Combustion chamber: Classification of combustion chambers, important factors affecting combustion

chamber design, Combustion process, Combustion chamber performance Effect of operating variables on
performance – Flame tube cooling – Flame stabilization – Use of flame holders
Axial Flow Turbines: Introduction, Turbine stage, Multi-staging of turbine, Exit flow conditions, Turbine
cooling, Heat transfer in turbine cooling.

Combustion chamber
Combustion in the normal, open cycle, gas turbine is a continuous process in which fuel is burned in the air supplied
by the compressor, an electric spark is required only for initiating the combustion process, and thereafter the flames
must be self-sustaining. Combustion process occurs with the vaporized fuel and the air mixed on the molecular
scale.

The principle requirements for the combustion chamber are:

• Low weight and small frontal are
• Low pressure loss
• Stable and efficient combustion over the operating flight altitudes and speeds
• Reliability serviceability and reasonable life
• Through mixing of hot and cold fluid streams to give a uniform temperature Distribution through the final
mixing arriving at the inlet of the turbine.

Combustion chamber must be designed to ensure stable combustion of the fuel injected and the optimum fuel
utilization within the limited space available and over a large range of air/ fuel ratios. The combustion chamber
design depends on the application and requirements in each case.
 .Each can has its own fuel injector, ignitor, liner and casing.
• The primary air from the compressor is guided to each individual can, where it is decelerated, Mixed with
the fuel and then ignited.

• This types of combustion chamber is used on centrifugal compressor type engines. it has several cans
disposed around the engine.

• Each can consists of its own air outer with a flame tube (or burner lines) inside.
• Compressed air is ducted and to pass into the individual chambers. Each can contains its own fuel nozzle.

The chamber cans are all interconnected. This allows each can to operate at the same pressure and also allows
combustion to propagate around the flame tubes during engine starting.

Merits:

• Controlled combustion takes place

• Time and money is incurred in their development is comparatively less.
• Maintenance is easier and cheap
Demerits

• Excessive length and weight.

 • Some axial compressor engine have a single annular combustion chamber. This type combustion chamber
consists of a single flame tube. Completely annular in form. Which is contained in the annulus of an inner
and outer casing.

• Holes in the shrouds allow secondary cooling air to enter the center of the combustion chamber, keeping
away from the shrouds.

• In this combustion chamber fuel is introduced through a series of nozzles at the upstream end of the liner.

• This type of combustor has the advantage of being able to use the limited space available most effectively.
Permitting better mixing of fuel and air within a relatively simple structure.

Merits:
• It maintains an overall annular flow.
• Suitable for aircrafts with lower frontal area
• Improved combustion zone uniformity, design simplicity, reduced liner surface area, and shorter system
length Demerits:

• The engines with low pressure ratio is confined to have heavy buckling load on the outer liner
• The levels of temperature, pressure are so high such that a very high cost is involved in supplying air.
Can-annular type

• This type of combustion chamber design is used on many large turbojet and turbofan engines.
• Individual burner cans are placed side by side to form a circle of cans inside an annular space between outer
and inner air casings.

• The cans are essentially individual combustion chamber with concentric rings of perforated holes to admit
air for cooling.
• The tube carries additional air, which enters the can through the perforations to provide more air for
combustion and cooling.
 • The effect is to permit more burning per inch of can length. Several fuel nozzles are placed around the
perimeter of the forward end of the can.

Merits:

• Maintain the overall annular flow with separate burner

• It is lighter in size Demerits:

• the need for interconnectors

• Satisfactory and consistent airflow pattern not achieved.

The combustion process

The process of combustion begins with spraying of fuel into the combustion zone through the injector. The fuel
which is released from the injector breaks up into small droplets of different sizes. Also at the same time air enters
the combustor chamber through swirlers. The fuel droplets get evaporated and this evaporated fuel mixes with the
incoming swirling air. Ignition takes place at the location where fuel
 and air mixes.
A chemical reaction resulting combustion flame is generated. The flame moves in the direction of the motion of
air moving inside the combustion chamber
In the combustion zone fuel air mixture results in partial combustion. It is because all the fuel droplets may not
evaporate and mix. Also incomplete combustion results combustion products like CO This non burnt fuel droplets
mix with the air coming from the secondary holes which results in complete combustion. The combustion products
like CO are suppressed by reducing the gas temperature to an intermediate level and mix with secondary air which
result complete combustion. This exhaust gas moves out of through the combustor exit. To maintain the good pattern
factor air is introduced through the dilution holes.

Since the overall air/fuel ratio is in the region of 100:1, while the stoichiometric ratio is approximately 15: 1, the
first essential is that the air should be introduced in stages. Three such stages can be distinguished. The Three
Different regions of Combustor are
Primary Zone: The function of the primary zone is to ignite the flame and provide sufficient, temperature, time
and turbulence to achieve complete combustion to the incoming fuel air mixture. In other words combustion takes
place in this region. The efficiency of the fuel burnt depends on the type of flow pattern in the region. . The common
type of flow pattern is the toroidal flow reversal pattern which entrains and recirculates a part of the hot combustion
gases portion to provide continuous ignition to the incoming fuel and air. Air swirlers are commonly used to generate
the toroidal flow pattern.

Intermediate Zone: When primary-zone temperature is higher than 2000 K, dissociation reactions will take place
that will result in the appearance of higher carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) concentrations in the exhaust
gases. CO is both a pollutant and a primary source of combustion inefficiency. Hence in the intermediate zone, the
temperature of the hot gases is reduced to an intermediate level by adding small amounts of air which burns the soot
and helps in the combustion of CO and other unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) which makes a complete combustion.
Almost 20% of the air is used for intermediate zone.

