Environment and ecology for

civil services
PT+MAINS
 Sources……
• Shanker IAS BOOK.
• NIOS environment science.
• Ecology – P.D. Sharma.
• The Economy of Nature, Fifth Edition
• Ncert 12th class science ncert
• UNEP knowledge depository.
• Down to earth and the hindu.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE PRIOR
TO THE APPEARANCE OF HUMAN
BEINGS
• Early atmosphere inhospitable,gases like
methane,carbon dioxide,ammonia and
hydrogen..
• Water vapour were in atmosphere.
• No free oxygen.
• No life existed.
• Earth cooled.
• Water fell on earth .
• Water bodies formed.
• Earlier life formed here.
• Bacterial evidences are available approx.3.5
billion year ago.
• For almost two billion years, different kinds of
bacteria lived on earth.
• Then cynobacteria with photosynthesis produced
oxygen.
• Bacteria formed protists>both are
unicellular..
• Then multicellular came into
picture.
 Conditions necessary for sustaining life…..
• 1>presence of water.

• 2>atmosphere

• 3>average temperature 16’c

• 4>buffering capacity of earth

Soil and water as buffering agents
 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT
• surroundings or conditions in which an organism lives
or operates.
• Components of environment includes>biotics and
abiotics.
 Human and environment relation
• Primitive human>lived in forest near water bodies.
• Were hunter @ GATHERER.
• Lived in harmony with nature and there were abundant forest
cover on the planet.
• Discovery of fire>exploitation of natural resources
starts>forest clearance.
• Domesticztion of agri>settlement building>population
expanded>more land needed so forest clearance.
• Mining of mineral started
 Impact of population growth on environment
• When agriculture begin>12k year ago>5 million
people.>today we all know.
• Effect>1>clearing land for cultivation to grow more food.
• 2>water scarcity.
• 3>need for human settlement>so land?
• 4>transporation>clear forest+coal,petroleum.
• 5>need for various commodities like
plastic,machinary,chemicals,cosmetics..
• 6>slum development>filty environment,unhygienic.
• 7>pollution
 Present condition…..
• humankind is using 170% of the
world’s natural output. That means
we are using up the equivalent of 1.7
Earths..
• Earth carrying capacity is considered
as 8-16 billion population>we are
already at 7 billion
 Ecology……….
• the branch of biology that deals with the
relations of organisms to one another and to
their physical surroundings , it also deals with the
study of populations, communities, ecosystems,
biomes, and biosphere as a whole
Level of organisation in
ecology
 Individual…………
• (individual) basic unit of study
 Population ………..

• population is all
the organisms of the
same group or species
 community
• A group of organisms
consisting of a number
of different species
that live in an area and
interact with each
other
 Ecosystem
• A communities of
organisms and their
physical environment,
interacting as an ecological
unit.
 Biome…
• A biome is a community of plants and
animals that have common
characteristics for the environment they
exist in
 Biosphere…………..
• Part of earth which sustain various
lifeforms.
• Or
• Place where hydrosphere,lithosphere
and atmosphere meet…
 Habitat..
• Habitat is the physical environment in which an
organism lives. Each organism has particular
requirements for its survival and lives where the
environment provides for those needs.
 NICHE ………..
• functional characteristics of a species
in its habitat is referred to as
“niche”
 ADAPTATION
• “the appearance or
behaviour or structure or
mode of life of an organism
that allows it to survive in a
particular environment..
• Eg>Presence of gills and fins
are examples of adaptation
in fishes to aquatic habitat
 Variation……….

• Genetic diversity differences within a

species
 Speciation….
• is the process by which new species are formed and
evolution is the mechanism by which speciation is brought
about.
 Extinction…...
• Extinction is generally a natural
occurrence. It means the dying out of
a variety of or a species.
 ecology
• Study of
organisms<microbes,plants,animals>w
ith themselves and with
environment…
 Environment……….
• The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including
natural forces and other living things, which provide conditions for
development and growth as well as of danger and damage.

Components

abiotic biotic
 Ecosystem……
• An ecosystem is a community made up of
living organisms and nonliving
components such as air, water, and mineral
soil..which interact and exchange materails
between themselves
 Components of
ecosystem

abiotic biotic
1> abiotic light
Primary source of energy>photosynthesis
 2> temperature
Hibernation>winter sleep>eg.polar bear

Astivation>summer sleep>eg>snail,african lung fish

Density of organism
density as move
away from equator
or mean sea level
 water
Euryhaline>tolerate wide
Hydrocoles>aquatic organisms.
range of salinity

stenohaline>limited range of
Mesocoles>moderate water salinity

Halophytes>salinity loving
Xerocoles>deset conditions plants
 soil
Based on soil tecture,air,temperature and water
divided into two broad types

clay sand

Fine particles Well aerated

Hold large quantity of Warm quickly
water and are rich in Cannot retain water
mineral nutrient.
 Biotic components

Primary
producers>auto Decomposers>
trophs bacteria and
fungi
Consumer>
Green plants
Convert hetertrophs Convert
inorganic organic to
material to inorganic
organic.
 •

co2,
Protein
Water
Carbohydrate Sulphur
lipids nitrate
 Ecotone……….
• Zone of junction between two or more
diverse ecosystem.
• example>>an area of marshland
between a river and the
riverbank,estuary and mangroove
forest…
 Edge effect…..
• Sometimes th number of species and
the population density fo some of the
species in the ecotone is much greater
than the existing community.
• This is called edge effect…
 FUNCTIONS OF
ECOSYSTEM

1> … Energy flow.

2> Nutrient cycles

Ecological succession or
3>
ecosystem development
 Energy flow
• Trophic level>>each of several
hierarchical levels in an ecosystem,
consisting of organisms sharing the
same function in the food chain and
the same nutritional relationship to
the primary sources of energy…
 Raymond Lindeman (1942)

THE LAW OF
LOSS DURING 10%

1>transfer ..

2>respiration

3>incomplete digestion
 Food chain

A sequence of organisms
that feed on each other
 Types of food
chain

Grazing food Detritus

chain food chain
start with plant or plant part as
their food…
Food web> natural interconnection of food chains
 Ecological pyramid

graphical representation designed to

show the biomass or bio
productivity at each trophic level in
a given ecosystem…
 Exception to pyramid of
number>parasitic ecosystem
Pyramid of biomass
Exceptions to pyramid of
biomass
Pyramid
of energy
Always
upright
 Chapter -13….
• Organism and population.

• Organism>an individual animal, plant, or

single-celled life form.
• Population> population is all the
organisms of the same group or species.
 Abiotic factors……….
• Temperature decreases from the equator to
pole >more density in equator of organisms….
• In general>mango tree not grow in temperate
countries
• Snow leopard not found in kerela.
• Tuna fish is rrely caught beyong tropical…
Eurythermal and stenothermal..
• Eurythermal>organisms can tolerate and
thrive in wide range of temperature
• Eg.cat ,dog
• Stenothermal>many restricted to narrow
range of temperature.
• Eg. Penguin, Python
 Euryhaline and eurythermal
• Euryhaline>can tolerate wide range of
salinity.
• Eg.>Lamprey,Seagrass,green sea Urchin.
• Stenohaline>only narrow range of salinity.
• Eg.>Goldfish.
 Photoperiodism………
• Photoperiodism is the physiological
reaction of organisms to the length of
day or night. It occurs
in plants and animals. Photoperiodism
can also be defined as the
developmental responses of plants to
the relative lengths of light and dark
periods.
Response to abiotic factors
• We know abiotic factors constantly
change eg.temperature.
• Many species have been evolved to a
relatively contant internal environment
that permits all biochemical reactions
and physiological functions to proceed
with maximum efficiency…
 conformers

regulator

Partial
regulators
Internal
environ
ment
External environment
 homeostasis
• Homeostasis, any self-regulating process by
which biological systems tend to maintain
stability while adjusting to conditions that are
optimal for
survival<temperature,ph,glucose,salinity>.
If homeostasis is successful, life continues; if
unsuccessful, disaster or death ensues.
 Regulators or homeotherms or
endotherms
• Regulate their bodies to remain at a
constant temperature ..eg mammals
• It require significant energy>so more
food.
Why small animals are rarely found
in polar region…???l
• Thermoregulation is energetically expensive
for many organisms
• Small animals have a larger surface area
relative to their volume,they tend to lose body
heat fast when it is cold outside.
 Conformers or poikilotherms
• Must change their environment
in order to survive temperature
variation
• Eg>>reptiles,insects and
amphibians
 partial regulators
• Partial regulators change their body temperature to
certain level of ambient temperature but if the tem
perature goes on increasing they can maintain a st
eady temperature.
• ex-shrew (Sorex araneus), ground squirrel
 Adaptation…….
• Any attribute of the organism
morphological,physiological,behavioural
that enables the organism to survive and
reproduce.
Morphological adaptations
 Physiological adaptations
• a physiological adaptation might be
shivering to generate more heat when it is
really cold.
• Kangaroo rat in north america desert is
capable of meeting its water requirement
through its internal fat
oxidation+concentration of urine.
 Behavioural adaptations…..
• Birds migration.
• Hunting in groups - some animals like
wolves hunt in groups so that they can
work as a team and catch more to
eat.
 Allen rule……
• Mammals from colder climate
generally have shorter ears and limbs
to minimise heat loss..
•
 Adaptation in desert plants…
• Thick cuticle.
• Waxy coating
• Long roots
• Stomata have deep pit.
• CAM pathway.
• No leaves or spines.
CAM pathway<Crassulacean acid
metabolism
• Stomata closed during day. …
• Take co2 in night store.
• Used in day fot photosynthesis.
 Population.
• all the inhabitants of a particular place
 Population Pyramid
• is a tool used in demography to study the
changes in population over time.
• horizontal axis shows the percent of the
popualtion (male or female).
• vertical axis shows the population by age groups
 three types of population pyramids
• 1>Expansive>broad base,
• indicating a high proportion of children, a
rapid rate of population growth, and a low
proportion of older people.
• seen frequently in developing countries, such
as African countries
 2>STATIONARY
• display somewhat equal numbers or percentages
for almost all age groups
 3>Constrictive pyramid
• Birth rate low.
• Older population is high
India’s case
Economic dependents>15-65 years
BIOTIC INTERACTION
 Biotic interactions…..
• The biological community of an area or
ecosystem is a complex network of interactions.
The interaction that occurs among different
individuals of the same species is called
intraspecific interaction while the interaction
among individuals of different species in a
community is termed as interspecific
interaction.
 Negative
interactions
Amensalism::::::::::::::::::::
• negative association between two species in
which one species harms or restricts the other
species without itself being adversely affected
or harmed by the presence of the other species
 Eg>>>bread mould fungi
Pencillium produce penicillin an
antibiotic substance which
inhibits the growth of a variety of
bacteria. Pencillium benefits
apparently by having greater
availability of food when the
competition because of the
bacteria is removed.
 Predation:;::::::::::
• predator captures, kills and eats an
animal of another species called the
prey..
• Predators like leopards, tigers and
cheetahs use speed, teeth and claws
to hunt and kill their prey
 Parasitism:
• one species is harmed and the other benefits.
• Parasitism involves parasite usually a small size
organism living in or on another living species
called the host from which the parasite gets its
nourishment and often shelter
 Parasitism type

