focusing on ‘The develop- similar interactions between deliberate prac-
ment of expertise: is ability necessary’ which tice, cognitive abilities, and dispositional
included eight papers challenging the exper- traits each influenced by genetic and environ-
tise paradigm. Detterman (2014) argued that mental factors, while Wai (2014) showed that
everyone cannot achieve the same high levels early accomplishments were highly predictive
of expertise in everything and that it was of later level of expertise. Overall, Detterman
unfair to those with less ability to claim that concluded that intelligence was a necessary
with sufficient hard work they could accom- component of acquiring expertise in nearly
plish the same as the more gifted. Adopting every domain also suggesting that deliberate
an interactionist perspective, Ackerman practice, motivation, energy, personality, and
(2014) pointed out that extreme heredi- enjoyment might be important. Responding
tary or environmental views were untenable, to these papers, Ericsson (2014) dismissed
and that the development of expertise was much of this evidence redefining expertise
a complex mixture of abilities, the environ- as related to high levels of adult exceptional
ment, practice, and motivation. He proposed performance.

Transitions and the development of expertise
Recently, several edited books have consid- qualitative changes, the use of surface and
ered these issues from different perspectives deep processing, and individual (enduring)
including The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and situational interest are all considered as
and Expert performance (Ericsson et al., 2018); are their interactions.
The Science of Expertise: Behavioral, Neural, and In developing expertise in educational
Genetic Approaches to Complex Skill (Hambrick and workplace environments learners need
et al., 2017); and The Oxford Handbook of to negotiate a range of different types of
Expertise (Ward et al., 2019). The number of transitions including:
domains studied has continued to expand, ■ conceptual change;
although there has been a greater focus on ■ perceptions of the nature of knowledge;
those who have already acquired high levels ■ ways of thinking about and managing
of expertise. Models have also been devel- learning;
oped which take account of the complexity ■ self-beliefs;
of the factors involved, for instance, multi- ■ change in learning environments,
factorial gene–environment interaction between and within institutions;
models (Hambrick et al., 2018; Ullén et ■ changes to curricula and assessment
al., 2016). The models stress gene–environ- procedures;
ment interplay, including gene–environ- ■ changes of teachers, mentors, and peda-
ment interaction (when the magnitude of gogy;
genetic influence on an outcome varies as ■ changes in peer and friendship groups.
a function of the type or amount of an Some children and young people are particu-
environmental experience) and gene–envi- larly at risk during transitions. Issues related
ronment correlation (when individuals expe- to these various transitions are considered in
rience different environments as a systematic the following sections.
function of their genetic differences rather
than randomly). The latter can be passive Transitions in individuals’ beliefs, ways
(when an individual inherits from their of knowing and learning
parents’ genes and an environment linked Developing expertise involves the develop-
to those genes); active (when an individ- ment of automaticity in skills and knowl-
ual’s genotype influences the experiences edge. Three stages have been identified. In
he or she creates for herself or himself); or knowledge acquisition during the acclima-
evocative (when a person’s genotype elicits tion phase, learners have limited and frag-
particular reactions from other people). mented knowledge. Competent individuals
These interactions occur along with other demonstrate a foundational body of domain
interactions between the individual and the knowledge that is more cohesive and prin-
environment (Hambrick et al., 2019; Johri, cipled in structure, while on reaching profi-
2021; Mosing et al., 2017). ciency the knowledge domain is secure and
In formal educational contexts, the the aim is to improve speed and accuracy
Model of Domain Learning is particularly (Alexander et al., 2017). There is the poten-
relevant for considering the development tial for experiencing difficulties during any
of expertise (Fives & Dinsmore, 2017). of these stages.
The model considers knowledge, strategic
processing, interest, and their interplay Conceptual change
during three phases of knowledge acquisi- An inability to negotiate conceptual change
tion, acclimation, competence, and profi- may limit expertise development. While
ciency (Alexander et al., 2017; Kulikowich naive and scientific conceptions are relatively
& Hepfer, 2017). Domain (breadth) and easy to learn if they are compatible, where
topic (depth) knowledge, quantitative and there are misconceptions, radical concep-
Susan Hallam
tual change is needed. Chi (2008) proposed (Markauskaite, 2020). Dealing with the
three conceptual levels relating to change: challenges faced in professional working
belief revision, mental model transforma- lives frequently requires the combination
tion, and categorical shift. Where learners of different disciplinary and professional
are strongly committed to existing beliefs perspectives and sometimes the creation of
and unmotivated it is difficult to bring about new joint concepts (Frickel et al., 2017). This
change. Inability to make conceptual shifts can require the mastery of concepts from
limits progression (Södervik et al., 2019). other disciplines, major conceptual change
Providing worked examples can help to (Goodwin, 2018; MacLeod & Nagatsu,
address this (Morphew et al., 2020) as can 2018), social interaction, and reflection.
exposure to alternative theories (Ganea et Separating cognitive, and other internal and
al., 2020). Learning multiple representa- external factors is not helpful (Barsalou et
tions of physical and chemical change can al., 2018; Markauskaite & Goodyear, 2017).
be effective in changing cognitive structures New theories acknowledging the grounded
(Derman & Ebenezer, 2020), while dealing nature of human conceptual knowledge are
with complex cases plays a major role in emerging (Borghi et al., 2018) removing the
many professional domains and facilitates distinctions between cognitive structures and
cognitive adaptations to routine and novel process and the environment (Barsalou et
situations (Boshuizen & Gruber, 2020). Siew al., 2018). There is also increasing interest
(2020) proposes that the tools of network in the relationships between conceptual
science could be useful in supporting change, epistemological knowledge, meta
conceptual change, while Vaughn et al. cognition, expert knowledge, and identity
(2020) highlight the roles of error detection, (Amin & Levrini, 2018).
inhibition, executive function, and memory.
Inhibitory control is a key factor in learning Perceptions of the nature of knowledge
new scientific and mathematical facts (Mare- Personal epistemology impacts on academic
chal, 2016). performance. Where knowledge is seen as
Much research has focused on cognitive absolute, simple, stable, and transmitted by
processes rather than the impact of the envi- authority, academic performance is nega-
ronment (Ohlsson, 2011; Saljo, 2018). This tively affected and conceptual change is
approach has been challenged, particularly limited (Vosniadou, 2008). As a field, research
in relation to professional development in on epistemic cognition remains underdevel-
working environments (Billet et al., 2014; oped (Greene et al., 2016), although the
Boshuizen et al., 2020). For instance, in medi- Reflection, Reflexivity and Resolved Action
cine, making accurate diagnoses involves for Epistemic Cognition model has been
a complex system of knowledge and practical developed to theorise change in epistemic
skills (Boshuizen & Marambe, 2020; Lehtinen cognition in the contexts of classroom prac-
et al., 2020). This complexity is supported by tice and teachers’ professional learning
research emerging from the intersections of (Lunn Brownlee et al., 2017). Some research
cognitive science, neuroscience, computa- has focused on personal epistemology and
tion, and linguistics (Matheson & Barsalou, self-regulated learning (Muis et al., 2018),
2018). Perception, language, emotions, while some research has considered how epis-
metacognition, and sensory motor systems temological understanding can promote the
all contribute to human conceptual thinking ability to construct and reflect on phenom-
(Borghi et al., 2018). Work environments enal and scientific representations in the
constantly change and make new demands physical world (Kyriakopoulou & Vosniadou,
(Lehtinen et al., 2020) including inward, 2020). Programmes have been designed for
outward, forward, and sideways challenges science and engineering students to help