Dilution Zone: The function of the dilution zone is to intake the air, which remained after the combustion and to
provide an outlet stream with a temperature distribution that is acceptable to the turbine. 20 and 50% of the total
combustor airflow is used for dilution zone. Cold air mixes with the hot gas stream through one or more rows of
holes provided in the liner walls. The shape and size of the dilution holes are selected to optimize the penetration
of air and their subsequent mixing with the main stream.

Factors Affecting Combustion Performance

The Factors Affecting Combustion Performance are a. Pressure Loss b. Combustion Efficiency, c. Stability Limits,
d. Combustion Intensity

Pressure loss
It is evident, that the turbulence is necessary for rapid combustion. However. This will cause some pressure drop
in the combustor chamber. This loss is usually be regarded as a parasitic loss and hence should be minimised. The
pressure losses are caused by two factors, viz., pressure drop due to friction and that due to the accelerations
accompanying heat addition. Thus, the overall pressure loss in a gas turbine combustion system arises due to (1)
Cold loss and (ii) Hot loss.

The combined pressure loss due to both heating and friction is the sum of the pressure losses determined separately
as cold losses and hot losses.

The overall stagnation pressure loss can be regarded as the sum of the fundamental loss (a small component which
is a function of T02/T01) and the fictional loss. t the overall pressure loss can often Be expressed adequately by an
equation of the form

The above Equation is illustrated in the following Figure

If K1 and K2 are determined from a combustion chamber on a test rig from a cold run and a hot run, then equation
enables the pressure loss to be estimated when the chamber is operating as part of a gas turbine over a wide range
of conditions of mass flow, pressure ratio and fuel input.

To give an idea of relative orders of magnitude, typical values of PLF at design operating conditions for tubular,
tubo-annular and annular combustion chambers are 35, 25 and 18 respectively. There are two points which must be
remembered when considering pressure loss data. Firstly, the velocity of the air leaving the last stage of an axial
compressor is quite high—say 150 m/s—and some form of diffusing section is introduced between the compressor
and combustion chamber to reduce the velocity to about 60 m/s. It is a matter of convention,, depending upon the
layout of the gas turbine, as to how much of the stagnation pressure loss in this diffuser is included in the PLF of
the combustion system.

Combustion Intensity

The size of combustion chamber is determined primarily by the rate of heat release required. The nominal heat
release rate can be found from mf Qnetj, where m is the air mass flow,f the fuel/air ratio and the net calorific value
of the fuel.

The design problem is also eased by an increase in the pressure and temperature of the air entering the chamber, for
two reasons. Firstly, an increase will reduce the time necessary for the ‘preparation’ of the fuel and air mixture

(evaporation of droplets. etc.) making more time available for the combustion process itself. Note that since the
compressor delivery temperature is a function of the compressor delivery pressure, the pressure (usually expressed
in atmospheres) is an adequate measure of both.

The Equation for rate of reaction is given by

Now T is maintained at a high value by having an approximately stoichiometric mixture in the primary zone: we
are concerned here with the independent variable p. It is not to be expected that the theoretical exponent 2 will
apply to the complex set of reactions occurring when a hydrocarbon fuel is burnt in air, and experiments with
homogeneous mixtures in stoichiometric proportions suggest that it should be 1 8.
It is quite inappropriate to compare the performance of different systems on the basis of efficiency, pressure loss,
etc., if they are operating with widely differing orders of combustion intensity. In aircraft systems the combustion
intensity is in the region of 2—5 x104 kW/m3 atm, while in industrial gas turbines the figure can be much lower
because of the larger volume of combustion space available; a further reduction would result if a heat-exchanger
were used, requiring a significantly smaller heat release in the combustor.

Combustion Efficiency:
The efficiency of a combustion process may be found from a chemical analysis of the combustion products.
Knowing the air/fuel ratio used and the proportion of incompletely burnt constituents, it is possible to calculate the
ratio of the actual energy released to the theoretical quantity available. This approach via chemical analysis is not
easy, because not only is it difficult to obtain truly representative samples from the high velocity stream, but also,
owing to the high air/fuel ratios employed in gas turbines, the unburnt constituents to be measured are a very small
proportion of the whole sample.

Combustion Efficiency=

The actual temperature rise is found by direct measurement at the inlet and outlet of the chamber. In gas turbine
work, temperatures are usually measured by thermocouples. The high accuracy of a pitot-static tube is well known,
but considerable difficulty has been experienced in designing thermocouples to operate in a hightemperature
fastmoving gas stream with a similar order of accuracy. Since the combustion efficiency rarely falls below 98 per
cent over much of the operating range, accurate measurements are essential

Stability limits:
For any particular combustion chamber there is both a rich and a weak limit to the air/fuel ratio beyond which the
flame is unstable. Usually the limit is taken as the air/fuel ratio at which the flame blows out, although instability
often occurs before this limit is reached. Such instability takes the form of rough running, which not only indicates
poor combustion, but sets up aerodynamic vibration which reduces the life of the chamber and causes blade vibration
problems. The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with increase of air velocity, and
if the air mass flow is increased beyond a certain value it is impossible to initiate combustion at all.

A typical stability loop is shown in Figure.