Brood
Ectoparasites> endoparasites parasitism

Parasite in are organisms that

Ticks on human internal organs rely on others to
and dogs like liver,kidney raise their young.
etc
 Competition

Competition occurs when two populations or species, both

need a vital resource that is in short supply. The vital
resource could be food, water, shelter, nesting site, mates or
space. Such competition can be: (i) interspecific
competition-occurring between individuals of two different
species occurring in a habitat and (ii) intraspecific
competition-occurs between individuals of same species.
•
 Commensalism

In this relationship one of the

species benefits while the other
is neither harmed nor benefited
• For example sucker fish, remora often attaches to a
shark by means of its sucker which is present on the
top side of its head. This helps the remora get
protection, a free ride as well as meal from the left
over of the shark’s meal.
• Epiphytes live on the surface of other plants like
ferns, mosses and orchids and use the surface of
trees for support and for obtaining sunlight and
moisture. The tree gets no benefit from this
relationship nor are they harmed.
 Mutualism

close association between two species in which both the

species benefit..
For example of protocorporation the sea anemone, a
cnidarian gets attached to the shell of hermit crabs for
benefit of transport and obtaining new food while the
anemone provides camouflage and protection by means of
its stinging cells to the hermit crab
• some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting
species can no longer live without each other as they
depend totally on each other to survive. Such close
associations.. are called symbiosis. An example of
such close mutualistic association is that of termite
and their intestinal flagellates. Termites can eat
wood but have no enzymes to digest it. However,
their intestine contains certain flagellate protists
(protozoans)
• Protocooperation is where two species interact with
each other beneficially; they have no need to interact
with each other - they interact purely for the gain that
they receive from doing this.
• Protocooperation can occur in birds. The Egyptian
plover removes insect pests from the backs
of buffalo, antelope, giraffes, and rhinos.,
Certain fish perform the task of cleaning other fish, by
removing ectoparasites, cleaning wounded flesh, and
getting rid of dead flesh
 Neutralism:

Neutralism describes the relationship between two

species which do interact but do not affect each other.
It is to describe interactions where the fitness of one
species has absolutely no effect what so ever on that of
other. True neutralism is extremely unlikely and
impossible to prove.
 Quiz time

The prickly pear cactus

introduced into australia in the early

?
1920s caused havoc by spreading
rapidly into millions of hectares of
ranfeland.finally invasive cactus was
brought under control only after a
cactus-feeding moth from its natural
habitat was introduced
•
 Some species of frog are
cryptically-coloured to avoid camouflage
being detected easily by
predator

Insectes feeding on plants phytophagus

sap.
 Abingdon tortoise in galapagos
islands become extinct within a
decade after goat were
competition
introduced on the island.due to
greater efficiency of the goats…

A species whose distribution is restricted

to a small geographical area because of the
presence of a competitively superior Competitive
species, is found to expand its release
distributional range dramatically when the
competing speices is experimently
removed
 States that two closely
related species competing
Gause’s for the same resource
competitive cannot co-exist indefinitely
and the competitive
exclusion
inferior one will be
principle eliminatd eventually…but
there are exceptions to this
 Association of cattle commensalism
egret and grazing cattle

Sea anemone has stinging

tentacles and claw fish lives in
them.
Fish gets protection from commensalism
predators,anemone does not
appear to derive any benefits by
hosting the fish…
 Productivity…….
• primary production> is the synthesis
of organic compounds from atmospheric or
aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs
through the process of photosynthesis
• Productivity>rate of biomass production
• Gross primary productivity>productivity of
organic matter during photosynthesis.

• Net primary productivity>gross primary productivity

minus respiration losses.

• Annual net primary productivity whole

biosphere>170 billion tons.
• Productivity of ocean<70% area> only >55g billion
tonne.
 Decomposition……….
• Break down of complex organic matter into
inorganic substances like carbondioxide,water and
nutrients…
• Detritus>dead plant remain such as
leaves,barkmflower and dead remains of animals
constitute detritus
 detritus
Raw material for
decomposition
 mineralization
detritus

humification
fragmentation

leaching catabolism
Fragmentaion>detrivorus<earthworm> breakdown
detritus into smaller particles

Leaching>water soluble nutrients go down into the

soil

Catabolism>bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus

into simple inorganic
Humification – It is the process of formation of a dark colored
layer of amorphous substance on the soil called humus. It cannot
be decomposed easily as it is highly resistant to action by
microbes. The layer of humus is very rich in nutrients as it
provides high fertility to the soil.

Mineralisation – It is the final step in the process.

Mineralisation is the process of the degradation of the
hummus to release inorganic nutrients.
 Characters of humus……….
• Highly resistant to microbial
action.decompose very slowly.
• Act as areservoir for nutrients
 Decomposition
• Fast>if detritus is rich • Slow>if have
in nitrogen. lignin,chitin
• Have soluble substance • Low temperature
• Warm and moist • Anaerobic conditions
environment
 Standing crop………………
• Each trophic level has a certain
biomass of living material at a
particular time called as the standing
crop.
 Limitations of ecological pyramid…
• 1>Does not take into account same
speices belonging to two or more
trophic levels.
• 2>it assumes a simple food chain
Saprophytes>that which never exists.
lives on dead or
decaying organic
• 3>saprophytes are not given any place
matter.
in ecological pyramid.
 Pollution in trophic levels…..
• Pollutants move across trophic level.
• Biodegradable are easily metabolized by organisms
but non-biodegradable remains in trophic level and
accumulate and magnify..
• Movement of these pollutants involves two main
processes>>1>bioaccumulation
• 2>biomagnification
 bioaccumulation

Increase in the concentration of a

pollutant from the environement to the
first organism in a food chain
 biomagnification

Pollutants concentrate as they move

from one trophic level to the next

The pollutant must be …long lived

,mobile,soluble in fats biologically
active,no internal degradation
 FUNCTIONS OF
ECOSYSTEM

1> … Energy flow.

2> Nutrient cycles

Ecological succession or
3> ecosystem development
Ecological succession

•
 Ecological succession……………..

• Ecological succession is a series of progressive changes in

the species that make up a community over time.

• Simple species >>>>complex species…..

• So as succession proceeds,number and types of animals
and decomposers also change..
• Sere>entire sequence of communities that successively
change in a given area.

• Seral stage >individual transitional community.

• Types>1>primary succession>start at bare
area…eg.newly cooled larva,bare rockmnewly created
pond.
• 2>secondary succession>earlier natural community
destroyed.eg area fire,deforestation
 Process in primary succession

natural forces break down the substrate, rock,

The came pioneer species,<microbes,lichen,mosses>

These species help to further break down the mineral-rich

lava into soil

Other species grow eventually

Secondary succession
 Autogenic and allogenic succession
• When succession brought about by living inhabitant of
that community itself >autogenic
• Anthropogenic or natural activities gradually leads to
succession
• When changes brought by outside forces>allogenic
succession. Eg>Volcanic eruptions
• Meteor or comet strike
• Flooding
• Autotrophic succession>succession in which
,initially the green plants are much greater in quatity.

• Heterotrophic succession>in which at the initial

stage heterotrophs are more.
Biogeochemical cycle

For ias
 Function of ecosystem
• 1>energy transfer…

• 2>ecological succession

• 3>biogeochemical cycle…
 Definition…………….
• Movements of nutrient element across the ecosystem..
• Chemical element includind all essential chemical of life
tends to circulate in the biosphere in characterise
pathways..
• Bio-living
• Geo-rock,soil,air,water.
• Chemical –material or nutrient.
• Cycle -path
 Why to recycle………..
• Carbon ,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen and
phosphorus make up 97% of the mass of our
bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all
living organisms…
• So once used they need to circulate throughout
the ecosystem.
 Type……………….

• Gaseous>reservoir is atmosphere C,H,N,O

• Sedimentary>reservoir is earth crust P, S, CA

Water cycle
 Carbon cycle
• Carbon costitute 49% of dry weight of organisms.
• Colourless,odourless with a density about 60%higher
than air
• It naturally occurs naturally in earth’s atmosphere as a
trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04% by volume .
 Presence in form of co2 ,ch4,artificial CFC….
• TAKEN FROM ATMOSPHERE>photosynthesis.,ocean
cooler the ocean more the co2 . approximately 93
percent of the CO 2 is found in the oceans

• Release to environment >respiration.decay of plant or

animals,burning of fossil fuel,production of
cement,volcanic eruption,ocean warming ,automobile
industrial waste..
 nitrogen is present in
• Components of protein
• Nucleic acid<DNA,RNA>
• Vitamin
• Co-enzymes.
• Inplants much of the nitrogen is used in chlorophyll
molecule which are essential for photosynthesis
• 79% but N and N are joined by triple bond so inert…

• It must be fixed to form ammonium or nitrite

or nitrate ions…
 Six processes……………
• 1>N-FIXATION.
• 2>decay
• 3>nitrification
• 4>denitrification
• 5>anammox
• 6>leaching and weathering of rocks..
 1>n-fixation …..
• Inert nirogen is taken and converted to usable forms like
ammonia ,nitrate,nitrite…

• 1>Atmospheric fixation>lightenning….
• 2>industrial fixation .…
• 3>biological fixation>performed by a no. of different
prokaryotes ,including bacteria and actinobacteria
…eg>eg….azotobacteria,clostridium,rhizobium…

• These micro-organisms form assocition with higher

plants and some animals or are free living….<no
eukaryote is known so far has the N-fixation
capabilties……
 Leghemoglobin .
• In plants colonised by Rhizobium, such as soybeans,
the presence of oxygen in the root nodules would
reduce the activity of the oxygen
• So leghemoglobin is a red colored material which
reduce the oxygen content in roots…
 2>decay .

• Or ammonification/mineralization..

• It is carried out by no. of microbes and

some fungi ….by decaying organic waste of
animals>like excretion and dead remains
of organisms…
Anammox .
 leaching
• Nitrate leach to ground water
>excessive use of fertilizers>drinking
water>form non functional
methaenoglobin>impair o2 transport
>blue baby syndrome …..
 Phosphorous cycle…………

• Essential nutrient of plants< PO4 3->phosphate…

• Part of DNA molecule,
• Protoplasm
• Nucleic acid
• Bone teeth,excretion
• Majorily rock cycle in phosphate form..

• Weathering of rocks >plant >animal

• Excretory material of bird called guano also a source of

phosphorous…south america ,chile…
biomes
•
 Types of biomes…………………..
• Different kind of classifications are
available ….
•
•
 DIFFERENT KIND OF BIOMES…….

TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC

FOREST BIOME
FRESHWATER BIOME

DESERT BIOME
MARINE BIOME
TUNDRA BIOME
 Different kind of biomes …….
• 1>The Forest Biomes:tropical and temperate
forest..taiga forest or boreal forest

• 2>The Grassland Biomes..tropical grassland and

temperate grassland.
• 3>The Desert Biomes..hot and cold desert

• 4>The Tundra Biomes:

• 5>The Aquatic Biomes: two, Freshwater Biomes (lakes

and ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands) and Marine
Biomes (oceans, coral reefs and estuaries).
 Tropical froest…………………….
• Tropical wet forest ,tropical moist brosdleaf forest , equatorial
forest…
• Rain throughtout year

• Coudy weather ..
• Humidity high
• 175-200cm
• No permanent weather
• Stratification
• Vegetation>mahogany .rosewood,cinchona,abony etc…
 Tropical monsoon climate
• Seasonal reversal of wind ..
• distinct wet and dry seasonsassociated
with seasonal reversal of winds.

• Summer sun move toward northward..

 Tropical deciduous forest. tropical dry forests……

• Tropical deciduous forests occur in regions with

heavy rainfall for part of the year followed by a
marked dry season.
• most trees shed their leaves. Shedding their leaves
allows trees to conserve water during dry periods.
• Eg of species>teak,sal shisham,tendu
•
 Temperate deciduous forest
• Temperate broadleaf forest..
 Taiga foest . .
• also known as boreal forest or snow forest.
• characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly
of pines, spruces and larches. cedars, Douglas
firs, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauri, larches, pines, hem
locks, redwoods, spruces, and yews.

• Rainfall whole year due to temperate cyclone…

 Mediterranean climate
• Summer dry ..
• Winter rain..

• Fruit trees>called world orchard as they produce

most of the citrus fruits…

• a piece of enclosed land planted with fruit trees.

 Desert ecosytem
• It is not a vegetation ,,,A climatic term….
• 25 cm precipiation or evapotranspiration losses are
higher than precipiation.
• Roots >tap root thin roots penetrate deep in soil.
• Stem fleshy ,spongy to store moisture called
succulents…
• Leaf waxy hard ,white shiny and spine…
• Reproductive adaptation in some plants…
• Desert on western margin…
• 1>trade wind

• 2>cold current…
 Continental desert
• Rainfall bearing wind cannot reach

• Leeward side of mountain..

Grassland biome
 Tropical grassland………………..

• Moderate rainfall….summer rain

• Definite dry and wet season
• Grass to grow tall <elephant grass>
• Also called big game biome because the presence of rich
wildlife <large carnivorous animals>
• Baobab tree also called Adansonia,upside down tree
• Fire has huge impact on developing community structure..
• In south america>campos in
brazil,lanos in venezuela and colombia

• Savana in africa

• Terai duar savana in india bhutan and

nepal
 Temperate grassland

• Cooler and wetter than savannah

• Under the influence of westeries

• Grass is very nutritious as compared to savannah…

• Famous for grain,cattle industry,meat and dairy

•
•
 Tundra………………….
• Arctic or polar area.

• low temperatures and short growing seasons.

• Summer short and cool..

• Mosses ,lichen,ephemeral flowering plants……

Aquatic ecosystem or
biomes
 Aquatic ecosystem …

• Consists water as the main habitat.

• Types>freshwater ecosystem>salt content is low
0-5ppt<parts per thousand>
• Marine ecosystem>35 ppt or above.
• Brackish water ecosystem>5-35ppts.
 Different type of aquatic organisms…
• 1>neuston>live at the interface such as floating
plants
• Periphyton> attached to submerged
surfaces in most aquatic ecosystems.
• Plankton>are the diverse collection
of organisms that live in large bodies
of water and are unable to swim
against a current. They provide a
crucial source of food to many large
aquatic organisms, such
as fish and whales.
• Eg. bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa
• Nekton>aggregate of actively
swimming aquatic organisms in a body
of wate
• Benthos>organisms those
found at the bottom of the water
mass
 Factors limiting the productivity of aquatic
habitats
• Aquatic ecosystem>sunlight and oxygen.

• Terrestrial ecosystem>moisture and temperature.

 Sunlight>for photosynthesis……….
• Based on sunlight penetration water bodies are divided
into two zones.
• Photic zone>upper layer of water body upto which light
penetrates
• Aphotic zone>lower layer where light don’t reach so no
photosynthesis but organisms live here ,so respiration
take place.
 Dissolved oxygen… .
• Oxygen enter the aquatic ecosystem>air-water interface
and photosynthesis.
• Oxygen escapes the water> air-water interface and
through respiration of organisms.
• Oxygen in aquatic ecosystem is 150 times lower than the
concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air.
• Oxygen is less soluble in warm water,warm water
also enhance decomposition activities.therefore
increase in the temperature increases the rate at
which oxygen is deppleted from water.
 Other factors influenceing on aquatic
productivity…….
• Transparency:>affect light penetration,that affect
photosynthesis
• temperature>:>water temperature change less
rapidly>so aquatic organisms are less subject to
change,so have narrow tolerance limit.
• So small change in temeprature can affect
organisms largly…
 Ageing of lake…… ……
• Like any organism lakes are born and eventually die.
• Ageing occurs as the lakes accumulate mineral and
organic matter and gradually get filled up..
• On the basis of nutrient content.LAKES ARE
• Oligotrophic>very low nutrients.
• Mesotrophic>moderate nutrients.
• Eutrophic>highly nutrient rich.
 Eutrophication…….. .
• Eutrophic water body: it is a a body of water rich in nutrients and
so supporting a dense plant population, the decomposition of
which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen.
• Eutrophication is the response to the addition of nutrients such
as nitrates and phosphates naturally or artificially, fertilizing the
aquatic ecosystem.
• Algal blooms are the consequence of Eutrophication.
• Growth of green algae which see in the lake surface layer is the
physical identification of an eutrophication.
• Algal bloom covers the surface layer,it restricts the
penetration of sunlight .so photosynthesis slows down
and level of oxygen also decreases.
• Oxyegn is also taken up by micro-organisms which
feed off the dead algae during decomposition process.
• Fishes and other aquatic organism sufocate and they
die.
• Anaerobic condition can promote growth of bacteria
which produces toxins deadly to aquatic organisms
 Types of eutrophication
• Natural>deposition of • Manmade>occur in
nutrients when flow decades.
into the system on • Comes from untreated
temporal basis sewege
• Occurs over centuries discharges,runoff of
fertilizer from farm
fields,industrial
activities
•
 Effect of eutrophication
• 1>Loss of fresh water
lakes: Eutrophication
eventually creates
detritus layer in lakes and
produces
successively shallower de
pth of surface water
• transformed from an
aquatic environment to
recognizable terrestrial
• 2>New species
invasion: Eutrophication
may cause the ecosystem
competitive by
transforming the normal
limiting nutrient to
abundant level. This
cause shifting in species
composition of
ecosystem.
• 3>Toxicity: Some algal • 4>Loss of coral
blooms when died or reefs: Occurs due to
eaten, release neuro & decrease in water
hepatotoxins which can transparency
kill aquatic organism &
pose threat to humans
• 5>decrease in • 6>decrease in water
transparency and
biodiversity increased turbidity
• Affects navigation • Colour<yellow,green,re
due to increased d>smell and water
treatment
turbidity
Mitigation of eutrophication
• Filter out nutrient deposition by creating buffer
• Minimizing the source of pollution.
• Better waste treatment of industrial waste.
• Organic farming .
• Efficient use of fertilizers.
Harmful algal blooms
• A bloom often results in a color change in the water.
It can be of many color,but most of them are red or
brown.so commonly referred as red or brown
tides.
• Most of algal blooms are not harmful but some
produce toxins and do affect fish,birds,marine
mammals and humans.
Red tide is a misnomer
• Blooms can appear greenish,brown, and even
reddish orange depending upon the organism. So
red tide is a misnomer.
• Bloom occur when several colonies start combining
rapidly when conditions such as nutrient
concentrations,salinity and temperature
 effect of harmful algal blooms.
• Toxicity in air around.
• Organisms consumption in water with harmful algal
bloom can cause diseases.
• Oxygen depletion can cause death of aquatic
organisms.for
example,zooplankton,shellfish,fish,birds,marine
mammals.
Important
lakes
Lake Baikal
• Largest freshwater lake by volume in the world,
containing 22–23% of the world's fresh surface
water.
Siberia, Russia.
• Baikal is the world's deepest lake
• UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• home to Buryat tribes
•
 Dead Sea
• Its surface and shores are 430.5
metres (1,412 ft) below sea
level, Earth's lowest elevation on
land.
• salt lake bordered by Jordan to the
east and Israel and the West
Bank to the west.
• At the Dead Sea the water is
ten times saltier than the
water in the ocean
 Saltiest lake in the world