them develop criticality and unite what they oped each having different effects depending
know with their own personal experiences on students’ development or educational
and ideas about the world (Hauke, 2019). level (Panadero, 2017). McDaniel and
Kwong et al. (2019) showed that personal Einstein (2020) demonstrated that any
epistemology could be fostered through training designed to support sustained
collaboration in a writing group, providing self-regulation must include: acquiring
students with insights into how they and knowledge about strategies; belief that
others thought, while teachers’ epistemic the strategy works; using the strategy; and
cognition has been shown to be related to planning strategy implementation. Some
how they conceive of and engage in teaching research has explored how technology might
(Lunn Brownlee et al., 2017). be used to teach and foster self-regulation
(Schunk & Greene, 2017), while there is
Ways of thinking about and managing guidance for teachers on how to promote
learning metacognition (Webb, 2021). Classrooms
The way that individuals conceptualise where learners exhibit greater concep-
learning and understanding impacts on tual growth offer more support for meta-
whether they adopt surface, deep, or stra- cognition, personal knowledge, monitoring,
tegic approaches. Those adopting surface evaluating, and domain-general frames of
approaches tend to take longer to complete reference (Zepeda et al., 2019).
tasks, learn less, and acquire lower skill Learning to manage motivation is an
levels (Chamberlain et al., 2015). In the important element of self-regulation.
early stages of the development of expertise, Goal-defined motivation typically guides
adopting a strategic approach has a small choices to begin or reengage in an activity,
effect on performance (Dinsmore et al., while experience-defined motivation,
2017). University students tend to move interest, is a predictor of persistence once
from initially adopting a surface approach the activity is engaged with. Social influences
to deep or strategic approaches as they can shape both kinds of motivation in ways
progress through their courses (McDonald that systematically contribute to differences
et al., 2017). The adoption of deep and in persistence and how individuals regulate
strategic approaches predicts learning motivation. In under-represented groups of
outcomes (Sæle et al., 2017). The learning students, social roles, group norms, inter-
environment plays an important role in the personal bias, and institutional structural
type of approach adopted with high quality barriers are important in shaping motiva-
programmes leading to greater use of stra- tional experiences and persistence (Thoman
tegic and deep approaches (Faranda et al., et al., 2019). Distance education is becoming
2020). Biggs (1996) advocated constructive more commonplace but can lead to feel-
alignment as a way of thinking about the ings of isolation, lack of self-direction and
relationships between learning, teaching, management, and a decrease in motiva-
and assessment. tion. However, programmes that promote
Metacognition and self-regulation positive emotions and self-efficacy beliefs
involving planning, monitoring, evaluating, and support appropriate learning methods
revising, and managing motivation, effort, can have a positive impact on learning
and avoiding distractions develop along- outcomes and minimise difficulties (Jeong
side expertise (Hoyle & Dent, 2017) and et al., 2019). High self-efficacy and posi-
are important in determining learning tive self-regulatory behaviours are reliable
outcomes (Azevedo, 2013; Caplovitz et al., predictors of academic success in online
2013; Voh & Baumeister, 2016). Several courses (Bradley et al., 2017), while meta-
models of self-regulated learning have devel- cognition contributes towards continuation

Susan Hallam
in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) along with prior achievement are also impli-
which typically have high levels of drop out cated in relation to school engagement (Li
(Tsai et al., 2018). Bakhtiar (2019), focusing et al., 2017). In higher education, incre-
on the challenges of online collaborations, mental and entity beliefs predict outcomes
found that overall, groups that experienced in a variety of STEM (science, technology,
a more positive outcome regarding motiva- engineering and mathematics) subjects
tion regulation had group members who (Lytle & Shin, 2020).
were more prepared at the start of the There are cultural differences in the
task, engaged in proactive forms of regu- extent to which students hold incremental
lation, were more metacognitively attuned or entity beliefs (Dilek & Dawson, 2017)
to the needs of individuals and the group and in the value that students place on
as whole, used diverse strategies, and regu- learning (Donohue, 2020). Structured
lated each other in a positive and encour- ability grouping in educational contexts
aging way. Co-regulation emerges when tends to reinforce entity beliefs. Such
affordances or constraints are appropriated practices can begin when children are
by groups to fundamentally provoke stra- very young. For instance, in England and
tegic monitoring, evaluating, or adapting of Wales the setting of early learning goals
motivational, behavioural, cognitive, and or and phonics screening steers early years
affective products. Shared regulation can be teachers towards ability-grouping practices
promoted by scripting planning and reflec- to ensure that children attain the required
tion to increase an awareness of learning outcomes (Roberts- Holmes, 2019). Such
processes, externalizing learning processes demands lead to more formal teaching and
in a social plane, and activating key regula- a focus on literacy and mathematics in addi-
tion processes (Hadwin et al., 2018). tion to the use of ability grouping (Brad-
bury, 2019). In primary education Hallam
Self-beliefs and Parsons (2013a) found that sixteen per
Beliefs about the nature of intelligence cent of five year olds were in streamed
can influence motivation. Children with classes with those in the bottom stream
an incremental theory of intelligence tending to be boys, those born in the spring
(malleable and improved through effort) or summer, those having behaviour prob-
tend to be mastery oriented, while those lems, from lone parent families, or having
with an entity theory (fixed and not low cognitive ability scores. Similar findings
subject to change) tend to be performance were reported for the practice of setting chil-
oriented, choosing tasks where they can dren for literacy and mathematics (Hallam
demonstrate their abilities. Holding incre- & Parsons, 2013b). Children in top streams
mental beliefs helps learners to be more in achieve more and make significantly more
tune with their past efforts demonstrating academic progress than children attending
metacognition by experience (Bae et al., schools that do not stream, while children
2021). Short interventions can promote in middle or bottom streams achieve less
incremental views of intelligence and and make less academic progress (Parsons
reduce the prevalence of performance goals & Hallam, 2014). As it is rare for children to
(DeBacker et al., 2018). This is important move between streams or sets, being placed
as those holding incremental views tend in a low set or stream can determine life
to have higher overall grades as well as in chances at a very early age.
specific subjects, although entity beliefs can Extensive research at secondary level
also be associated with specific verbal and has consistently failed to find significant
quantitative skills although at a lower level benefits for ability grouping and has iden-
(Costa & Faria, 2018). Incremental theories tified disadvantages for those in the lower