, where the limiting air/fuel ratio is plotted against air mass flow. If a combustion chamber is to be suitable, its
operating range defined by the stability loop must obviously cover the required range of air/fuel ratio and mass
flow of the gas turbine for which it is intended. Furthermore, allowance must be made for conditions which prevail
when the engine is accelerated or decelerated.

The stability loop is a function of the pressure in the chamber: a decrease in pressure reduces the rate at which the
chemical reactions proceed, and consequently it narrows the stability limits. For aircraft engines it is important to
check that the limits are sufficiently wide with a chamber pressure equal to the compressor delivery pressure which
exists at the highest operating altitude. Engines of high pressure ratio present less of a problem to the combustion
chamber designer than those of low pressure ratio. If the stability limits are too narrow, changes must be made to
improve the recirculation pattern in the primary zone.

Important factors affecting combustor design

1. The temperature of the gases after combustion must be comparatively low to suit the highly stressed turbine
materials. Development of improved materials and methods of blade cooling, however, has enabled permissible
combustor outlet temperatures to rise from about 1100 K to as much as 1850 K for aircraft applications.

2. At the end of the combustion space the temperature distribution must be of known form if the turbine blades are
not to suffer from local overheating.

3. Combustion must be maintained in a stream of air moving with a high velocity in the region of 30—60 m/s and
stable operation is required over a wide range of air/fuel ratio from full load to idling conditions.
4. The formation of carbon deposits must be avoided, particularly the hard brittle variety. Small particles carried
into the turbine in the high-velocity gas stream can erode the blades and block cooling air passages; also
aerodynamically excited vibration in the combustion chamber might cause sizeable pieces of carbon to break
free resulting in even worse damage to the turbine.

5. In aircraft gas turbines, combustion must also be stable over a wide range of chamber pressure because of the
substantial change in this parameter with altitude and forward speed.

6. Another important requirement is the capability of relighting at high altitude in the event of an engine flameout.

7. Avoidance of smoke in the exhaust is of major importance for all types of gas turbine;
8. Although gas turbine combustion systems operate at extremely high efficiencies, they produce pollutants such
as oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and unburne1 hydrocarbons (UHC) and these must be
controlled to very low levels.

Effect of operating variables on burner performance

Combustion efficiency:
• As the pressure of the air entering the burner increases, the combustion efficiency rises and levels off to a
relatively constant value.

• As the inlet air temperature is increased, combustion efficiency rises until it reaches a value of substantially
100%.

• If the fuel/air ratio is increased, combustion efficiency first rises, then levels off when the mixture becomes
too rich. An increase in fuel/air ratio will result in increased pressure loss because increase in fuel/air ratios
cause higher temperature with a corresponding decrease in gas density.
• Increasing the flow velocity beyond a certain point reduces combustion efficiency, probably because it
reduces the time available for mixing and burning.

Stable operating range:

 • As the pressure decreases, the stable operating range becomes narrower until a point is reached below which
burning will not takes place.

• As the velocity increases, the stable operating range again becomes narrower until a critical velocity is
reached, above which combustion will not take place.

• Increasing the temperature of the incoming charge usually increases the fuel/air ratio range for stable
operation.

• In addition, as the flow velocity is increased, the burner flow velocity will rise, mainly due to higher
expansion losses as the air flows through the restricting or melting holes in the liner.

Temperature distribution:

• The temperature distribution of the burner exit is also affected by changes in the operating variables.
• Reducing the pressure below a set point tends to upset temperature uniformity.
• On the other hand, for a given size burner, more uniform burner may be obtained by better mixing of the
hot and cold gases at the expense of an increase in pressure loss.

• If the fuel/air ratio and flow velocity are increased, the exit temperature tend to become less uniform because
more heat is released and there is less time for mixing.

Starting:
• Starting is usually easier with high temperature, high pressure and low velocity.
• In addition, there is an optimum fuel/air ratio for starting, above or below which ignition of the fuel/air
mixture becomes increasingly difficult.

Carbon deposits:

• The operating variables have some effect upon the accumulation of carbon deposits in the burner, but their
effects may vary with different burner types and configurations.

• Generally, deposits gets worse with increasing temperatures and pressures until a point is reached where
they begin to burn off.
 • Increasing the fuel/air ratio has a tendency to increase deposits, probably because the proportion of oxygen
in the combustion zone becomes too low to burn the fuel completely.

• In addition, changes in fuel/air ratio may change the location of carbon deposits within the burner.

Temperature and cooling requirements:

• Changes in the operating variables have a direct bearing on the temperature and cooling requirement of the
liner.

• If the pressure and temperature of the incoming charge are increased, more heat is transferred from the
burning gases to the liner, partly by radiation through the insulating blanket of cool air and partly by forced
convection and the lining temperature goes up.

• If the fuel/air ratio increased combustion temperatures become higher and again the liner temperature
increases, mainly due to increased radiation.

• On the other hand, an increase in flow velocity outside the liner tends to increase external convection,
thereby reducing temperature of the liner.

Practical Problems in Combustion

The most commonly seen problems in combustors are

(i) Flame tube cooling, (ii) fuel injection, (iii) starting and ignition and (iv) the use of cheaper fuels. (v) Pollution.