• Don Juan Pond

• antarctica
 Aral Sea
• lake lying between Kazakhstan
in the north and Uzbekistan, in
the south.
• In the early 1960s, the Soviet
government decided the two
rivers that fed the Aral Sea,
the Amu Darya in the south
and the Syr Darya in the east,
would be diverted to irrigate
the desert, in an attempt to
grow rice, melons, cereals, and
cotton
 Lake Tanganyika
• longest lake in the world.
 Wetland ecosystem
• According to WWF>A wetland is a place where the land is
covered by water, either salt, fresh or somewhere in
between. Marshes and ponds, the edge of a lake or
ocean, the delta at the mouth of a river, low-lying areas
that frequently flood—all of these are wetlands.
• India has totally 27,403 wetlands, of which 23,444 are
inland wetlands and 3,959 are coastal wetlands.
• Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which
70% are under paddy cultivation.
• Eg. lagoons, backwaters, estuaries, mangroves,
•
• Wetlands are shallow water bodies whereas lakes can
be deep or shallow.
• Lake>no or very little aquatic vegetation.
• Wetland>rich in nutrients, abundant growth of
aquatic macrophytes..
 Characterstics of wetland
• 1>covered by water or has waterlogged soil for some
time during the growing season of each year
• 2>adapted plant life<hydrophyte>>> are aquatic plants
that are especially suited for living in aquatic
environments
• 3>hydric soil<is a soil that formed under conditions of
saturation, flooding or ponding long enough during the
growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the
upper part.>
 Importance of Wetlands
• Wetlands are habitat to aquatic flora and fauna,
numerous species of native and migratory birds.
• They carry out water purification, filtration of
sediments and nutrients from surface water. Without
wetlands, cities have to spend more money to treat
water for their citizens
• They help in nutrients recycling, ground water
recharging and stabilization of local climate
• Recreation and tourism.
• Shoreline stabilisation and storm protection.
• Play an important role in flood mitigation.
• Wetland systems are directly linked to groundwater and
a crucial regulator of both the quantity and quality of
water found below the ground.
India’s wetland
• India has totally 27403 wetlands of which 23444 are
inland wetlands and 3959 are coastal .
• Wetland occupy 18.4% of countries area of which
70% are under paddy cultivation.
 National wetlands conservation programme
• 1985-86.
• Under the programme 115 wetlands have been identified
till now by the Ministry which requires urgent
conservation and management initiatives.
• Objectives of the Scheme> to lay down policy guidelines
for conservation and management of wetlands in the
country;
• to undertake intensive conservation measures in priority
wetlands;
• to monitor implementation of the programme; and
• to prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.
• Conservation and management of wetlands is
primarily vested with the State/Uts.
• After identification of wetlands under the Scheme,
the State/UTs are to submit long-term
comprehensive Management Action Plans (MAPs)
for a period of 3-5 years, preferably 5 years.
• Financial assistance under NWCP is provided for two
components i.e. Management Action Plan (MAP) and
Research Projects.
 Estuary ecosystem
• An estuary is a place where a river or a stream opens
into the sea.
• At the estuaries, fresh water carrying fertile silt and
runoff from the land mixes with the salty sea water.
• The mixing of sea water and fresh water provide high
levels of nutrients both in the water column and
in sediment, making estuaries among the most
productive natural habitats in the world.
•
• An estury has very little wave action,so it provides a
calm refuge from the open sea.
• All the plants and animals in the estuaries are
subjected to variations in salinity to which they are
adapted.
• Estuaries form a transition zone (ecotone) between
river environments and maritime environments.
• Estuaries are most heavily populated areas
throughtout the world,with about 60% of the worlds
population living along esturies.
Types of esturies
Glacial estuary
Bar-built estuaries
Tectonic estuary
 Benefits of estuary
1>water quality regualtion and groundwater recharge.
2>habitat,breeding and nursery grounds for plants and animals.
Many marine organisms, especially fish used in commercial
fishing, depend on estuaries at some time in their life
3>knowledge and research.
4>Their resources provide tourism, fisheries and recreational
activities to have a greater economic benefit. The protected
coastal waters of estuaries also support public infrastructure
such as harbors and ports which are a vital part of shipping and
transportation.
 mangrove
• A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in
coastal saline or brackish water.
• There are about 80 different species of mangrove trees.
• All of these trees grow in areas with low-oxygen soil,
where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to
accumulate.
• Mangrove forests only grow at tropical and
subtropical latitudes near the equator because they
cannot withstand freezing temperatures.
• They are littoral (near the sea shore) forest
ecosystem.
• These are mostly evergreen forests.
• The best locations are where abundant silt is brought
down by rivers.
• About one third of the world’s mangroves are found
in Asia (39%), followed by Africa (21%) and North and
Central America (15%) (FAO, 2007).
• Some of the adaptations are presence of
pneumatophores, stilt roots ,vivipary etc
pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome
respiration problem in the anaerobic soil
conditions.
roots which emerged from the main trunk of a tree above
ground level are called stilt roots.
 Prop roots develop from the upper part of the stem, especially the horizontal
branches while stilt roots develop from the basal nodes of the main stem. Prop
roots are quite long while stilt roots are comparatively short. Prop roots provide
support to the plant like pillars or poles while stilt roots provide support like ropes of
a tent or pole.
Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. seeds
germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the ground).
 Importance of Mangroves
• Buffer Zone between the land and sea.
• Protect the land from erosion.
• Play an invaluable role as nature's shield against cyclones,
ecological disasters and as protector of shorelines.
• Breeding and nursery grounds for a variety of marine
animals.
• Harbour a variety of lifeforms like invertebrates, fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and even mammals like tigers.
Save the marine diversity, which is fast diminishing.
Purify the water by absorbing impurities and harmful
heavy metals and help us to breathe a clean air by
absorbing pollutants in the air.
They supplies woods, fire wood, medicinal plants and
edible plants to local people.
Theats to mangroove ecosystem
• 1>Clearing: Mangrove forests have often been seen as
unproductive and smelly, and so cleared to make room for
agricultural land, human settlements and infrastructure
(such as harbours), and industrial areas.
• 2>Overharvesting: Mangrove trees are used for
firewood, construction wood, wood chip and pulp
production, charcoal production, and animal fodder. While
harvesting has taken place for centuries, in some parts of
the world it is no longer sustainable, threatening the
future of the forests.
• 3>River changes: Dams and irrigation reduce the
amount of water reaching mangrove forests, changing the
salinity level of water in the forest. If salinity becomes too
high, the mangroves cannot survive. Freshwater
diversions can also lead to mangroves drying out
• 4>Overfishing: The ecological balance of food chains and
mangrove fish communities can also be altered.
• 5>Pollution: Fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic man-
made chemicals carried by river systems from sources
upstream can kill animals living in mangrove forests, while
oil pollution can smother mangrove roots and suffocate
the trees.
• 6>Climate change: Mangrove forests require
stable sea levels for long-term survival. They are
therefore extremely sensitive to current rising sea levels
caused by global warming and climate change
Mangrove Cover in India
• About 80% of India's mangroves are found in the east
where the coastal profile is typically less steeply shelving
and rivers and estuaries are better developed. The
largest areas are those of the Indian part of the
Sundarbans, and the Andaman andNicobar Islands
• mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of
tidal holophytic mangroves of the world.
• This mangrove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger
and crocodiles. Mangrove areas here are being cleared for
agricultural use.
• India contributes 3.3% to the global mangrove
cover,indonesia is on top position
• Approximately 75% of world’s mangroves are found
in just 15 countries. Asia has the largest amount
(42%) of the world’s mangroves, followed by Africa
(21%), North/Central America (15%), Oceania (12%)
and South America (11%).
•
 Coral
• Corals are marine invertebrates, phylum Cnidaria
• typically live in compact colonies of many identical
individual polyps, secrete calcium carbonate to form a
hard skeleton.
• A coral reef is an
underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-
building corals. Reefs are formed
of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium
carbonate.
• Coral has a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae a
microscopic algae which live on coral.
• Zooxanthellae assist the coral in nutrient production
through its photosynthetic activities.
• Coral in turn provide zooxanthellae with a protected
environment to live within AND ALGAE GET S
ADEQUATE LIGHT.
• called "rainforests of the sea“occupy less than 0.1% of
the world's ocean area, provide a home for at least 25%
of all marine species
•
CONDITIONS SUITABLE FOR CORALS.
• Stable climatic conditions.
• Corals thrive in tropical waters [30°N and 30°S
latitudes, The temperature of water is around 20°C-
25]
• Clear water: Corals need clear water that lets sunlight
through; they don’t thrive well when the water is
opaque
• Shallow water: Coral require fairly good amount
of sunlight to survive.
• Little or no pollution: Corals are highly fragile
and are vulnerable to climate change and pollution and
even a minute increase in marine pollution can be
catastrophic

• Saltwater: Corals need saltwater to survive and

require a certain balance in the ratio of salt to water.
This is why corals don’t live in areas where rivers drain
fresh water into the ocean both fresh water and highly
saline water are harmful.
•
• There are two type of corals;hard coral and soft coral
• Only hard coral buil reef.
• Majority of coral reef are found in tropical and sub-
tropical water
• there are also deep water corals in colder
regions.united nations environment programme
reports that there are more cold-water coral reefs
worldwide than tropical reefs.
Largest in world

Red Sea fringing reef

• Apo Reef in the Philippines is the
largest contiguous reef after the
Great Barrier Reef. It covers 67,877
acres off the coast of Mindoro Island
and is surrounded by a mangrove
forest.
 Importance of corals
• Barrier against erosion and storm surge.
• The fishing industry depends on coral reefs because many
fish spawn there and juvenile fish spend time there before
making their way to the open sea
• The Great Barrier Reef generates more than1.5 billion dollars
every year for the Australian economy, from fishing and
tourism

• calcium producer.
• They provide substrate for mangrooves.
• Habitat for lage number of organisms.
• Medicine: Reefs are home to species that contain
pharmaceutical compounds that have potential for
treatments for some of the world’s most prevalent
and dangerous illnesses and diseases.
 Coral bleaching
• Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel their
zooxanthellae.
• the algae provide up to 90% of the coral's energy.
• Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia
experienced mass bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992,
1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016 and 2017.
• More than 60% of the coral in the Maldives has suffered
from bleaching in 2016
 How is it caused ?
• Elevated sea temperature – This is considered to be
the most common factor responsible for extensive coral
bleaching.
• Ocean Acidification – There is a rise in carbon dioxide
levels. Oceans absorb the carbon dioxide. When the uptake
increases, the acidity of ocean water increases.
• Solar radiation and ultraviolet radiation – UV radiation
induces coral bleaching. Global warming causes changes in
tropical weather patterns which results in less cloud cover
and thus more radiation
• Infectious Diseases causes by bacteria vibrio shiloi
inhibits photosynthesis of zooxanthellae. These bacteria
become more virulent with elevated sea temperatures.
• Increased sedimentation
• Human induced threats like over fishing, especially
using damaging practices like cyanide fishing , pollution
from agricultural and industrial runoff, coral mining,
development of industrial areas near coral ecosystems
are also causes.
• an increase in ambient elemental nutrient
concentrations (e.g. ammonia and nitrate) actually
increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3 times.
• Although eutrophication is not directly involved in
zooxanthellae loss, it could cause secondary adverse
effects such as lowering of coral resistance and greater
susceptibility to diseases.
• When corals are exposed to high concentrations of
chemical contaminants like copper, herbicides and oil,
coral bleaching happens.
 ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION
CHAPTER 5
SHANKER IAS ENVIRONMENT BOOK
 pollution
• An addition or excessive addition of certain
materials to the physical environment<water,air
and land>making it less fit or unfit for life.