groups. However, this has had limited Transitions between and within
impact on school practice. Attempts to different learning environments
change practice have faced major challenges Transitions between or within learning
(Francis et al., 2019). Students believe that environments can distract learners from
teachers of higher sets have higher expec- a focus on their developing expertise.
tations and standards of behaviour, whereas Primary to secondary school transitions can
teachers of lower sets are viewed as unhelp- be particularly traumatic for some children
fully indulgent. Teachers’ expectations are (Jindal-Snape & Cantali, 2019), while plan-
strongly influenced by ability grouping with ning by schools to support transition is not
low attaining learners viewed as needing always effective. Transitions can lead to a loss
nurturing and protection which can foster of motivation to continue pursuing existing
dependency and limit opportunities for inde- areas of expertise as well as offering new
pendent learning (Mazenod et al., 2019). opportunities. There can be a reduction
Intrinsic motivation has a direct effect in self-efficacy as learners re-evaluate their
on learning behaviour which in turn affects competences in a new context, while tran-
attainment (Tokan & Imakulata, 2019). sitions can lead to increases in absenteeism
There are significant relationships between or exclusion from school, both likely to have
self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, learning long term negative consequences (Kearney
strategies, and academic performance (Weda et al., 2019), despite attempts by schools to
et al., 2018). Self-efficacy has been shown to reduce them (Kearney & Graczyk, 2020).
play a critical role in students’ motivation, Difficulties in transitions to higher educa-
engagement, participation, and retention tion can occur because of a lack of infor-
in science, technology, engineering, and mation about what to expect to support
mathematics (Kalnder et al., 2020) and in decision making particularly in relation to
reading achievement from kindergarten finance and future employment (Santelices
through to twelfth grade (Toste et al., 2020). et al., 2020).
Lack of progression or decline in attainment
is related to changes in students’ concepts Changes to curricula and assessment
of themselves as learners (Schwartz et al., procedures
2012). Engagement trajectories change over Changes in the school curriculum can limit
time and for some groups decline. Implicit the opportunities for developing expertise
theories of intelligence and self-efficacy in particular domains. School accountability
show different longitudinal associations with procedures in England and Wales have led
engagement trajectories (Zhen et al., 2020). to considerable curriculum change (Brill et
Aspirations and self-belief are affected by al., 2018; Gill, 2017). Examination outcomes
personal, cultural, community, societal, and are used to assess school performance
structural influences, while the level of exper- leading to a focus on those subjects which
tise attained can be limited by lack of aspiration are assessed (Spielman, 2017). At secondary
or the positive possible selves that individuals level there has been a reduction in opportu-
have and the importance of seeing a clear nities for taking skills based qualifications.
pathway to meet those aspirations (Harrison, This is a consequence of the introduction
2018). However, teachers can create positive of the English Baccalaureate (EBacc) and
learning cultures which develop aspirations Progress 8. The EBacc requires General
and self-belief in leaners (Jinks & Harber, Certificate of School Examination (GCSE)
2020), although offering choice to students passes in English, mathematics, science,
as advocated by self-determination theory can a language, and history or geography. All
be difficult in practice. full-course GCSEs count towards Progress
8 along with other approved high-value

Susan Hallam
qualifications, but schools typically require ford, 2016). Newly arrived immigrants and
EBacc subjects to be included reducing the refugees present particular challenges for
space for other subjects. Despite this, in schools. Here, peer mentoring has provided
2020, almost twenty per cent of students support, opportunities for making new
did not take the number of qualifications friends, and increased confidence (Messiou
required for completing an EBacc, although & Azaola, 2018). Mentoring has also helped
the curriculum for lower-attaining pupils has develop resilience in young women in care
tended to focus on the EBacc and Progress providing a trustworthy connection with
8 rather than what might be most relevant a role model leading to developmental
for them (Spielman, 2017). The arts, ICT, change (Mantovani et al., 2019). In higher
design technology, Physical Education, and education mentors report role modelling to
religious studies have been discontinued be the most beneficial element of mentoring,
or reduced in many schools because the in contrast to mentees who report psycholog-
EBacc element of Progress 8 has limited the ical and emotional support to be most bene-
number of option subject slots (Education ficial (Gunn et al., 2017).
Policy Institute, 2016). Assessment proce-
dures have also changed with a much greater Peers and friendship groups
emphasis on examinations. While this may Peers can offer friendship or may negatively
not be stressful for all pupils, if the school impact on the development of expertise.
climate places undue pressure on students to Friendship can act as a protective factor
achieve academically there may be implica- in adversity in childhood and psycholog-
tions for mental health in the long and short ical distress in adulthood (Mashhood,
term (Aldridge & McChesney, 2018). 2018), while pre-school attendance can
enhance peer support for children from
Teachers, mentors and pedagogy low socio-economic status families (Bursal,
Changes in teachers and teaching methods 2017). The development of integrated
can hamper the development of expertise. learning communities which provide peer
School aged students continue to perceive support is perceived positively by students
that a good teacher has command of his (Spiridon et al., 2020), while social support
or her subject; provides clear explanations; from peers and teachers can enhance
shares their experiences and provides lived self-esteem and self-control (Zhang et al.,
examples to relate information to students’ 2021). Peer support can protect adoles-
lives; can identify and understand students’ cents from becoming victims or perpetra-
strengths and weaknesses; and is fun and tors of bullying (Borowiec et al., 2021),
adopts humour while teaching (Haider & while a positive school climate can help to
Jalal, 2018). Emotional support in the class- prevent cyber bullying (Yang et al., 2021).
room is positively associated with students’ Peer learning facilitates the development of
emotional engagement and help-seeking soft and technical skills enhancing academic
(Poysa et al., 2019), while students’ sense of performance through cognitive, affective,
autonomy is important in nurturing engage- and social dimensions. It improves cooper-
ment in learning (Olivier et al., 2020) and in ation and interpersonal skills (Hallam et al.,
the development of agency in higher educa- 2017a; 2018), although there are challenges
tion (Jääskelä et al., 2020). Where teaching for teachers in the organisation and manage-
is poor, and pedagogy inadequate, student ment of activities (Hallam et al., 2017b).
learning will be affected. Overall, peer learning has the potential to
Interest in mentoring has increased transform pedagogy and lead to innovation
across a wide range of areas from primary (Carvalho & Santos, 2021; Hallam et al.,
school through to higher education (Culling- 2016).

Children with Special Educational Needs cross-cultural adjustment (Rientes & Nolan,
and Disabilities face particular challenges 2014). Peer support has also been shown to
in making friends and can experience be important for professional development
social isolation and low self-esteem. They (Rahman, 2019).
tend to develop support networks with each
other rather than with others and overall Children and young people at risk
are less likely to make friends than their Some children and young people are vulner-
abled peers (Mamas et al., 2020). There are able throughout their educational careers,
ways of offering support to these children, particularly at times of transition. These
for instance through electronic mentoring include summer born children, boys, those
(Lindsay et al., 2018). Children on the autistic from low economic status families, those
disorder spectrum tend to have few social with Special Educational Needs or Disabili-
interactions with classmates, although peer ties (SEND), those less fluent in English, and
support arrangements can increase social some minority ethnic groups. Children and
interactions and may increase academic young people with emotional, social, and or
engagement (Carter et al., 2016). Autistic behavioural difficulties face particular chal-
development can be nurtured through lenges, although children with parents who
autistic peer support including support for are incarcerated are also vulnerable. In the
executive functioning, formulating goals and USA there has been a great deal of research
future aspirations, getting to know strengths in how to support this group of children
and difficulties and how to overcome them (Eddy & Poehlmann-Tynan, 2019). In
(Bertilsdotter Rosqvist, 2019). England and Wales, exclusions from school
In higher education peer support and are more common in boys than girls and
sense of belonging are essential protective increase with age peaking at age 14. Pupils
factors for university students’ mental health eligible for free school meals and those with
and wellbeing particularly during off campus special educational needs are among those
work or when transitioning to the labour more frequently excluded, although pupils of
market (McBeath et al., 2018). Social support Gypsy Roma ethnic groups have the highest
can play an important role in the transi- rates of permanent and fixed-period exclu-
tion to post-graduate education. Students sions, followed by traveller of Irish heritage
can benefit from specialised support from ethnic groups (Department for Education,
peers who are dealing with similar academic 2021). Attainment follows a similar pattern
challenges. Facebook groups have potential with these groups scoring the lowest in terms
as a platform for building supportive peer of Attainment 8 followed by Black Caribbean
networks (McLaughlin & Sillence, 2018). pupils. In every ethnic group girls perform
Recently, there has been an increase in the better than boys, while those from families
number of students studying away from their living in poverty across all ethnic groups
home countries. This can present adjust- perform less well (Department for Educa-
ment challenges. Students from different tion, 2021). Peer influences and school prac-
cultural backgrounds may develop dissim- tices seem to be the primary mechanisms
ilar co-national and international friend- through which socioeconomic composition
ships and learning relationships over time, influences achievement. School practices
although social interactions between inter- do not fully address the negative conse-
national and host students do not necessarily quences of attending a school in an area of
become closer over time. Mixed group activ- socioeconomic deprivation (Palardy, 2020).
ities can temporarily increase cross-cultural These inequities are exacerbated by the
interaction, indicating that lecturers and normative cohort assessment system in place
institutions can play a role in improving for GCSE examinations which means that