Flame Tube Cooling

One problem which has assumed greater importance as permissible turbine inlet temperatures have increased is
that of cooling the flame-tube. The tube receives energy by convection from the hot gases and by radiation from
the flame. It loses energy by convection to the cooler air flowing along the outside surface and by radiation to the
outer casing, but this loss is not sufficient to maintain the tube wall at a safe temperature

A common practice is to leave narrow annular gaps between overlapping sections of the flame tube so that a film
of cooling air is swept along the inner surface; corrugated ‘wigglestrip’, spot welded to successive lengths of flame-
tube, provides adequate stiffness with annular gaps which do not vary too much with thermal expansion, as shown
in (a).

Another method is to use a ring of small holes with an internal splash ring to deflect the jets along the inner surface,
as shown in Fig. (b).

A more recent development is the use of transpiration cooling, allowing cooling air to enter a network of passages
within the flame tube wall before exiting to form an insulating film of air; this method may permit a reduction in
cooling flow of up to 50 per cent.

Higher turbine inlet temperatures imply the use of lower air/fuel ratios, with consequently less air available for film
cooling. Furthermore, the use of a higher cycle temperature is usually accompanied by the use of a higher cycle
pressure ratio to obtain the full benefit in terms of cycle efficiency. Thus the temperature of the air leaving the
compressor is increased and its cooling potential is reduced. At projected levels of turbine inlet temperature, up to
1850 K, the use of transpiration cooling to reduce the required cooling flow may become essential.

Fuel Injection:

The use of liquid Fuels requires that it be injected in metered quantity in a state as finely as possible, so that

evaporation and mixing are rapid. The injection must fulfil the requirements i). meter the fuel flow ii. Atomise the

fuel.

The metering function of a plain hole is a combination of applied pressure and the cross sectional area of the
metering orifice, the flow being determined by an equation of the form
Most combustion chambers employ high-pressure fuel systems in which the liquid fuel is forced through a small
orifice to form a conical spray of fine droplets in the primary zone. The fuel is said to be ‘atomized’ and the burner
is often referred to as an ‘atomizer’

The requirements of good atomizer can be listed as follows:

(j) Atomisation must be effected over a wide range of fuel flows and pressures (ii)

No moving parts at the nozzle and of simple design.

(iii) It should distribute the fuel uniformly throughout the air flow.

(iv) It should be easily reproducible to high degree of accuracy to enable multi injector systems to operate with
uniform distribution.

(v) The weight and size should be low to reduce heat absorption to a minimum.

Types of Injectors are:

A common method of achieving atomization is by forcing the fuel under pressure through a specially designed
orifice. Since the need to minimize combustor length, a spray cone angle of around 110° is customary.

Simplex atomizer, shown in Figure a, this is achieved by fitting a swirl chamber upstream of the discharge orifice.
A major design problem is to achieve good atomization over a fuel flow range of around 40:1. If the atomizer
discharge orifice is made small enough to ensure good atomization at low fuel flow rates, then the pressure required
at high flows becomes excessive. On the other hand, if the orifice is made large, the fuel will not atomize
satisfactorily at the low flow rates and low pressures associated with operation at high altitudes. A solution to this
problem is provided by the dual-orifice atomizer,

Dual-orifice atomizer: which incorporates two swirl chambers, one of which (the pilot) is located concentrically
within the other (the main), as shown in Figure b. The orifices that feed fuel into the pilot swirl chamber are small
in size, whereas the corresponding orifices for the main swirl chamber are much larger. At low fuel flows, all the
fuel is supplied by the pilot and atomization quality is good because the delivery pressure, although not high, is
adequate. As fuel flow is increased by increasing the fuel pressure, when a predetermined pressure is reached, a
valve opens and fuel is also passed to the main atomizer. This arrangement allows satisfactory atomization to be
achieved over a wide range of fuel flows without calling for excessive fuel pressures.

Advantages
 • good mechanical reliability
• An ability to sustain combustion at very weak mixture strengths.

Disadvantages

• Potential plugging of the small passages and orifices by contaminants in the fuel and an innate tendency
toward high soot formation at high-combustion pressures.

Air blast Atomizer: This atomizer employs a simple concept whereby fuel at low pressure is arranged to flow over
a lip located in a high-velocity airstream. As the fuel flows over the lip it is atomized by the air, which then enters
the combustion zone carrying the fuel droplets along with it. Minimum drop sizes are obtained by using designs
that provide maximum physical contact between the air and the liquid. In particular, it is important to ensure that
the liquid sheet formed at the atomizing lip is subjected to high-velocity air on both sides, as illustrated in Figure c.

Advantages

• It prevents fuel from depositing on solid surfaces

• Combustion is characterized by the absence of soot formation, resulting in relatively cool liner walls and a
minimum of exhaust smoke
• the component parts are protected from overheating by the air (at compressor outlet temperature) flowing
over them

Disadvantages

• narrow stability limits

• poor atomization quality at start up,

Starting and Fuel Ignition

Under normal operating conditions, gas turbine combustion is continuous and self-sustaining. An ignition system,
however, is required for starting, and the ignition and starting systems must be closely integrated. The first step in
starting a gas turbine is to accelerate the compressor to a speed that gives an air flow capable of sustaining
combustion; during the period of acceleration the ignition system is switched on and fuel is fed to the burners when
the rotational speed reaches about 15—20 per cent of normal. An igniter plug is situated near the primary zone in
one or two of the flame-tubes or cans. Once the flame is established, suitably placed interconnecting tubes between
the cans permit ‘light round’, i.e. flame propagation from one flame-tube to the other. Light round presents few
problems in annular combustors. When the engine has achieved self-sustaining operation, the ignition system is
turned off. Aircraft gas turbines have two additional requirements to meet: (i) re-ignition must be possible under
wind milling conditions if for any reason the flame is extinguished at altitude and (ii) operation at idle power must
be demonstrated while ingesting large amounts of water.