• Pollutant>are the materials or factors,which

cause adverse effect on the natural quantity of any
component of the environment.
 Classification.
• Acc. To form in which they persist after
release into the environment.
• Primary pollutant>persist in the form in which they
are added to th environment.eg.plastic,DDT.
• SECONDARY pollutant>formed by interaction
among primary pollutants.eg.trophospheric ozone
 Acc.to existence in nature

• Quantitative pollutants>occur in nature

and become pollutant when their
concetration reaches beyond a thresold
level.eg>carbon dioxide.
• Qualititative >do not occur in nature and
are man-made
Acc to their nature of disposal.
• Biodegradable pollutants>waste products,which
are degraded by microbial action.eg. Sewege

• Non-biodegradable>pollutants which are not

decomposed by microbial
action.egplastics,glass,DDT
ACCORDING TO ORIGIN

• NATURAL

• ANTHROPOGENIC
 AIR POLLUTION

release into the atmosphere of various

gases, finely divided solids, or finely
dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that
exceed the natural capacity of
the environmentto dissipate and dilute
or absorb them. These substances may
reach concentrations in the air that cause
undesirable health, economic
 Major Gaseous Air Pollutants

•
Carbon monoxide
(CO)

colorless, odorless, tasteless and highly

toxic gas that is slightly less dense than air. HEALTH IMPACT
short-lived combines with hemoglobin
produced from the exhaust of internal
to
combustion engines.
incomplete combustion of various other produce carboxyhemoglobin.
fuels role in the formation
natural sources of CO include volcanoes, of ground-level ozonE
forest fires
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Colorless and odorless gas vital to life

effects
on Earth. It is heavier than air
carbon dioxide is soluble in water, it
occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers Global warming
and lakes, in ice caps and glaciers and Ocean acidification
also in seawater. Hypercapnia<increased co2
volcanoes, hot springs and in blood>
geysers, decomposition, ocean release
and respiration, burning of oil, coal and
gas,
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
nontoxic, nonflammable
chemicals containing atoms of
carbon, chlorine, and fluorine.
used in refrigerators, air
conditioners and aerosol sprays.
When release into air,cfcs rise to the
stratosphere.where it come in contact
with few other gases,which lead to a
reduction of the ozone layer that
protects the earth from the harmful
UV RAYS.
 ozone

occurs naturally in the stratosphere,

absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the
sun
at the ground level, it is a pollutant Ozone makes our eyes
(Greenhouse gas) with highly toxic itch,burn and water,it
effects. lowers our resistance to
Vehicles and industries are the major cold and pneumonia
source of ground-level ozone emissions.
 How ground level ozone is formed

It is called a "secondary" pollutant because it is produced when two

primary pollutants react in sunlight and stagnant air. These two
primary pollutants are nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds(VOCsNOx and VOCs come from natural sources as well as
human activities. About 95 per cent of NOx from human activity come
from the burning of coal, gasolineand oil in motor
vehicles, homes, industries and power plants. VOCs from human
activity come mainly from gasoline combustion and
marketing, upstream oil and gas production, residential wood
combustion
 Nitrogen oxide (NOx)

produced mainly in internal combustion

engines and coal burning power
plants. They are produced naturally
by lightening.
Agricultural fertilization and the use of
nitrogen fixing plants also contribute to
atmospheric NO
When NOx and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, they
form photochemical smog.
respiratory health issues
NOx gases react to
form smog and acid rain as
well as being central to the
formation of tropospheric
ozone.
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
•
toxic gas with a pungent, irritating
smell. It contributes to acid rain.
released naturally by volcanic activity.
Industrial processes,production of
paper and smelting of metals, .
burning coal in thermal power
plants and diesel fuels.
Inhaling sulfur dioxide is
associated with increased
respiratory symptoms and
disease, difficulty in
breathing, and premature
death. It also weakens the
functioning of certain nerves.
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are a large

group of carbon-based chemicals that Health effect – imitation
easily evaporate at room temperature.
of the eye, nose and
For example, formaldehyde, which evaporates
from paint, has a boiling point of only –19 °C. throat, headaches,
Formaldehyde causes irritation to the eyes and nausea and loss of
nose and allergies. coordination.
main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, Long term – suspected
furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth to damage the liver and
repellents, wood preservatives, and other
products other parts of the body.
 Tobacco Smoke

Tobacco smoke generates a Health effect – burning eyes,

wide range of harmful nose, and throat irritation to
chemicals and cancer, bronchitis, severe
is carcinogenic (cancer asthma, and a decrease in
lung function.
causing)
 Biological pollutants
It includes pollen from plants, mite,
and hair from pets, fungi, parasites,
and some bacteria.
Most of them are allergens and can
cause asthma, hay fever, and other
allergic diseases.
Radon
gas that is emitted
naturally by the soil. Due
to modern houses having
poor ventilation, it is
confined inside the house
and causes lung cancers.
 Asbestos

Asbestos is the name given to six minerals that occur

naturally in the environment as bundles of fibers that
can be separated into thin, durable threads for use in
commercial and industrial applications. These fibers
are resistant to heat, fire, and chemicals and do not
conduct electricity
 smog
•

Smoke +fog
Smoke is a collection of
airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a
material undergoes combustion
 Photochemical smog
•

sunlight Certain chemicals

Voc<volatile organic
compounds,Nox,O3,PAN<Pero
xyacyl nitrates>
 HOW GROUND LEVEL OZONE FORMED

CLIMATE>
Little or no wind
High temperature
Clear skies
 Lightening, At normal temperatures the oxygen and
Sources of nitrogen nitrogen gases do not react together. In the presence of
oxides• very high temperatures nitrogen and oxygen do react
together to form nitric oxide. These conditions are found
in the combustion of coal and oil at electric power
plants, and also during the combustion of gasoline in
automobiles

Sources of VOCS FROM petroleum products,paint,glues,perfumes,hair

spray, cleaning agents
 FORMATION OF Peroxyacyl nitrates
•

VOLATILE ORGANIC
NO2 COMPOUNDS
 •
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG IS ALSO CALLED AS
OXIDING SMOG OR LOS ANGELES SMOG
 SULFUROUS SMOG,LONDON,REDUCING
SMOG,CLASSICAL SMOG
•

SULFUR DIOXIDE IN HIGH CONCENTRATION

+
SMOKE

CALLED LONDON SMOG BECAUSE OF FAMOUS

1950 INCIDENCE IN LONDON
 FLY ASH
•
Fly ash is a byproduct from burning pulverized coal in electric power generating plants

ASH WHICH RISES INTO AIR IS FLY ASH AND IS FINE POWDER.

THE ASH WHICH DOES NOT RISE IS CALLED BOTTOM ASH,

 COMPOSITION

•
MAJOR OTHER

Arsenic, beryllium, boron,

cadmium, chromium, hexavalent
silicon dioxide (SiO2), chromium, cobalt, lead,
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) manganese, mercury,
and calcium oxide (CaO) molybdenum, selenium,
strontium, thallium, and
vanadium.
 EFFECT ON ENVIRONEMENT

1>AIR AND WATER POLLUTION IF NOT CPATURED

PROPERLY<CAPTURED AT SOURCE >
2>CAN CAUSE RESPIRATORY PROBlEMS
3>CAN SLOWLY SETTLES ON LEAVES AND CROPS IN
FIELDS IN AREAS NEAR TO THERMAL POWER PLANTS
AND LOWER PLANT YIELD.
 USES OF FLY ASH
• CEMENT CAN BE REPLACED BY FLY ASH UPTO 35%
THUS REDUCING THE COST OF CONSTRUCTION.
• FLY ASH BRICKS ARE LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND OFFER
HIGH STREGTH ND DURABILITY
• FLY ASH IS A BETTER FILL MATERIAL FOR ROAD
EMBANKMENTS AND CONCRETE ROADS
• RECLAMATION OF WASTELANDS
• ABANDONED MINE CAN BE FILLED UP WITH FLY ASH.
USE OF FLYASH
• FLYASH CAN INCREASE THE CROP YIELD AND IT ALSO
ENHANCES WATER HOLDING CAPACITY OF THE LAND.
• Stabilization of soft soils.
• Can be used in agricultural field
Maharashtra becomes first state to adopt Fly Ash
Utilization Policy...
• Fly ash will be used to make bricks, blocks, tiles, wall panels,
cement and other construction materials.
• It will save soil excavation and protect environment.
• Earlier, use of fly ash was allowed within 100 kms radius of
power plant, now it has been extended to 300 kms, the official
said.
• The policy will create new employment opportunities in the
power plant areas and also make available raw
material for construction at low cost to help ‘Housing for
All’ projects.
 National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
• Notified in the year 1982.
• Set up by Central Pollution Control Board
• The CPCB has been conferred this power by the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1981 was enacted by the Central Government with
the objective of arresting the deterioration of air
quality.
•
 Pollutants in NAAQS
• sulphur dioxide (S02),
• nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
• particulate matter having micron (PM10),
• particulate matter having size less than 2.5 micron (PM2.5),
• ozone,
• lead,
• carbon monoxide (CO),
• arsenic,
• nickel,
• benzene,
• ammonia
• benzopyrene
 National Air Quality Index (AQI)
• Launched by the Environment Ministry in April 2015.
• Initiative under ‘Swachh Bharat’.
• Particulate Matter (size less than 10 µm) or (PM10),
• Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or (PM2.5),
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
• Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),
• Carbon Monoxide (CO),
• Ozone (O3),
• Ammonia (NH3), and
• Lead (Pb)
 Particulate matter
• is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid
droplets.
• Particle pollution is made up of a number of components,
including acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic
chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles.
• Particle pollution is made up of a number of components,
including acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic
chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles
• Eg>smoke, dirt and dust from factories, farming, and roads
• crushing and grinding rocks and soil.
• then blown by wind.
• Source>crushing and grinding rocks and soil.
• then blown by wind.
• The small particles are smaller than 2.5 micrometers (100
times thinner than a human hair). These particles are called
PM2.5.
• Eg..toxic organic compounds
• heavy metals
• Sources>driving automobiles
• burning plants (brush fires and forest fires or yard waste)
• smelting (purifying) and processing metals
 Particulate Matter effects
• Have penetrability into the human respiratory
system and eventual accumulation in human organs
and blood. Rural women, children and elderly
population are more prone to diseases caused by air
pollution. Rural women, in particular, face a greater
risk from indoor pollution — locally made mud stoves
fuelled by solid biofuel emit a far greater amount of
finer particulate matter.
 Questions on air pollution
• 1>solution for dehli air pollution
• 2>various govt steps to tackle air pollution
• 3>govt reports on air pollution
• 4>BS -6 NORMS and air pollution,challenges
• 5>electric vehicle and air pollution.
• 6>issue of stubble burning ,its solutions
• 7>can you think something positive out of high level
of pollution in indian cities.
• WATER POLLUTION
 HOW MUCH WATER IS THERE

•
•

70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture.

 NITI Aayog’s Report on Water Management
•
Composite Water Management Index ranks States on
water management on the basis of nine parameters.
The report assesses States on restoration of surface and
ground water, development of watersheds, participatory
irrigation, sustainable farming and urban water supply and
sanitation.
 concerns

600 million people face high-to-extreme water stress, 75 per cent of the
households do not have drinking water.

report stated that even when water is available, it is likely to be contaminated,

resulting in nearly 2,00,000 deaths each year

With water levels dropping to 1,000 feet in dry regions of peninsular India in
particular, fluoride contamination too is on the rise.
Even as India relies increasingly on groundwater for its irrigation and livelihood
needs, with rivers running dry or being reduced to sewers.
•

Places Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra

in the top five

uranium contamination is commonplace.