Susan Hallam
the proportion at each grade level available correct them to taking a broader perspec-
to each cohort is predetermined. This means tive particularly in relation to professional
that thirty two per cent of young people fail development. Ongoing research in relation
in each subject each year. School closures to epistemological beliefs, metacognition,
brought about by the Covid-19 pandemic are self-regulation, and beliefs about the nature
likely to further widen the attainment gap of intelligence has clarified some issues
(Coe et al., 2020). and explored the relationships between
Universities in the UK have had some these. Changes between learning environ-
success in attracting increasingly diverse ments continue to be challenging for some
undergraduate cohorts but students from learners, although the nature of support
black and minority ethnic (BME) back- from schools, teachers, mentors, and peers
grounds perform less well in their final degree continues to be studied with relevant prac-
classifications, even when entry qualifications, tical outcomes. Little has changed in terms
subject of study, and student characteristics of the groups of children and young people
are taken into account (Ross et al., 2018). who are at risk of not fulfilling their poten-
Although the reasons for this are not entirely tial, although refugees and other immigrants
clear (Richardson, 2018) there is evidence might now be included. The key issue facing
that students from BME backgrounds face those engaged in educational psychology,
many obstacles which may undermine their particularly in England and Wales, is how
initial desire to achieve their full potential to influence government policy. Recently
(Bunce et al., 2021), although institutions can introduced school accountability measures
introduce changes to improve the situation related to assessment have led to an increase
(McDuff et al., 2018). in ability grouping even in very young chil-
dren. This serves to undermine beliefs about
Conclusions the incremental nature of intelligence and
Since 2009, there has been a great deal of also reduce opportunities for developing
research relating to the development of expertise in some domains as schools have
expertise and the transitions that may be reduced their curriculum offer to meet
experienced by learners as their level of the new criteria. The focus on assessment
expertise increases. Expertise research itself and examinations in particular can create
has changed direction to either focus on stress which along with other school climate
very high level expertise or to take account factors may lead to mental health issues.
of the many factors which are important in Further, the normative cohort assessment
its development rather than focusing on the system ensures that a large proportion of
role of deliberate practice. The model of children are doomed to failure no matter
domain learning has been developed further how hard they work.
and is particularly relevant for understanding
learning in the context of formal education. Susan Hallam MBE
Research on conceptual change has moved Emerita Professor of Education and Music
from a focus on misconceptions and how to Psychology, UCL Institute of Education.
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On the use of cognitive science in teacher
education in England
Jo-Anne Baird
Cognitive science has been advancing in a range of areas that are very helpful for teachers, such as
spaced learning, interleaving, retrieval practice, managing cognitive load, working with schemas,
multimedia learning, and embodied learning. The Education Endowment Foundation funded a review
of ‘Cognitive Science in the Classroom’, which identified high quality research and translated it for
teachers. In a series of policy documents, the Department for Education has integrated the findings of
this report into its initial teacher education curriculum. Construction of a curriculum is not a value-
neutral, scientific activity. In this article, I raise issues regarding the kinds of teaching that will be
produced in this approach. There are epistemological, axiological, ontological, and pedagogical issues
underlying the decisions that have been taken. Use of cognitive science in teacher education in an
instrumental way could damage confidence in educational psychology if it undermines the quality of
teacher education and teaching in England.
S
YSTEMATIC use of cognitive science are the business of educational psycholo-
in teaching, and teacher education gists, as they concern how advances in
is now part of government policy in cognitive science research impact society.
the UK, promoted through the Education Shaping the teachers of the future is no
Endowment Foundation (EEF) and a series small matter.
of coordinated Department for Educa-
tion policies: the Early Career Framework The EEF – investigating and
(ECF), Core Content Framework (CCF), communicating What Works
and ITT Market Review (Baukham et al., The UK government was frustrated by the
2021; DfE 2019a; DfE 2019b). This success lack of policy-focus in educational research,
story for the impact of cognitive science finding it small-scale, non-cumulative,
research on teacher education policy raises methodologically weak, and even politi-
a range of challenges regarding knowledge cally motivated (Hargreaves, 1996; Hillage
in teacher education. It presents epistemo- et al., 1998; McIntyre & McIntyre, 1999;
logical questions about how we know it is Tooley & Darby, 1998). Equally, teachers
‘the best quality evidence’ for use in real were unlikely to look for research evidence
classrooms, axiological questions about to inform their practice, instead turning to
whose knowledge is privileged, ontolog- colleagues for advice and valuing research
ical questions about the changing nature that matched their personal experiences
of knowledge, and pedagogical ques- (Hemsley-Brown & Sharp, 2003). Hence,
tions about how teachers should gain this there were calls for evidence-based
knowledge. Ultimately, the issue under- education (Hargreaves, 1997). The
lying these questions is: when cognitive evidence-based practice movement is a call
science research for teacher education is for changes to the way that evidence is
used in this way, what kind of teachers generated and the way that professions
and teaching are created? These matters operate (Biesta, 2007).

On the use of cognitive science in teacher education in England
The mission of the EEF is to support schools of the EPPI-Centre reviews found that only
to improve teaching and learning through 2.5 per cent of the thousands of relevant
better use of evidence, thereby breaking the references were suitable in terms of quality
link between family income and educational of the data (Oakley et al., 2005, p.12), when
achievement.1 As a member of the What Works quality is viewed from this perspective. Advo-
Network2 of ten What Works centres, the EEF is cates and critics alike make many important
based upon the National Institute for Health points about the levels of evidence approach
and Care Excellence (NICE) model. It has to epistemology (e.g. Hammersley, 2020;
a number of international partners who enable Slavin, 2020).
a wider evidence base and promote the adop-
tion of evidence-based policy. The Evidence Research syntheses
for Policy and Practice Information and Coor- As well as knowledge production,
dinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) at the Institute the EEF translates knowledge into
of Education in London was a methodological practitioner-friendly communications, such
precursor for these developments. as the Teaching and Learning Toolkit for
teachers.3 Findings from systematic reviews
The epistemological question: what is the are presented in an accessible manner, indi-
best quality knowledge? cating the costs of the intervention, secu-
The EEF is a knowledge broker for policy rity of the evidence in the reviewed articles
makers and education practitioners. Its (in ‘padlocks’) and the estimated impact
approach has been in keeping with the (in months of progress). A guide to the
Cochrane review model used in health- EEF Teaching and Learning Toolkit ratings
care, preferring randomised control trial (Higgins et al., 2016) has been published.
experimental designs (RCTs) and research The EEF quality of evidence rating scale
syntheses as hallmarks of research quality. The (Table 1) shows the preferences for quan-
evidence-based practice movement is driven titative data, effect sizes, meta-analysis and
by a view that there is a hierarchy of evidence, multiple systematic reviews. As with all assess-
such as that shown in Figure 1. Meta-analysis, ment criteria, there are judgments to be
involving the calculation of the effect size of made as to which of the levels applies to
an intervention, across multiple studies is a particular review.
viewed as being the strongest evidence that EEF systematic reviews are not created
can be obtained, so long as the studies them- equally. Let us contrast two of the system-
selves were well conducted and reported. At atic reviews – on learning style and phonics.
the other end of the scale is expert opinion, Learning styles are the notion that people
which can be anecdotal. Notwithstanding, have a particular approach to learning,
critical evaluation is an important technique such as a preference for a particular sensory
which can change our entire way of thinking modality in presentation of information.
and it is largely based upon expert analysis. They have already been debunked in the
Ground-breaking scientific insights are not literature as ‘pseudoscientific chaff’ (Reiner
usually brought about through meta-analysis. & Willingham, 2010). Nonetheless, the myth
Additionally, the vast majority of educational is strong, so it is worthwhile that the EEF has
research knowledge available is screened out an evidence-based approach to the topic.
in educational meta-analyses. One analysis The Toolkit indicates that learning styles
1 https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
2 https://www.gov.uk/guidance/what-works-network, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/677478/6.4154_What_works_report_Final.pdf
3 https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/teaching-learning-toolkit