Early civil aircraft were dependent on ground power supplies for starting and some engines used direct air
impingement on the turbine blades; modem aircraft normally use an air turbine starter, which is connected to the
main rotor by a reduction gear-box and clutch. The supply of compressed air may be from a ground cart, auxiliary
power unit (APU) or bled from the compressor of an engine already running. Military aircraft use similar systems,
but early aircraft used cartridge-type starters which provided a flow of hot, high-pressure gas for up to 30 seconds;
this was expanded through a small turbine geared to the main rotor via a clutch. The most commonly used igniting

device is surface discharge igniter.

The high-energy system is most effective when used in combination with a surface discharge igniter plug. This
consists of a central electrode and an outer electrode that is grounded. The two are separated by a ceramic insulator
that terminates at the firing end in a thin layer of semiconductor material, as shown in Figure. The function of the
semiconductor is to facilitate ionization of the spark gap and allow sparks to be produced from energy sources at
relatively low voltage. An important characteristic of the semi-conductor material is that its electrical resistance
falls with an increase in temperature. This means that when a condenser voltage is applied, and cur-rent starts to
flow through the semiconductor, it is soon concentrated into affine filament that rapidly becomes incandescent, thus
providing an ionization path across the electrodes. Once ionization has taken place, the main discharge then occurs
in the form of an intense flame-like arc

Use of Cheaper Fuels:

Gas turbines rapidly supplanted piston engines in aircraft because of their major advantages in power and
weight, permitting much higher flight speeds. Penetration of industrial markets was much slower, initially
because of uncompetitive thermal efficiency and later, as performance improved, because of the need for
expensive fuel. Market penetration would be greatly enhanced if gas turbines could burn residual oil. This cheap
fuel is the residue from crude oil following the extraction of profitable light fractions. Some of its undesirable
characteristics are:

a. high viscosity requiring heating before delivery to the atomizers;

b. tendency to polymerize to form tar or sludge when overheated;
c. incompatibility with other oils with which it might come into contact, leading to jelly-like substances which
can clog the fuel system;

d. high carbon content leading to excessive carbon deposits in the combustion chamber;
e. presence of vanadium, the vanadium compounds formed during combustion causing corrosion in the
turbine;

f. presence of alkali metals, such as sodium, which combine with sulphur in the fuel to form corrosive
suiphates;

g. Relatively large amount of ash, causing build-up of deposits on the nozzle blades with consequent reduction
in air mass flow and power output.

The problems arising from characteristics (a), (b), (c) and (d) can be overcome

Without excessive difficulty. A typical residual fuel may require heating to about 140 oc, and for a large station this
would require steam heating both for the storage tanks and prior to delivery to the atomizers. It is the major problems
arising from (e), (f) and (g) that have greatly restricted the use of residual oil. The rate of corrosion from (e) and (f)
increases with turbine inlet temperature, and early industrial gas turbines designed for residual oil operated with
temperatures around 900 K to avoid the problem. Such a low cycle temperature.

Flame stabilization
When a blunt body is placed in a high velocity reactant stream, the flow is greatly slowed down at the forward stagnation point
(see Figure 8.29) to give ample opportunity for reactions to proceed to ignition. One major disadvantage of solid bluff bodies
is the drag they exert on the flow.
and the resultant loss of thrust.

Campbell overcomes this drawback by employing an opposing gaseous jet in the reactant
stream. It evolves as the opposing jet. The stream is slowed down and the flame is anchored as
schematically shown in Figure 8.30. The blow ‑off velocity is increased by increasing the injection
pressure of the opposing jet and by incre asing the temperature of the opposing jet gas.
anyd R
B theecrierscuultlaanttiolons:s of thrust.

Campbell overcomes this drawback by employing an opposing gaseous jet in the reactant
stream. It evolves as the opposing jet. The stream is slowed down and the flame is anchored as
schematically shown in Figure 8.30. The blow‑off velocity is increased by increasing the injection
pressure of the opposing jet and by increasing the temperature of the opposing jet gas.
 When the solid bluff body discussed above is of finite length in the direction of flow, the pressure distribution
prevents the high velocity flow from keeping attached to the solid surface.

Increasing pressure separates the boundary layer and causes eddy shedding in the "wake." Under sufficiently fast
flow conditions a (symmetric) recirculation pattern of flow is established behind the blunt body as shown in Figure
recirculation zone provides a station where reactions

can take place.

5.8 Flame holders

A flame holder is a component of a jet engine designed to help maintain continual
combustion. All continuous-combustion jet engines require a flame holder. A flame holder
creates a low -speed eddy in the engine to prevent the flame from being blown out. The
design of the flame holder is an issue of balance between a stable eddy and drag.

The simplest design, often used in amateur projects, is the can -type flame holde r,
which consists of a can covered in small holes. Much more effective is the H -gutter flame
holder, which is shaped like a letter H with a curve facing and opposing the flow of air. Even more effective,
8.31. The
however, is the V-gutter flame holder, which is shaped like a V with the point in the direction facing the flow of air.
Some studies have suggested that adding a small amount of base bleed to a V-gutter helps reduce drag without
reducing effectiveness. Eddy:

In fluid dynamics, an eddy is the swirling of a fluid and the reverse current created when the fluid flows
past an obstacle. The moving fluid creates a space devoid of downstream-flowing fluid on the downstream side of
the object. Fluid behind the obstacle flows into the void creating a swirl of fluid on each edge of the obstacle,
followed by a short

reverse flow of fluid behind the obstacle flowing upstream, toward the back of the obstacle. This phenomenon is
most visible behind large emergent rocks in swift-flowing rivers.