 Water Pollution
•

Water pollution is the addition/presence of undesirable

substances to/in water which degrades the quality of
water so that it becomes unfit for use’.
 type
•

Surface water Groundwater

Marine pollution
pollution pollution

Surface water pollution

includes pollution of Plastic pollution sewage, fertilizers and p
rivers, lakes and oceans. A
subset of surface water pollution from esticide, commercial and
pollution is marine rivers industrial leaks,
pollution
 Point and non-point sources of pollution

•
point source pollution.>When pollutants are discharged from a
specific location such as a drain pipe carrying industrial effluents discharged
directly into a water body

non-point sources>discharge of pollutants from diffused sources or

from a larger area such as run off from agricultural fields, grazing lands,
construction sites, abandoned mines and pits, roads and streets.
 Basic parameters for calculating
water pollution:

Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water

1> decrease the dissolved oxygen content in water.
Water having DO content below 8.0 mg/L may be
Dissolved considered as contaminated. Water having DO
oxygen content below. 4.0 mg/L is considered to be highly
polluted.
The higher amounts of waste increases the rates of
decomposition and O2 consumption, thereby
decreases the DO content of water.
•
 2> biological oxygen demand
(BOD) .
•

BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in

decomposing the organic wastes present in water.

The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of water.

Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials Therefore, it is
not a reliable method of measuring pollution load in water.
 3>
Chemical oxygen demand
(COD)
•

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better mode used

to measure pollution load in water.
COD measures the amount of oxygen in parts per million
required to decompose organic and inorganic compounds in
the water sample.
 Sources of pollution and
pollutants

•
1>Discharge of waste water from industries like petroleum, paper
manufacturing, metal extraction and processing, chemical manufacturing, etc.,
that often contain toxic substances, notably, heavy metals such as mercury,
cadmium, copper, lead, arsenic) and a variety of organic compounds.

2>Domestic wastes and sewage

 3>Surface Run-off (Farm run-off). It brings fertilizers, insecticides,
fungicides and herbicides.
• run off cause>nitrates, phosphates, ammonia
This

4>Radiation Pollution
Radioactive waste (dumped into sea in thick resistant containers) , Nuclear
accidents near water bodies or during natural calamities like tsunami and
earthquakes poses the risk of radiation leakage

5>India at many places, the ground water is threatened with contamination

due to seepage from industrial and municipal wastes and effluents, sewage
channels and agricultural runoff..eg.arsenic,fluoride,uranium
6>Power plants – thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use
lot of water for cooling purposes and the used hot water is discharged into
rivers, streams or oceans.
Discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of the receiving water by
10 to 15 °C above the ambient water temperature. This is thermal pollution.
Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in water which
adversely affects aquatic life.

7>Sources of Marine water pollution>Dumping of industrial wastes directly by

coastal industries or indirectly through river by inland industries
• Discharge of fertilizers and pesticides from inland farm run-off through rivers
• Discharge of sewage of coastal cities and distant places via rivers
• Accidents during transport and off-shore extractions-spread oil over many hundred
kilometres.
 Ground
water
pollution
 Groundwater
Contaminants
•

Ground water contamination is the presence of certain pollutants in ground

water that are in excess of the limits prescribed for drinking water

Seepage of industrial and mine discharges, fly ash ponds of

Arsenic thermal power plants can lead to metals in groundwater.
West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Assam and Uttar Pradesh.
causes black foot disease.
 Arsenic in groundwater

Arsenic occur naturally occurring high concentrations

of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater. It is a high-profile
problem due to the use of deep tubewells for water supply in
the Ganges Delta, causing serious arsenic poisoning to large
numbers of people
 fluoride

Sources >natural in certain kind of rocks and anthropogenic sources

include fertilizers ,coal,fly ash
Small quality is needed for the health of teeth and bones.
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal.
causes neuromuscular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth
deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints.
 Nitrates
nitrate concentrations grow due to
human activities, such as
agriculture, industry, domestic
effluents and emissions from
combustion engines.
ndhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa. Punjab, Tamil
Nadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Uttar
Pradesh.
Excess nitrate in drinking
water reacts with
hemoglobin to form non-
functional methaemoglobin,
and impairs oxygen
transport. This condition is
called methaemoglobinemia
or blue baby syndrome.
 Uranium:
•
Sources>Abandoned uranium mines,nuclear industry,rocks
bearing uranium,coal
While most ingested uranium is excreted by the body (via urine
and feces), small amounts can be absorbed and carried through
the bloodstream to internal organs. Scientists call this
bioaccumulation. Uranium toxicity can affect various organs and
bones, however no organ is more sensitive to uranium than the
kidneys
 Soil Pollutions
• The soil is an essential nutrient for the existence of plants
and for agriculture. It is very important for maintaining an
ecological balance in nature and keeping our
environment green. But with the current trend of
increasing population, there is a consequent increase in
demand for land and other resources. Like all other forms
of nature, soil too is suffering from degradation. The
addition of harmful or toxic chemicals to the soil which
renders it unproductive is called soil pollution.
 Cause of soil pollution
• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers,pesticides,insecticides
and herbicides.
• Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
• Deforestation and soil erosion.
• Pollution from industries during manufacturing of
various products
• Acid rain, which is caused by air pollution, deposits
acids in the soil through water runoffs
•
 Effects of Soil Pollution
• 1>Crops and plants grown on polluted soil absorb
much of the pollution and then pass these on to us.
• Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic
make-up of the body, causing congenital illnesses.
• soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if
the plants are unable to grow in it.
• 2>agriculture>reduce soil fertility,reduce nitrogen
fixation, Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it
together begin to decline, which creates an additional
problem of soil erosion.reduced crop yield,increase
salinity
• 3>air and water pollution>. So, the more the toxic
contaminants in the soil, the higher the level of toxic
particles and foul gasses emitted into the atmosphere. Soil
pollution can also lead to water pollution if the toxic
chemicals and materials like dangerous heavy metals leach
into groundwater or contaminate storm water runoff,
which reaches lakes, rivers, streams, or oceans.
NOISE POLLUTION
 WHAT IS NOISE
• noise is defined as, "a loud, unpleasant or unwanted sound
that causes discomfort to ears”.
• LOUDNESS OF SOUND is measured in decibels (dB).
• Just audible sound is about 10 dB.
• loudest sound a person can hear without much discomfort is
about 80 dB.
• Sound becomes polluting noise after 80 dB.
• WHO has fixed 45 dB as the safe noise level for cities.
• Frequency: >Human range of hearing is between 20-20,000 Hz.
• Below 20 Hz is called infra-sound and above 20,000 Hz is called
ultrasound.
• Central Pollution Control Board constituted a Committee on
Noise Pollution Control.The Committee recommended noise
srandards for ambient air and for automobiles,domestic
appliances and construction equipments,which were
laternotified in Environment(Protection) Rules,1986
 Effects of noise pollution
• ANNOYANCE.
• PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS LIKE breathing
amplitude,blood pressure,heart-beat rate,blood
cholesterol etc.
• Loss of hearing Impairment of developing nervous
system of unborn babies which may lead to abnormal
behaviour in later life.
• Eyesight problems: headache, eye strain, defective
sight and colour vision.
 Control of noise pollution
• Highway traffic should not be allowed to pass through towns and cities. It
should be diverted through bye-passes and over-bridges. Pressure horns
should not be allowed.
• b) Noisy machines should be installed in sound-proof chambers.
• c) Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines can reduce noise.
• d) Protective devices like ear muffs or cotton plugs should be provided to
workers working in noisy installations.
• e) 4-5 rows of trees and shrubs should be grown along roads, rails, around
industrial area and residential complexes in order to decrease the intensity
of the sound.These rows of trees are also called as Green Belts. They
reduce noise level by 10-15 dB. Trees help reduce noise pollution by
absorbing sound. Example: Neem, Ashoka, Tamarind, etc.
•

Radioactive
pollution
 radiation
• Emission or transmission of energy in form of wave
or particle

Electromagneticc nuclear
Electromagnetic radiation
 Nuclear radiation
• This radiation is emitted when an unstable (i.e.
radioactive) nucleus transforms to some other nucleus
or energy level.

• Radioactivity is a property of certain element

<radium,thorium,uranium etc>
•
Half life of radioactive material
• Time needed for half of its atom to decay.

• Radio active material with long half –life are the

chief source of environemental radioactive pollution.
 Type of nuclear radiation

Alpha radiation Beta radiation

Gamma radiation Neutron radiation

 Common sources
• 1>Natural radiation.. Radon gas This natural occurring gas
comes from soil and is found throughout the world. It
emits alpha particles.both plant and animal contain small
amount of radiation from radioactive potassium40 and
radium 226.all earth water contain amall amount of
uranium and thorium
• 2>man-made>rdioactive materials used in production of
nuclear weapons,nuclear fuel. Coal is an impure fuel, and
it usually contains 1.3 ppm of uranium and 3.4 ppm of
thorium
 Type of radiation

Non-ionising ionising

Low penetration power,can injure skin

High penetration power
cell,sun burns.

Eg>X-ray,gamma ray,all nuclear

Radio,mirco,infra,visible uv radiation
 Radiation Pollution?
• Radiation Pollution is defined as the increase in the
natural radiation levels >make environement unsuitable

• Radioactive Pollution?
•
increase in the nuclear radiation>make environement
unsuitable
Harmful effects of radiations..
• Non-ionising>may damage eyes which may be caused
by reflections from coastal sand, snow (snow
blindness) electromagnetic radiation radiation from
mobile tower may cause cellular and psychological
changes in human beings due to thermal effects,
Magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds’
navigation skills hence when birds are exposed to
EMR they disorient and begin to fly in all directions.
• Ionising radiation>burn,impaired metabolism,dead
tissues and death of the organisms,in long run can cause
increaed incidences of tumors and cancer,shortening of
life span and developmental changes

• Can cause congenital defects

 How to dispose nuclear waste
• presently waste fuel rods are being stored in special
storage ponds at reactor sites or sent to reprocessing
plants. Even though reprocessing is more expensive but
some countries use reprocessing as an alternative to
waste storage.
• Some methods>bury it deep underground in insulated
containers. This is a strategy being pursued in United
States.
• shoot it into the space or into the sun. The cost would be
very high and a launch accident should be disastrous
• bury it under the ice sheet of Antarctica or Greenland
ice cap. The ice could be destabilized by heat from the
waste. The method has been prohibited by international
law.
• dump it into deep oceans by keeping the waste into glass
and steel cases. But the containers might leak and
contaminate the ocean.
• change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes.
Currently no method is known to do that and the
method would be too costly.
 Control measures
• All safety measures should be strictly enforced. UN should have
more powers to perform safety checks in various nuclear
establishments across the world.
• Worldwide monitoring of radiation leakage should be a priority.
• Proper technologies should be developed to prevent
contamination of water and soil by radioactive waste and
radioactive materials.
• More avenues for safe disposal of radioactive must be worked out.
• Regular monitoring through frequent sampling and quantitative
analysis in domestic nuclear establishments.
• World must unite to ban production and use of nuclear weapons.
•
What is E-WASTE
HOW IT IS
GENERATED
•
• E-waste has been defined as "waste electrical and
electronic equipment, whole or in part or rejects from
their manufacturing and repair process, which are
intended to be discarded".
• E-waste is highly complex to handle due to its composition.
It is made up of multiple components some of which
contain toxic substances that have an adverse impact on
human health and environment if not handled properly.
• cadmium in computer batteries; lead, mercury, hexavalent
chromium, polybrominated biphenyls and polybrominated
diphenyl ethers
• Why e-waste increasing>Part of the reason for
the rise in e-waste is the increasing disposable incomes
in the developing world. Consumers are able to acquire
electronic gadgets – smartphones, TVs and computers
– at affordable prices. But the goods are carelessly
discarded long before they have completed their full
life-cycle, a consumer trend accelerated by the rapid
introduction into the market of newer model
 E-waste and india
India generates around 2 million tonnes per annum (TPA) of E-waste
of which 12% constituted of telecom equipment alone
India is the world’s 4th largest electronic waste (e-waste) producer
Due to presence of precious metals, like gold, aluminium, copper
and silver, many of these discarded e-waste products are recycled
by informal recyclers in unsafe manner which also adds to the
health and environmental problems. If e-waste is recycled in a
proper manner, recycling one million cell phones can recover 50
pounds of gold, 550 pounds of silver, 20 thousand pounds of
copper and other precious metals.
Electronic waste is exported to developing countries
• such as China, India and parts of Africa, thus avoiding the expense of
removing items (the processing of which is expensive and difficult)
• In China, Malaysia, India, Kenya, and various African countries,
electronic waste is being sent to these countries for processing,
sometimes illegally. Many surplus laptops are routed to developing
nations as "dumping grounds for e-waste.