Jo-Anne Baird
Figure 1: Levels of evidence.
Meta-
analysis
Systematic
review
Randomised
control-trial
Case control studies
Case reports
Expert opinion
Table 1: EEF quality of evidence ratings.

Number of ‘padlocks’ Label Description
Quantitative evidence of impact from single
studies, but with effect size data reported or
1 Very limited
calculable. No systematic reviews with quantitative
data or meta-analyses located.
At least one meta-analysis or systematic
review with quantitative evidence of impact on
2 Limited
attainment or cognitive or curriculum outcome
measures.
Two or more rigorous meta-analyses of
3 Moderate experimental studies of school age students with
cognitive or curriculum outcome measures.
Three or more meta-analyses from well-controlled
experiments mainly undertaken in schools using
4 Extensive
pupil attainment data with some exploration of
causes of any identified heterogeneity.
Consistent high quality evidence from at least
five robust and recent meta-analyses where
the majority of the included studies have good
5 Very extensive
ecological validity and where the outcome
measures include curriculum measures or
standardised tests in school subject areas.

interventions are not costly, but studies on work, at least when compared to standard
the topic are poor quality and have little school treatment. An analysis of 141 rigorous
impact. In this particular case, though, it RCTs funded by the EEF found that few
is only in the Technical Appendix that we demonstrated sizeable benefits compared to
find that ‘no studies were identified that met teaching as usual in schools (Lortie-Forgues
the pre-specified inclusion criteria’ for the & Inglis, 2019). Reflecting on this, the
systematic review. Here, we encounter one EEF has questioned whether traditional
of the problems in translating research for approaches in schools are of such a high
practitioners: transparency in the evaluation standard that the interventions do not
of the information can be lost. The edifice improve upon them (Nevill, 2019). Whilst
of the Toolkit ratings and the considerable it would be encouraging to think that the
expertise behind the methodologies laid out regular English education system is hard
in the Technical Appendix belie the fact to beat with new-fangled interventions, this
that there was no systematic review in this case seems hard to credit in the face of the school
because none of the studies were of high and college funding crises and teacher short-
enough quality to be included. Methodolog- ages that the system currently faces. Other
ical choices have to be made in knowledge potential explanations include the quality
translation for practitioners, but a guiding of the measures being used in the studies,
principle should be that obfuscation is the fidelity of implementation, attrition of
avoided, lest it undermine the whole enter- schools and learners from the studies, and
prise. After all, some of the other reviews the difficulty in producing replicable find-
behind the Toolkit, such as the one on the ings in education experiments (Connolly et
use of phonics teaching, have a wealth of al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2018; Nevill, 2019;
studies behind them (N=121).4 Siddiqui et al., 2018). Then again, the repli-
cation crisis is prominent across scientific
Randomised Control Trials disciplines, affecting scientists’ and the
The EEF is the biggest funder globally of public’s confidence in research (Anvari &
large-scale RCTs in education (Connelly Lakens, 2019). What is to be done? Too
et al., 2017); having published the results restrictive an epistemology risks throwing
of over 150 at the time of writing. Initial out the baby with the bathwater; but too lax
funding for the EEF from the Depart- epistemology risks the pursuit of snake oil
ment for Education (DfE) was 125 million strategies.
pounds and the 2022 Government White
Paper Opportunity for All pledged another Endorsing the Initial Teacher Education
100 million pounds. Over two thirds of Curriculum
schools in England were involved in EEF More recently, the EEF endorsed the 2019
RCTs as at March 2020 (Edovald et al., Early Career Framework as drawing ‘on the
2021). Standards for the design of the best available evidence’ and indicated that
studies are high in terms of separation ‘this evidence has been interpreted with
of the evaluation and intervention teams, fidelity’(DfE, 2019a, p.4). This changed the
advance publication of the study design, status of the EEF as a knowledge broker. The
and ensuring the outcome measures were ITT Core Content Framework (DfE, 2019b)
not generated by the intervention team. is the core curriculum for teacher educa-
Somewhat disappointingly, these RCTs tion programmes in England. Psychologists
often showed that interventions did not may delight in the proposition that teacher
4 https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/teaching-learning-toolkit/phonics-
technical-appendix

Jo-Anne Baird
educators ‘ensure…that trainees have (Hao et al., under review). If the memory
a good knowledge of those aspects of cogni- mechanisms are general, why is there not
tive science’ in the curriculum for teacher more general transfer of training? In fact,
education (Baukham et al., 2021). we know from psychology research that
In keeping with a What Works approach, transfer of training is rare (Sala & Gobet,
the EEF certified which kinds of knowl- 2017). Thus, the cognitive model leaves
edge teachers should have, just as NICE a lot to be explained for educationalists,
Guidelines (e.g. for treatment of depres- since:
sion5) indicate which treatments can be
funded in the National Health Service. The risk of a pure psychology approach…
Borrowing the approach to knowledge is that it can lead to erroneous theories
from healthcare, we are confronted with based on inferred causal mechanisms that
an epistemological question about the cannot be realised in real time by the brain.
kinds of knowledge encountered in health (Thomas et al., 2018).
and in education. The causal mecha-
nisms underlying health interventions are Trainees could be forgiven for thinking
medical; biological in nature. There are that the cognitive science underpinning
also psychological and social effects upon their quality-assured curriculum was based
their efficacy, of course. In psychology upon brain science. However, psycholog-
causal explanations at different levels ical causal explanations are not physiolog-
of reductionism are available. Cognitive ical models: they do not map well with
behavioural therapy operates at a cognitive brain activation (Mareschal et al., 2007).
level, whereas antidepressants have Psychological concepts have many-to-one
a biological causal mechanism. Cognitive mappings with brain structures, such as the
neuroscience is at the juncture of cogni- various functions that seem to involve the
tion and physiology. The underlying meta- amygdala. Equally, there are one-to-many
phor for cognitive psychology theory is mappings, such as the many areas of the
a symbolic computer. Cognitive science brain that seem to be involved in the kinds
encapsulates both cognitive psychology of memory processes shown in Atkinson
and cognitive neuroscience; the former and Shiffrin’s model of memory (Figure 2),
using brain imaging techniques and the quoted by Perry et al. (2021) in their EEF
latter using experimental, behavioural review of cognitive science in the classroom.
observations and interpretive techniques. Psychological models have been very useful
Universal causal mechanisms are sought in explaining and predicting behaviour,
in cognitive science, not contextualised, offering a level of causal explanation that is
dynamic and socially-constructed knowl- helpful. Advances in neuroscience may ulti-
edge. mately supplant these causal explanatory
General information processing mecha- models, providing better theories. At any
nisms are invoked in cognitive psychology, rate, it is important that trainee teachers are
such as working memory and long-term not misled about the basis of the knowledge
memory. But this does not square well underpinning the curriculum.
with the reality of teaching practice. For In education, interventions are rarely
example, test preparation has been shown considered at the level of a biological causal
to increase scores on the specific test that mechanism. The effects of diet, hydration,
learners prepared for, but transfer of this and a good night’s sleep on learning are
learning to other tests is seldom observed of course counter-examples, but it is not
5 https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng222/chapter/recommendations#treatment-for-a-new-epi-
sode-of-more-severe-depression