5.8 Starting and Fuel Ignition

Under normal operating conditions, gas turbine combustion is continuous and self-sustaining. An ignition system,
however, is required for starting, and the ignition and starting systems must be closely integrated. The first step in
starting a gas turbine is to accelerate the compressor to a speed that gives an air flow capable of sustaining
combustion; during the period of acceleration the ignition system is switched on and fuel is fed to the burners when
the rotational speed reaches about 15—20 per cent of normal. An igniter plug is situated near the primary zone in
one or two of the flame-tubes or cans. Once the flame is established, suitably placed interconnecting tubes between
the cans permit ‘light round’, i.e. flame propagation from one flame-tube to the other. Light round presents few
problems in annular combustors. When the engine has achieved self-sustaining operation, the ignition system is
turned off. Aircraft gas turbines have two additional requirements to meet: (i) re-ignition must be possible under
wind milling conditions if for any reason the flame is extinguished at altitude and (ii) operation at idle power must
be demonstrated while ingesting large amounts of water.
Early civil aircraft were dependent on ground power supplies for starting and some engines used direct air
impingement on the turbine blades; modem aircraft normally use an air turbine starter, which is connected to the
main rotor by a reduction gear-box and clutch. The supply of compressed air may be from a ground cart, auxiliary
power unit (APU) or bled from the compressor of an engine already running. Military aircraft use similar systems,
but early aircraft used cartridge-type starters which provided a flow of hot, highpressure gas for up to 30 seconds;
this was expanded through a small turbine geared to the main rotor via a clutch. The most commonly used igniting
device is surface discharge igniter

The high-energy system is most effective when used in combination with a surface discharge igniter plug. This
consists of a central electrode and an outer electrode that is grounded. The two are separated by a ceramic insulator
that terminates at the firing end in a thin layer of semiconductor material, as shown in Figure. The function of the
semiconductor is to facilitate ionization of the spark gap and allow sparks to be produced from energy sources at
relatively low voltage. An important characteristic of the semiconductor material is that its electrical resistance falls
with an increase in temperature. This means that when a condenser voltage is applied, and cur-rent starts to flow
through the semiconductor, it is soon concentrated into a fine filament that rapidly becomes incandescent, thus
providing an ionization path across the electrodes. Once ionization has taken place, the main discharge then occurs
in the form of an intense flame-like arc.

5.9 Use of Cheaper Fuels

Gas turbines rapidly supplanted piston engines in aircraft because of their major advantages in power and weight,
permitting much higher flight speeds. Penetration of industrial markets was much slower, initially because of
uncompetitive thermal efficiency and later, as performance improved, because of the need for expensive fuel.
Market penetration would be greatly enhanced if gas turbines could burn residual oil. This cheap fuel is the residue
from crude oil following the extraction of profitable light fractions. Some of its undesirable characteristics are:

• high viscosity requiring heating before delivery to the atomizers;

• tendency to polymerize to form tar or sludge when overheated;
• incompatibility with other oils with which it might come into contact, leading to jellylike substances which
can clog the fuel system;

• high carbon content leading to excessive carbon deposits in the combustion chamber;

• presence of vanadium, the vanadium compounds formed during combustion causing corrosion in the
turbine;

presence of alkali metals, such as sodium, which combine with sulphur in the fuel to form corrosive
suiphates;
• relatively large amount of ash, causing build-up of deposits on the nozzle blades with consequent reduction
in air mass flow and power output.

The problems arising from characteristics (a), (b), (c) and (d) can be overcome without excessive difficulty. A
typical residual fuel may require heating to about 1400 C, and for a large station this would require steam heating
both for the storage tanks and prior to delivery to the atomizers. It is the major problems arising from (e), (f) and
(g) that have greatly restricted the use of residual oil. The rate of corrosion from (e) and (f) increases with turbine
inlet temperature, and early industrial gas turbines designed for residual oil operated with temperatures around 900
K to avoid the problem. Such a low cycle temperature.

5.10 Pollution
Gas turbine combustion is a steady flow process in which a hydrocarbon fuel is burned with a large amount of
excess air, to keep the turbine inlet temperature at an appropriate value. This is essentially a clean and efficient
process and for many years there was no concern about emissions, with the exception of the need to eliminate smoke
from the exhaust. Recently, however, control of emissions has, become probably the most important factor in the
design of aero-engines, as the causes and effects of pollution become better understood and the population of aircraft
increases.
 The pollutants appearing in the exhaust will include oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned
hydrocarbons (UHC); any sulphur in the fuel will result in oxides of Sulphur (SOr), the most common of which is
SO2. Although these all represent a very small proportion of the exhaust, the large flow of exhaust gases produces
significant quantities of pollutants which can become concentrated in the area close to the plant. The oxides of
nitrogen, in particular, can react in the presence of sunlight to produce

‘smog’ which can be seen as a brownish cloud;

Among all the pollutants NOx is the major concern because

• It depletes the ozone layer

• It is the major contributor of smog
• It is responsible for acid rain
• It causes severe damage to human respiratory organs.