• just 20 percent was officially tracked and properly recycled in 2016,

according to the new report. The remaining 80 percent? It’s not
consistently documented, and most of it is likely dumped, traded or
recycled in haphazard, potentially harmful ways
 Hazardous material in e-waste
• Americium
• Lead
• Cadmium
• Mercury
• Hexavalent chromium
• Brominated flame retardants
• Barium
• Beryllium
• Sulphur
• Perfluorooctanoic acid
• Polyvinyl chloride
Harmful effect of e-waste
• >dumping contaminate land and water.
•
 E-waste rule 2016
• placed responsibility on electronic goods manufacturing
companies and bulk consumers to collect and channel e-
waste from consumers to authorised re-processing units.
• >present Rule ensures that every producer of electrical and
electronic equipment (EEE) and their components or
consumables or parts or spares shall ensure that new EEE and
their components or parts or spares do not contain
pollutants such as lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent
chromium, polybrominated biphenyls and polybrominated
diphenyl ethers beyond a maximum concentration value.
• role of State Governments is to ensure safety, health
and skill development of the workers involved in
dismantling and recycling operations.
• Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced as an
additional economic instrument wherein the producer
charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time of
sale of the electrical and electronic equipment and
returns it to the consumer along with interest when the
end-of life electrical and electronic equipment is
returned.
•
 Solid waste
• Solid wastes are any discarded or abandoned materials.
Solid wastes can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or MATERIAL
containing gas.
• Source>household,contruction and demolition
debris,sanitation residue,hazardous waste from
industries,hospital waste generated during the
diagnosis,treatment or immunization
 key point
• origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction
or institutional).

• contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper

etc).

• hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable,

radioactive, infectious etc)
 Why we need to dispose it..
• Green house gas emission
• Frequent fire
• Soil degradation>acid increase
• Burning cause harmfull gases to increase
• Insects,rodents and other diseases causing agent
growth.
• surface and Ground water contamination
 How much we generate
• MSW typically contains 51% organic waste,
17% recyclables, 11% hazardous and 21% inert waste.

• URBAN INDIA GENERATE 68 milion tonne per year.]

• Only 43 million tonnes (MT) of the waste is collected,
11.9 MT is treated and 31 MT is dumped in landfill
sites.
 Who has responsibility to dispose
• As per Rule 4 of the Municipal Solid Wastes
(Management and Handling) Rules,
2000"every municipal authority is responsible for
infrastructure for segregation and processing
of municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known
as garbage"
 Solid waste management
• 1>Centralised method: This method involves collection of
municipal waste from all over the local area and by means of
landfilling, dump outside the city/nagar panchayat limits.
This process looks at door-to-door collection of solid waste
by waste pickers who hand over to the collection team who
then discard the collected waste in the landfill.
• 2>De-centralized method: This is a model seen in a few
places like Suryapet in Andhra Pradesh and Bangalore in
Karnataka. The waste is collected ward-wise and is
segregated at source into bio-degradable and non-
biodegradable.
 Methods to dispose waste.
• Open dumps>uncovered area used to dump solid waste of
all kinds.the waste is untreated,uncovered and non-
segregated.
• Landfills>pit that is dug in the ground,the garbage is
dumped and the pit is covered with soil everydaythus
preventing the breeding flied and rats
• Sanitary landfills>line with materials that are impermeable
such as plastics and cly.contruction is costly
• Incineration plants>burning aste in large furnance at high
temperature,recyclable material is segregated and the rest of
the material is burnt ,it produce toxic gases and pollute air
environment.
• Pyrolysis> Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass
occurring in the absence of oxygen. Two well-known
products created by pyrolysis are a form of charcoal created
by heating wood, and coke (which is used as an industrial
fuel and a heat shield), created by heating coal.
– Composting>it is a biological process in which
micro-organisms mainly fungi and bacteria
decompose degradable disposable material in the
presence of oxygen.the finished producct looks like
soil,is high in carbon,nitrogen.
– Vermicomposting>or earthworm farming>wworm
are added to the compost.these worms breaks the
waste and the added excreta of the worm makes the
compost very rich in nutrients.
 Solid waste management rule 2016
• 1> The Minister said that the responsibility of generators has been
introduced to segregate waste into three categories – Wet, Dry and
Hazardous Waste, Wet (Biodegradable), Dry (Plastic, Paper, metal, wood,
etc.) and domestic hazardous wastes (diapers, napkins, empty containers of
cleaning agents, mosquito repellents, etc.)
• 2> generator will have to pay ‘User Fee’ to the waste collector and a ‘Spot
Fine’ for littering and non-segregation, the quantum of which will be
decided by the local bodies
• 3> The Rules are now applicable beyond Municipal areas and extend to
census towns, notified industrial townships, areas under the control of
Indian Railways, airports, airbase, Port and harbour, defence
establishments, special economic zones, State and Central government
organizations, places of pilgrims, religious & historical importance.
• 44> Integration of waste pickers/ ragpickers and waste
dealers/ Kabadiwalas in the formal system should be
done by State Governments, and Self Help Group, or
any other group to be formed.
• 5> Bulk and institutional generators, market
associations, event organizers and hotels and
restaurants have been made directly responsible for
segregation and sorting the waste and manage in
partnership with local bodies.
• 6> The developers of Special Economic Zone, industrial
estate, industrial park to earmark at least 5% of the
total area of the plot or minimum 5 plots/ sheds for
recovery and recycling facility.
• 7> All such manufacturers, brand owners or marketing
companies should educate the masses for wrapping and
disposal of their products.
• 8>focus on converting waste to useful material as much
as possible like compost,bio-fuel.
 Waste minimization circle
• Assistance of WB with ministry of environment.

• Implemented by national productivity council.

• A new and creative way of thinking about products and

processes >minimize waste generation and emission
WHAT IS THERMAL
POLLUTION
 THERMAL POLLUTION

• RISE OR FALL IN THE TEMPERATURE in a natural aquatic

environment caused by human influence.
 Major sources.
• Power plants creating electricity from fossil fuel.
• Water as a cooling agent in industrial facilities.
• Deforestation of the shorelines

• Soil erosion
 Effects>warm water
• Warm water contains less oxygen>increased metbolic
rate which can cause shortage of food.
• Migration of organism
• Affect normal functioning of body<affecting enzymes>
• Can cause algal bloom.
• Many aquatic species will fail to reproduce at elevated
temperatures
 Cold water
• From the release of water from the base of reservoir
into warmer rivers.

• This affects fish <particularly their eggs and larvae>

 control
• Treat warm water before discharge.
• Cogeneration>process through which, the excess heat
energy from generating can be used in another
manufacturing process that needs such energy.
• Forestation
• Prevent soil erosion.
 Plastic pollution
• The marine resource covering 70% of the earth’s surface.
• Plastic pollution is the accumulation
of plastic objects(e.g.: plastic bottles and much more) in
the Earth's environment that adversely
affects wildlife, wildlife habitat and humans.
• the chemical structure of most plastics renders them
resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as
a result they are slow to degrade
• Plastic pollution can afflict land, waterways and oceans.
• As of 2018, about 380 million tonnes of plastic is
produced worldwide each year. From the 1950s up to
2018, an estimated 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been
produced worldwide, of which an estimated 9% has
been recycled and another 12% has been incinerated.
• large amount of plastic waste inevitably enters the
environment with studies suggesting that the bodies of
90% of seabirds contain plastic debris.
• Some researchers suggest that by 2050 there could be
more plastic than fish in the oceans by weight
 Type of plastic pollution

Microdebris Macrodebris

Plastic debris is categorized

Microdebris are plastic as macrodebris when it is
pieces between 2 mm and larger than 20 mm. These
5 mm in size include items such as plastic
grocery bags
 Microplastics
• Microplastics are small, barely visible pieces
of plastic that enter and pollute the environment.
• Microplastics are not a specific kind of plastic, but
rather any type of plastic fragment that is less than
five millimeters in length according to the U.S. National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
• They enter natural ecosystems from a variety of
sources, including, but not limited
to, cosmetics, clothing, and industrial processes.
 Sources
• 1> solid wastevtreatement>A 2016 study showed that most
microplastics are actually removed during the primary
treatment stage
• When these treatment facilities are functioning properly, the
contribution of microplastics into oceans and surface water
environments from WWTPs is not disproportionately large.
• it is important to note that in certain countries sewage
sludge is used for soil fertilizer, which exposes plastics in the
sludge to the weather, sunlight, and other biological factors,
causing fragmentation.
• 2> Car and truck tires
• Wear and tear from tires significantly contributes to the flow of
(micro-)plastics into the environment.

• 3> Cosmetics industry

• Some companies have replaced natural exfoliating ingredients with
microplastics, usually in the form of "microbeads" or "micro-
exfoliates".
• They are often found in face washes, hand soaps, and other
personal care products, so the beads are usually washed into
the sewage system immediately after use.
• wastewater treatment plants only remove an average of 95–99.9%
of microbeads because of their small design . This leaves an average
of 0-7 microbeads per litre being discharged
• 4> Clothing
• Studies have shown that many synthetic fibers, such as
polyester, nylon and acrylics, can be shed from clothing
and persist in the environment.
• 5> Manufacturing> The manufacture of plastic products.