Figure 2: Model of memory.

Environment Cogni%on
Rehearsal
Sensory Short-term Encoding

Long-term
S"mulus A"en%on
memory memory Retrieval memory
Rehearsal
Forge&ng
Based on Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, p.93).
these matters that are the focus of a teacher high-quality research on issues of impor-
education curriculum. Socially-constructed tance for schools. One example of this is
teaching and learning are the underlying the lack of evidence regarding the effec-
causal mechanisms in education. A What tiveness of approaches to written marking
Works agenda is best suited to universal used in schools in England, despite the fact
solutions that are not context-dependent. that it has huge implications for teachers’
Therefore, a biological causal mechanism workload. The EEF has gone beyond
aligns well with the approach (Davies, meta-analyses and systematic reviews, with
1999; Fox, 2003). The lure of neurosci- ‘Evidence Reviews’: a more narrative style
ence for the EEF is understandable for of review, which may include primary
this reason, as well as its popular appeal research on school policies and practices.
(Howard-Jones, 2014). The term cognitive Addressing topics that matter for
science is appealing because it points to teachers in ‘Evidence Reviews’ is part of
both scientific methods and neuroscience the EEF strategy. Consequently, the EEF
techniques, with their biological causal funded a review of evidence on written
model connotations. marking (Elliott et al., 2016), which
demonstrated that whilst there is a lot
The axiological question: whose of research on marking, there was little
knowledge? evidence regarding the kinds of prac-
The axiological question of whose knowl- tices being used in schools. School poli-
edge is privileged is affected by the turn cies were replete with marking practices
to cognitive science. As the goal of the that teachers themselves thought were not
EEF is to improve education in schools, the best use of their time, such as ‘triple
abstract, lab-based research which does not marking’ in which teachers marked the
work in practice is not the most useful. work, pupils re-drafted their answers in
To address this, the EEF has an explicit response, and the teachers finally approved
methodological preference for research it. The Chief Inspector of Schools clarified
that has been conducted in school settings the position of Ofsted, saying that it had
in many of its projects. However, burning never required this.6 Nonetheless, the view
issues for teachers in schools may not have was prevalent amongst schools; teachers
been high on the agenda for researchers. reported finding these techniques helpful
Thus, there may be no research, or no in gaining good school inspections.
6 https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/amanda-spielmans-speech-at-the-ascl-annual-conference-2018

Jo-Anne Baird
This issue illustrates a number of which looks at spaced learning, interleaving,

matters. The primary approach to efficacy retrieval practice, managing cognitive load,
of marking in many school policies was not working with schemas, multimedia learning
about student outcomes; the audience was and embodied learning: all topics of poten-
the inspectorate. Teachers report feeling tial interest to teachers, but we will focus
alienated in their work because of strat- upon cognitive load. Based upon cogni-
egies such as this, in which they behave tive architecture and evolutionary theory,
in ways that they do not believe in, to cognitive load theory seeks to explain how
fulfil objectives and targets that they would ‘secondary’, cultural knowledge of the kind
not themselves prioritise, as professionals taught in school is processed in memory
(Ball, 2003). This review also illustrates (Sweller, 2011). If cognitive load of a task
a gulf in the research agendas and contem- exceeds an individual’s processing capacity
porary practice in education in England, it is likely that they will give up. As illustrated
which will in turn have been affected by the in Figure 3, cognitive load can be due to the
funding available for research. Returning inherent difficulty of the material (intrinsic),
to the axiological question, teachers’ the way the material is presented that hinders
knowledge was integrated in this Evidence learning (extraneous), or aspects that help
Review. However, this issue also shows that with cognitive processing and the building of
teachers’ classroom practices are affected schemas (germane). Cognitive load theory is
by the wider education system. This was widely cited and is a helpful way of theorising
already known in educational research, as how people find themselves overloaded
well as in policy research. In this case, What when they are trying to learn.
Works, when narrowly defined as the effects Most of the research on cognitive load
of marking practices on student outcomes, is conducted in maths and science teaching
answers the wrong question. Rational (Perry et al., 2021). Features of cognitive
teachers who wanted a good inspection overload and even its relevance to teaching
outcome were steered towards other objec- are likely to differ across subject areas such
tives. as English literature, Italian, computing,
Many policies affect teacher practice at physical education, and art. Thus, even if the
any given time, so teachers’ expert opin- research in maths and science told teachers
ions are important in understanding what all they needed to know, we would have
is happening in schools. The efficacy of a knowledge gap in other subjects, which
interventions will depend upon this. The trainees, their mentors, and their tutors
EEF studies collect process data as well as have to bridge. Application of science to
outcome data. They conduct effectiveness real world practice is a complex skill (Schön,
trials under everyday conditions in schools. 1992), which has a lot to do with intelligent
These are important for understanding problem solving by professionals who adapt
the real-world conditions of the research, to the context. Indeed, Perry et al. (2021)
but expert opinion is still a lowly form recognised a wide range of these factors
of evidence in this epistemology, making (Figure 4). A very transparent review of the
teachers’ knowledge and expertise less literature is presented in this EEF Review,
valued than other forms. with clear recommendations for practice,
To return to the use of cognitive science, a summary of the theory, and worked exam-
let us trace the cognitive science under- ples in the summary report. The key tech-
pinnings of the curriculum from the EEF, niques presented for teachers are the use of
through the teacher education curriculum. worked examples for learners, scaffolding
We start with an Evidence Review, Cognitive tasks, and collaborative problem solving
Science in the Classroom (Perry et al., 2021), between learners.