NOx are formed from mainly two sources

• Molecular N2 (air)

• Nitrogen blended in fuel

Turbine can be classified o the basis of the following factors:

1. Based on type of working fluid — On the basis of the type of working fluid used in a turbine, it could be
classified as follows:
• Steam turbine: which runs on steam.
• Gas turbine: which runs on gas or combustion products of the fuel.
• Air turbine: which runs on air.
• Hydraulic turbine: which runs on water.

Steam turbines can be further classified as depends upon the exhaust of the steam
• Condensing type: If the exhaust steam is sent to a condenser, then it is called condensing type steam
• Non-condensing type: if the discharge is made to the atmosphere, then it is called non-condensing type steam
turbine

2. Direction of fluid flow — The direction of fluid flow while expanding in turbine can also be the basis for broadly
classifying turbines as follows:

• Axial now turbines: have the fluid flowing in the axial direction during the expansion.

• Radial flow turbines: have the fluid entering the turbine in radial direction and leaving axially.

3. Fluid action: Turbines can also be classified on the basis of the fluid action as

• Impulse turbine

• Reaction turbine

• Impulse-reaction turbine.

The impulse turbine: An impulse stage is characterized by the expansion of the gas which occurs only in the stator
nozzles. The rotor blades act as directional vanes to deflect the direction of the flow. Further, they convert the
kinetic energy of the gas into work by changing the momentum of the gas more or less at constant-pressure Impulse
turbines can be further sub classified on the basis of compounding or Staging as

• Pressure compounded turbine.

• Velocity compounded turbine.

• Pressure and velocity compounded turbine.

Reaction turbine: A reaction stage is one in which expansion of the gas takes place both in the stator and in the rotor.
The function of the stator is the same as that in the impulse stage, but the function in the rotor is two fold.

(i) the rotor converts the kinetic energy of the gas into work, and (ii) contributes a reaction force
on the rotor blades.

The reaction force is due to the increase in the velocity of the gas relative to the blades. This results from the expansion
of the gas during its pass through the rotor.

Reaction turbines can be further sub-classified on the basis of the degree of reaction.
The degree of reaction quantifies the fraction of enthalpy change in the rotor with respect to the total enthalpy change
in the stage. Reaction turbines have non-symmetrical blading while impulse turbines have symmetrical blades.
Velocity triangles of a single stage machine

The flow geometry at the entry and exit of a turbo machine stage is described by the velocity triangles at these stations.
The velocity triangles for a turbo machine contain the following three components

(i) the peripheral velocity, (u), of the rotor blades, (ii) the absolute velocity,
(c), of the fluid, and (iii) the relative velocity, (w), of the fluid.

These velocities are related by the following well-known vector equation:

.
The notation used here to draw velocity triangles correspond to the x-y coordinates; the suffix (a) identifies
components in the axial direction and the suffix (t) refers to the tangential direction. Air angles in the absolute
system are denoted by alpha (a), where as those in the relative system are represented by beta (β).
Impulse stage: The stage of turbine, having impulse blading, has no expansion in the rotor, that is, no pressure
drop. There is no relevance of the degree of reaction for impulse stage.
Zero reaction stage: Mathematically, zero reaction stage refers to R = O condition and it is the condition similar to
the case having no pressure drop in the rotor. The combined velocity
diagram shows that it is ske wed towards left. For R = O.

50% reaction stage: Mathematically 50% reaction stage refers to the case whcn R = 0.5 which means this same
enthalpy drops occur in the rotor and stator. This offers symmetrical velocity diagram

100% reaction stage: Mathematically, 100% reaction stage refers to the case when R =1 which means that there is
no enthalpy drop in the stator and total enthalpy drop occurs in the rotor only. The combined velocity diagram is
seen to be skewed to the right as shown ¡n Fig.

8. In this case, α2 = α 3 and C-, = C3 as evident from the velocity diagram.

Negative reaction stage: This may happen when the flow is irreversible and there occurs an increase in enthalpy in
the rotor. It refers to the rise in the pressure in the rotor due to diffusion observed on the relative velocity This will
be accompanied by the adverse pressure gradient leading to flow separation. In this case w3< w2. The following
methods are used in turbine cooling: 1. Convection

2. Impingement
3. Film cooling

4. Full coverage film cooling

5. Transpiration

Convection: Convection cooling with a single internal passage was the only available cooling technique in the
1960s. Cooling air was injected through the airfoil attachment and to the inside of airfoil. The cold air was discharged
at the blade tip. Development has led to multipass internal cooling. The blades are either cast, using cores to from the
cooling passages, or forged with holes of any size and shape that are produced by electrochemical drilling.
The effectiveness of convection cooling is limited by

• Size of the internal passages

• Quantity of cooling air available

The main disadvantage of early convection technique

• Failure to cool the thin trailing edges of blades

• Failure to cool the leading edge which is subjected to the highest temperature.

Impingement cooling :In this high-intensity form of convection cooling, the cooling air is blasted on the inner surface
of the aerofoil by high-velocity air jets, permitting an increased amount of heat to be transferred to the cooling air
from the metal surface .This cooling method can be restricted to desired sections of the aerofoil to maintain even
temperatures over the entire surface .For instance, the leading edge of a blade needs to be cooled more than the
midchord section or trailing edge.

Film cooling: It involves the injection of a secondary fluid (cold air) into the boundary layer of the primary fluid (hot
gases). This is an effective method to protect the surface from the hot gases as the cooling air acts as an insulating
layer to maintain a lower blade material temperature.

Disadvantages:

• Causes turbine losses due to injection into the boundary layer.

• If too much air is used or if ejected at high speeds it could penetrate the boundary layer.

If close holes are used, they cause stress concentration.

However, it is more effective than normal convection or impingement methods. The cooling air absorbs energy as it
passes inside the blade and through the holes, then it further reduces the blade temperature by reducing the amount
of energy transferred from the hot gases to the blade

Full-coverage film cooling: It involves the injection of cold air from an array of discrete holes. Thus it represents an
attempt to draw on some advantages of transpiration cooling without paying its penalties.

Transpiration cooling: Transpiration cooling of a porous blade wall is the most efficient cooling technique and
requires the least cooling air in comparison with the other techniques. It involves the use of a porous material through
which the cooling air is forced into boundary layer to form a relatively cooling, insulating film or layer.

Disadvantages For efficient transpiration cooling, the pores should be small, which leads to problems of blockage
due to oxidation and foreign contaminate.

Disadvantages of Cooling Turbine Blades

• Added cost of producing turbine blades

• Turbine blade reliability
• Loss of turbine work due to the cooling air bypassing one or two of the turbine stages Loss due to the cooling
air being mixed with hot gas steam

Heat Transfer in Turbine Cooling:

The hot as from the combustion chamber strikes the leading edge of the turbine blade which is the stagnation
point. The flow comes to a halt. When the flow comes to a halt, thermally that place the total temperature is equal
to the static temperature. The blade feels the entire total temperature of the gas flow; that means a static
temperature plus the kinetic head that the gas is carrying. The entire thing is felt over here at the stagnation point.
So, the stagnation point is indeed the Hot Spot, the hottest spot on the blade surface. As the blade picks up speed,
it actually drops of the temperature, and then, through the transition from laminar to a turbulent flow as the, it
flows over the gas blade surface, the gas actually accelerates. As it accelerates, the local temperature, the static
temperature reduces
Losses in Turbines:

Tip Clearance Loss (Y k)

Tip clearance loss occurs in the rotors. Some fluid leaks in the gap between the blade tip and the shroud, and
therefore contributes little or no expansion work.

Secondary Flow Loss: Secondary flows are contra rotating vortices that occur due to curvature of the passage
and boundary layers. Secondary flows tend to scrub both the end wall and blade boundary layers and redistribute
low momentum fluid through the passage. Secondary flow losses represent the major source of losses. Both
annulus loss and secondary flow loss cannot be separated and they are accounted for by a secondary loss
coefficient

Profile Loss (Y p)

The profile loss is the loss due to skin friction on the area of the blade surface. It depends on several factors
including the area of blade in contact with fluid, the surface finish, and the Reynolds and Mach numbers of the
flow through the passage.

Annulus Loss

Annulus losses are similar to profile losses as both are caused by friction. However, a fresh boundary layer
grows from the leading edge of blade whereas the annulus boundary layer may have its origin some way
upstream of the leading edge depending on the details of the annulus itself.
 RADIALTURBINE:

A radial flow turbine refers to a turbine in which the fluid enters the turbine with high tangential velocity inwards and
comes out of the turbine rotor with small whirl velocity at a smaller diameter close to the axis of rotor. In appearance,
a radial flow inward turbine looks like a centrifugal compressor with a ring of nozzle vanes instead of diffuser vanes.
Generally, radial flow turbines have blades perpendicular to the tangent at the outer circumference of

the rotor inlet. These turbines run at high speed ranging from 40000 to 180000 rpm . The flow accelerated through
the stator to velocity C2 is made to enter the rotor radially with velocity V2. It leaves the rotor with velocity V3 and
absolute velocity C3 axially Thus at the tip of the rotor the vanes are usually radial and straight. Immediately thereafter
the vanes are given 3-D curvature to guide the flow, in an accelerated manner, to a lower radial station and finally let
it out at an angle ß with velocity V3. The rotational speed of the gas has gone down from U2 to U3. The flow now
assumes an absolute velocity C3 (which by design is made axial i.e. Ca3) and in many turbines is then axially diffused
to a lower exit velocity C4. This is done to recover the kinetic energy which would otherwise be wasted with the
exhaust.
University Questions (If Any) on the Topic:

On combustion Chamber:

1. Describe the process of combustion in gas turbine and explain classification of combustion chamber with neat sketch.
10M June/July 17

2. Explain the effect of operating variables on burner performance. 06M June/July 17

3. Write advantage and disadvantage of annular combustor 06M Dec.17/Jan 18

4. Explain about flame tube cooling. 06M Dec.17/Jan 18
5. Define combustion intensity. 04M Dec.17/Jan 18
6. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the combustion chamber geometry. Also explain the different zones of
combustion 08M,Dec.11

7. List the requirements of combustion chamber. Explain in brief. 06M,Dec.11

8. Write a short note on: i) Combustion process ii) Fuel injection 06M,Dec.11
9. What are the classification of combustion chamber? Explain with neat sketches. 06M,Dec.12
10. Explain different types of combustion chambers used in gas turbine engines. Briefly their advantages and
disadvantages. 08M, Dec.10

11. Write a notes on) Fuel injection ii) Primary zone or Flame stabilizing zone. 06M, Dec.10 12. Explain in detail the
combustion chamber geometry. 06M, Dec.10

12. Write a notes on) Fuel injection ii) Primary zone or Flame stabilizing zone. 06M, Dec.10 12. Explain in detail the
combustion chamber geometry. 06M, Dec.10