Figure 3: Elements of cognitive load.
Extraneous
Unhelpful
presentation
Intrinsic Germane
Assists processing
Inherent & schema
difficulty development
Cognitive
load
Figure 4: Possible factors affecting the impact of cognitive science techniques in the classroom.
Pupils Tasks Teachers Environment
• Prior knowledge • Subject area • Pedagogical skill •Culture

• Working memory • Learning content • Subject-specific •Disruption
capacity • Learning activity knowledge •Learning resources
• Nutrition • Assessment • Experience •Emotional
• Hydration • Motivation for the environment
• Alertness technique •Relationships
• Activlity level
• Mood
• Emotional state
• Motivation
• Personality
• Temperament
• Special educational
needs
• Learning strategies
• Age & maturity
Based on Perry et al. (2021, p.13)

Jo-Anne Baird
The Initial Teacher Training Core inclusion of the role of mentors in the ‘learn
Content Framework is set out in relation how to’ statements and indicates that prac-
to the Teachers’ Standards (DfE, 2011), tice knowledge has been used to develop the
together with the knowledge (‘learn that’ curriculum. Practice knowledge in educa-
statements) and skills (‘learn how to’ state- tion is often codified, through educational
ments) that they should acquire (Table 2). research that uses quantitative research,
The Early Career Framework, covering the mixed methods research, critical evalua-
first two years’ standards is expressed in the tion, or qualitative techniques. However, the
same way. ‘Learn that’ knowledge is based Framework does not reference those sources
upon current ‘high-quality reviews and in relation to the cognitive science mate-
syntheses’ such as that produced by Perry rial and in other areas, so we are left in
et al. (2021). ‘Learn how to’ statements are the dark as to how practice knowledge has
based upon the ‘best available educational been drawn upon. Inevitably under these
research, guidance from the Expert Advi- circumstances, we look to the authors to
sory Group and other sector representa- gauge what kinds of knowledge they might
tives’(DfE, 2019a, p.4). bring to the work: an ad hominin evalua-
Bear in mind that most teachers do not tion. So, the Core Content Framework has
have a degree in psychology, and many an axiological blend of cognitive science,
will not be social scientists, so memory and which is highly specified, and practice
working memory are important concepts in knowledge, of unspecified source.
a teacher education curriculum. Statement Whose knowledge is prioritised in
4 indicates that working memory can become the curriculum is not evidence-based.
overloaded, which can impact learning. To There is not a transparent process of
counteract this, teachers must learn to plan consensus-building towards what should
how much new information to introduce in be included in this curriculum. Yet inclu-
a lesson, reduce distractions (e.g. keep the sion of professional bodies and institu-
complexity of tasks to a minimum), break tions is surely important to the building
material down into smaller steps (e.g. using of a curriculum for teacher education that
partially completed tasks) and sequence draws upon the knowledge of teachers
material so that new information can build and teacher educators, as well as cognitive
upon foundational concepts. It has to be scientists.
recognised that these are techniques which
were already in use in many classrooms, The ontological question: the changing
without reference to cognitive science. nature of knowledge
Indeed, a source of prospects for cogni- The Core Content Framework and the Early
tive science research is existing classroom Career Framework include bibliographies
practice (Thomas et al., 2018). However, of recommended reading; for example,
causal explanations that come with cogni- a cognitive science book on evidence-based
tive science offer a depth of explanation for approaches to manage cognitive load (Clark
their effectiveness, as well as the capacity to et al., 2006) is listed (DfE, 2019a, p.28). The
generate hypotheses for further research. sources are selected on the basis that they
Equally, there will be classroom practices for are available publicly and are accessible for
which there is not such a rich evidence basis teachers. In the absence of a plan to update
from cognitive science. Next, we turn to the the reading list, the knowledge is ossified,
explication of cognitive science for teacher but this is not how science works. Science
education in the Core Content Framework. is all about advancing our knowledge in
The ITT Core Content Framework a cumulative way. Traditionally, curriculum
embraces practice knowledge by virtue of reading lists for those who are entering a field

Table 2: ITT Core Content Framework excerpt – Standard 2: promoting progress.

Learn that… Learn how to…
1. Learning involves a lasting change in pupils’ Avoid overloading working memory, by:
capabilities or understanding. • Receiving clear, consistent and effective
mentoring in how to take into account pupils’
prior knowledge when planning how much
new information to introduce.
2. Prior knowledge plays an important role in • Discussing and analysing with expert
how pupils learn; committing some key facts colleagues how to reduce distractions that
to their long-term memory is likely to help take attention away from what is being
pupils learn more complex ideas. taught (e.g. keeping the complexity of a task
to a minimum, so that attention is focused on
the content).
3. An important factor in learning is memory, And - following expert input - by taking
which can be thought of as comprising two opportunities to practise, receive feedback and
elements: working memory and long-term improve at:
memory. • Breaking complex material into smaller steps
(e.g. using partially completed examples to
focus pupils on the specific steps).
4. Working memory is where information that Build on pupils’ prior knowledge, by:
is being actively processed is held, but its • Discussing and analysing with expert
capacity is limited and can be overloaded. colleagues how to sequence lessons so that
pupils secure foundational knowledge before
encountering more complex content.
5. Long-term memory can be considered as a • Discussing and analysing with expert
store of knowledge that changes as pupils colleagues how to identify possible
learn by integrating new ideas with existing misconceptions and plan how to prevent
knowledge. these forming.
6. Where prior knowledge is weak, pupils are more And - following expert input - by taking
likely to develop misconceptions, particularly if opportunities to practise, receive feedback and
new ideas are introduced too quickly. improve at:
• Encouraging pupils to share emerging
understanding and points of confusion so
that misconceptions can be addressed.
• Linking what pupils already know to what
is being taught (e.g. explaining how new
content builds on what is already known).
7. Regular purposeful practice of what has Increase likelihood of material being retained, by:
previously been taught can help consolidate • Observing how expert colleagues plan
material and help pupils remember what they regular review and practice of key ideas and
have learned. concepts over time (e.g. through carefully
planned use of structured talk activities) and
deconstructing this approach.

Jo-Anne Baird
Table 2: ITT Core Content Framework excerpt – Standard 2: promoting progress. (Continued).
Learn that… Learn how to…
8. Requiring pupils to retrieve information from • Discussing and analysing with expert colleagues
memory, and spacing practice so that pupils how to design practice, generation and retrieval
revisit ideas after a gap are also likely to tasks that provide just enough support so that
strengthen recall. pupils experience a high success rate when
attempting challenging work.
9. Worked examples that take pupils through And - following expert input - by taking
each step of a new process are also likely to opportunities to practise, receive feedback and
support pupils to learn. improve at:
• Balancing exposition, repetition, practice and
retrieval of critical knowledge and skills.
• Increasing challenge with practice and
retrieval as knowledge becomes more secure
(e.g. by removing scaffolding, lengthening
spacing or introducing interacting elements).
Based on DfE (2019b, p.11–12)
focus upon textbooks. The general area is available, for consumption. The teacher
explained, leading the learner into the topic. education policy documents indicate that
Classic texts are referenced. We see this in these are ‘suggested’ readings, which can be
the use of a 1968 memory model in the shared with trainees to ‘support their critical
Evidence Review by Perry et al. (2021) – this engagement with research’. Yet there are
model still has currency. These approaches no readings which scaffold critical engage-
to the construction of a reading list help ment with research, showing that this not the
to guide the learner about what matters in education model being prioritised.
a field, what is seen as high quality, and what Analysis and evaluation are highly valued
is contested. These principles were not cited higher order thinking skills precisely because
in the generation of the current lists. we want people to be able to think for them-
selves, beyond the material that they have
The pedagogical question: how are been presented with on a course. To adapt
teachers to be educated to the real world circumstances in which
Most of the reading resources in the policy we find ourselves as professionals, as well as
documents are of high quality, but given to prepare us for a future in which current
that these have been endorsed by the EEF as knowledge has become outmoded, the
the best available, they have a high standard capacity to evaluate research is important.
to meet. Not all of the references meet this Moreover, this has long been recognised in
bar. The Science of Learning, written by the teacher education (Burn & Mutton, 2015).
Deans for Impact gives scant information Rightly, we expect young people’s education
for trainee teachers (Deans for Impact, to foster higher order thinking skills. To do
2015). In translating cognitive science for that, we need teachers who are able to teach
teachers, selections have been made and and model this way of thinking.
the ten-page source reduces the material Much depends upon how teacher
to a staccato text, with no context for the education institutions are accredited and
reader to grapple with the various theories inspected. As ever, policy in this area is in
in the field. Instead of scaffolding teachers’ flux. However, the current approach to
higher order thinking skills of evaluation, accreditation involves certifying that there is
the materials are presented as the best facts an evidence-based curriculum, covering all

aspects of the Core Content Framework. The target worked examples to the right level of
entirety of the content of the Framework pupil expertise. Cognitive load has been but
should be fully integrated (Baukham et al., one example we could have chosen; we could
2021, p. 11). To be accredited, institutions equally have examined one of the other areas
have to demonstrate that they have included as illustrations.
the materials set out in this core:
Conclusion
Providers of ITT should develop an evidence- Internationally, it is recognised that the quality
based training curriculum as a condition of of teaching is vital for the quality of educa-
accreditation which allows trainees to under- tion systems (OECD, 2005). Consequently,
stand and apply the principles of the CCF in the nature of the knowledge reflected in the
a controlled, cumulative and logical manner, teacher education curriculum, its quality,
as set out in the Quality Requirements. and the ways in which it shapes the trainee
(Baukham et al., 2021, p.36) teacher, are crucial matters for psychology and
education. Psychology is a wider field than
Most teacher education programmes, the cognitive science favoured by the What
particularly at secondary school level, are Works agenda. Both within cognitive science
short and intensive. Thus, the ‘core’ is highly and more broadly, psychology is an exciting
likely to become both the minimum and and rapidly moving field that is generating new
maximum curriculum in practice. knowledge that can at least be tested in educa-
Taking the evidence-base and translating tional settings. Significant challenges remain
it into practice is no mean feat. Studies of to bridge the research-practice gap in this area.
cognitive load indicate the benefits of Psychologists have much to offer here by way
worked examples, scaffolding, metacognitive of research, translation of that research for
training, and collaborative learning (Perry et practitioners and policy-makers, and a duty to
al., 2021). Experiments naturally investigated challenge inappropriate uses of psychological
very specific issues, such as the use of exam- research and over-claiming about the state of
ples for teaching algebra in classrooms (e.g. the field (e.g. see Webster, 2020).
Booth et al., 2015). Let us consider the state To recap, the EEF have underwritten the
of the art in cognitive load theory and how it quality of knowledge in the teacher education
can be applied to education. Teachers design curriculum. Certifying what is the best quality
assessments as part of their work. The cogni- of evidence is a complex business that cannot
tive load literature should help us to design be fully addressed in this article, though I have
assessments that are not distracting and can alluded to and illustrated some of the issues.
be targeted at the right concepts, with the There is an axiological preference for cogni-
right level of demand for test-takers. Although tive science and an epistemological prefer-
we know a lot about the kinds of variables ence aligned with the Cochrane review model.
that can affect cognitive load, there are few Government policy has crystallised and ossified
studies in the literature where that knowl- the teacher education curriculum to a level
edge has significantly predicted the difficulty of which references teachers should know.
of assessment questions (e.g. El Masri et al., Higher order thinking skills of analysis and
2017). As always, science is developing, but evaluation are not prioritised in this pedagog-
there is a research-practice gap to be bridged. ical model, in which knowledge is seen as fact.
And assessment design is less complex than Deciding how and what to educate
classroom teaching more broadly. Cogni- teachers is far from a neutral activity. For that
tive science does not tell teachers what will matter, neither is science a neutral activity,
produce cognitive overload for individuals, but presenting information as neutral is
how best to ‘chunk’ information, or how to part of the scientific approach. Constructing

Jo-Anne Baird
a curriculum and associated pedagogy that tice is certainly a positive development and
seeks to empower teachers to become intel- how it is formulated is crucial. A narrow, instru-
ligent arbiters of knowledge is a value-based mental, uncontested, and bounded curriculum
objective, to which not everyone will ascribe. for teacher education would be very damaging
As Biesta (2007) reminded us, Dewey consid- to England’s future. Scripted teaching,
ered that intelligent problem solving involved without the capacity to adapt to the needs
considering both the means and the ends. As of learners and their contexts would funda-
currently presented, the Core Content Frame- mentally undermine educational standards.
work prejudges what is important: student Teachers are being turned off the profession
attainment. and it is difficult to recruit trainees due to the
Whilst student attainment is of course de-professionalising and alienating approach
important, teaching is about more than to teaching that has come in part through
improving assessment outcomes; addressing accountability mechanisms that control
motivation, engagement, self-regulation, inclu- teachers and teacher education. Other, intel-
sion, wellbeing, safeguarding, preparation ligent accountability approaches are available
for the world of work and so on. Take the (see for example, Gore et al., 2022; Lillejord,
suggested reading on practice testing in the 2019). Cognitive science needs to be inte-
Core Content Framework, which shows that grated in the teacher education curriculum in
practice testing can increase student outcomes a way that fosters professionalism, rather than
(Adescope et al., 2017). Presumably trainee undermines it in trainees and their educators.
teachers are to conclude that practice testing is Teacher education was criticised in the past
a good thing. This flies in the face of concern for being overly-theoretical and not providing
in education internationally that too much enough practical experience in schools. Now,
testing in education has led to superficial, cognitive science will become associated with
atomistic learning, and drilling rather than instrumental teacher education unless the way
a deep education (e.g. see Baird et al., 2016). in which it is used in teacher education policy
Improving student attainment is far from changes.
enough because how students learn affects
their retention, their attitudes to learning, Jo-Anne Baird
their study skills and more. There is a world of Professor of Educational Assessment,
education beyond test performance. University of Oxford
Having an evidence base for teaching prac-
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The Psychology of Education Section of

The British Psychological Society

Noel Entwistle FBPS Susan Hallam MBE Jo-Anne Baird

Produced by the Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society.

Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition 1

2 Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition

Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition 3

4 Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition

Table 1: Characteristics of a deep approach.

Edinburgh in 1978. My research groups sought and developed understanding,

Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition 5

‘Understanding’ was experienced as a feeling of In revising, one strategy we identified involved

6 Vernon-Wall Lecture – Anniversary Edition

education (see Entwistle, 2018, pp.120–148). a written explanation, which he described as

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Table 2: Means of cluster centroids relating to students’ ratings on academic progress.

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Table 3: Main concepts used in describing ways of enhancing university teaching.

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Figure 1: An ‘inner teaching-learning environment’ within electronic engineering.

(Based on Entwistle, 2018, p.215).

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Table 4: Aspirations, approaches to studying, and experiences of teaching.

Percentage agreement with items

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(Based on Entwistle, 2018, p.221 – analysis by J. Hounsell).

Table 6: Aspects to consider in a curriculum review to encourage deep approach.

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Figure 2: Heuristic model of influences on student learning.

(Based on Entwistle, 2009, p.115).

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or not. [I try] to take a critical stance on the feelings.

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Figure 1: Levels of evidence.

Table 1: EEF quality of evidence ratings.

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Figure 2: Model of memory.

Sensory Short-term Encoding

Based on Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, p.93).

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This issue illustrates a number of which looks at spaced learning, interleaving,