• 6> Fishing industry> Recreational and commercial

fishing, marine vessels, and marine industries are all
sources of plastic that can directly enter the marine
environment
• 7> Packaging and shipping> shipping remains a dominant
source of plastic pollution, having contributed around 6.5
million tons of plastic in the early 1990s.
• 8> Plastic water bottles> study, 93% of the bottled water
from 11 different brands showed microplastic
contamination. Per liter, researchers found an average of 325
microplastic particles.
• Of the tested brands, Nestlé Pure Life bottles contained the
most microplastic with 930 and 807 microplastic particles per
liter (MPP/L), respectively.
• Compared to water from taps, water from plastic bottles
contained twice as much microplastic. Some of the
contamination likely comes from the process of bottling and
packaging the water
 MARPOL 73/78
• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL
73/78,
• . It was developed by the International Maritime
Organization in an effort to minimize pollution of the oceans
and seas, including dumping, oil and air pollution.
• The objective of this convention is to preserve the marine
environment in an attempt to completely eliminate pollution
by oil and other harmful substances and to minimize
accidental spillage of such substances.
 Potential effects on the environment
• 1> Biological integration into organisms
• Not only fish and free-living organisms can ingest
microplastics. corals, which are primary reef-builders, have
been shown to ingest microplastics under laboratory
conditions.
• When microplastic-laden animals are consumed by predators,
the microplastics are then incorporated into the bodies of
higher trophic-level feeders, Microplastics also absorb chemical
pollutants that can be transferred into the organism's tissues
• 2>on human> The primary concern with human health in
regards to microplastics is more directed towards the
different toxic and carcinogenic chemicals used to make
these plastics and what they carry. It has also been thought
that microplastics can act as a vector for pathogens as well
as heavy metals,
pregnant women in particular are in danger of causing birth
defects to male infants.
3>Economic, e.g. cost to tourism, damage to vessels, fishing
gear and facilities, losses to fishery operations, cleaning
costs;
 Proposed solutions
• 1> incinerating plastics to use as energy, this method does
not diminish the amount of plastic material that is produced.
• 2> recycling plastics is considered a more efficient solution.

• 3> Biodegradation is another possible solution to large

amounts of microplastic waste. In this process,
microorganisms consume and decompose synthetic polymers
with using degrading enzymes, some bacteria have evolved to
eat plastic, and some bacteria species have been genetically
modified to eat (certain types of) plastics
• 4>campaign like "Beat the Microbead", which focuses
on removing plastics from personal care products.

• 5>use of plastic in construction material for building

roads
 Decomposition of plastics
• Many kinds of plastics exist depending on their precursors and the
method for their polymerization.
• a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable
nappy will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to
degrade
• In water>1>the rate of UV –induced photo-oxidative degradation of
plastics floating or submerged at sea is very much slower than that
exposed to the same solar radiation on land
• 2>unlike on land there is no easy mean of retrieval,sorting and
recycling of plastic waste that enters into the ocean environment.
 Effects

• 1> Entanglement in plastic debris has been responsible for

the deaths of many marine organisms, such as
fish, seals, turtles, and birds. These animals get caught in
the debris and end up suffocating.
• 2>ingestion> This plastic debris can kill the sea turtle by
obstructing the oesophagus, large amounts of plastics have
been found in the stomachs of beached whales In June
2018, more than 80 plastic bags were found inside a
dying pilot whale that washed up on the shores of Thailand
• 3> plastics have potentially harmful effects that could
prove to be carcinogenic or promote endocrine
disruption.
• 4>soil degradation and water pollution
 Refuse,reduce

Source>https://plasticoceans.org/how-you-
can-help-reduce-plastic-pollution-infographic/
Refuse,reduce
Refuse,reduce
Refuse,reduce
Refuse,reduce
• Recycling

• Plastic items that can’t be reused should always be

recycled to ensure they do not end up in the
environment and to avoid producing more plastic
unnecessarily.
•
• 1> Increase minimum thickness of plastic carry bags
from 40 to 50 microns and stipulate minimum thickness
of 50 micron for plastic sheets also to facilitate collection
and recycle of plastic waste,
• 2>Expand the jurisdiction of applicability from the
municipal area to rural areas, because plastic has
reached rural areas also
• 3>To bring in the responsibilities of producers and
generators, both in plastic waste management system
and to introduce collect back system of plastic waste by
the producers/brand owners, as per extended producers
responsibility;
• 4> To promote use of plastic waste for road construction
or energy generation
• 5>Manufacture and use of non-recyclable multilayered
plastic if any should be phased out in two years’ time.
• The word non recyclable multilayer was replaced in 2018
with multilayer plastic which is non recyclable,non energy
recoverable or of no alternative use.
• 6>Retailers or street vendors shall not sell, or provide
commodities to consumers in carry bags, or plastic sheet,
or multilayered packaging, which are not manufactured
and labelled or marked, as prescribed under these rules.
•
 BIOREMEDIATION
• Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms (bacteria
and fungi) to degrade the environmental contaminants
into less toxic forms.
• 2 TYPE>1>In situ bioremediation
• 2>Ex situ bioremediation
 In situ bioremediation
• 1>Bioventing: supply of air and nutrients through
wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of
indigenous bacteria.
• 2>Biosparging: Injection of air under pressure below
the water table to increase groundwater oxygen
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological
degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring
bacteria
•
• 3>Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms are imported
to a contaminated site to enhance degradation
process.
Ex situ bioremediation>involves the removal of the contaminated
material to be treated elsewhere

• 1>Land farming: contaminated soil is excavated and

spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled
until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate
indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and
facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
• 2>BIOPILES>excavated
soil is is mixed with soil
amendments and placed in
aboveground enclosure
• 3>bioreactors>it involves the
processing of contaminated
solid
material<soil,sediment,sludge
s>or water through an
engineered containment
system
 Phytoremediation
• Phytoremediation is use of plants to remove contaminants
from soil and water. Natural phytoremediation is carried out
by mangroves, estuarine vegetation and other wetland
vegetation.
• Phytoextraction/phytoaccumulation: plants accumulate
contaminants into the roots and aboveground shoots or
leaves.
• Phytotransformation/phytodegradation: uptake of organic
contaminants from soil, and their transformation to more
stable, less toxic, less mobile form.
•

Renewable energy
 What is renewable enrgy
• These are energy sources that are constantly being
replenished, This means that we can use them as much
as we want, and we do not have to worry about them
running out. enewable energy sources are usually much
more environmentally friendly than fossil fuels.

• solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, geothermal energy,

and biomass energy.
• Electricity sector in India>installed capacity of 346.05 GWas on
31 October 2018.
• Renewable power plants constituted 33.60% of total installed
capacity
• India is the world's third largest producer and third largest
consumer of electricity.
• India's electricity sector is dominated by fossil fuels, and in
particular coal, which in 2017-18 produced about three fourths
of all electricity
• National Electricity Plan of 2018 prepared by the Government
of India states that the country does not need additional non-
renewable power plants in the utility sector until 2027.
•
•

Solar power
 Solar energy
• India is endowed with vast solar energy.
• As of 31 March 2018, the installed capacity was 21.65 GW.
• There are two way we can produce electricity from the
sunlight.
• 1>photovoltic electricity>use photovoltic cells that absorb
the direct sunlight to generate electricity>it produce DC
• 2>solar thermal electricity>sunlight to heatup liquid,this
liquid used to produce steam that produce electricity.
 INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE
• LAUNCHED AT THE COP21 climate conference in paris in
2015
• Platform for mutual cooperation among 121 solar
resource rich countrues
• Objective>force down prices by driving demand
• new solar tech.
• Headquarters> Gurugram, Haryana, India
 International renewable energy agency<IRENA>
• 159 mem.
• Hq>abu dhabi
• founded in 2009 and its statute entered into force on 8 July 2010
• Mission>Supporting countries in their transition to a sustainable
energy future
• With a mandate from countries around the world, IRENA encourages
governments to adopt enabling policies for renewable energy
investments, provides practical tools and policy advice to accelerate
renewable energy deployment, and facilitates knowledge sharing
and technology transfer to provide clean, sustainable energy for the
world’s growing population.
•
Estimated renewable energy potential:
• Wind: 302 GW

• Solar-750 GW solar powers

•

Wind energy
• Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the
movement of atmosphere air.
• Five nations-germany,USA,denmark,spain and india
account for 80% of the worlds installed wind energy
capacity.
 Wind farm
• Onshore wind farms>operae on land,where the wind
tends to be the strongest.wind farms are less expensive and
easier to set up.
• Offshore wind farms> construction of wind farms
in large bodies of water to generate electricity.more
expensive than onshore wind farms
• As of 30 June 2018 the total
installed wind power
capacity was 34.293 GW,
the fourth largest installed
wind power capacity in the
world.
• Capacity installed>1 >tamil
nadu
gujrat:>2nd
maharashtra>3rd
karnatka>4th
rajasthan>5th
 National Offshore Wind Energy Policy
• Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been authorized as the
Nodal Ministry for use of offshore areas within the Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ) of the country

• National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) has been authorized as the Nodal
Agency for development of offshore wind energy.

• National Offshore Wind Energy Policy, the Government is attempting to

replicate the success of the onshore wind power development in the
offshore wind power development. The policy will provide a level playing
field to all investors/beneficiaries, domestic and international. All the
processes would be carried out in a transparent manner by NIWE.
 Hydropower Energy
• Hydroelectric power uses the kinetic energy of moving water to make
electricity.
• One of the greatest advantages of hydropower is that once the dam
is built and turbines become operative, it is relatively cheap and clean
source of energy.
• Hydropower also has some disadvantages, building of dam seriously
disturbs and damages the natural habitats and some of them are lost
forever.
• Small Hydro potential> – 25 GW
• Dev.>4.7gw
• India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in
the world. As of 30 April 2017, India's installed utility-scale
hydroelectric capacity was 44,594 MW, or 13.5% of its
total utility power generation capacity. Additional smaller
hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4,380
MW (1.3% of its total utility power generation capacity)
have been installed.
• India's economically exploitable and viable
hydroelectric potential is estimated to be 148,701 MW
 ocean energy
• Ocean Thermal Energy >large amount of solar energy
is stored in the oceans .
• On an average the 60million square kilometer of the
tropical sea absorb solar radiaion equivalent to the
heat content of 245 billion barrels oil.
• It uses the temperature differences beween the
surface of the ocean and the depth of about 100m to
operate heat engine.
•
 Wave energy

• Waves result from the interation of the wind with the

surface of the sea and represent a transfer of energy from
the wind to the sea
 Tidal energy

• Tidal power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that

converts the energy obtained from tides into useful forms
of power, mainly electricity.
•
 biomass
• Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from
the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural
acivities.
• Eg.agri crops,timerindustry, graasy and woody
plants,organic component of muncipal and industrial
waste.
• Bimass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
as it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing as
it releases when consumed as a fuel.
 Various process.
• 1>anaarobic digestion/biomethanation>here anaerobic
micro-organisms in an anaerobic environment decompose
biodegradable matter producing methane –rich biogas and
effluent..
• 2>incineration>waste is directly burned in the presence of
excess air<oxygen>at high temperature.can be used to
move turbine or biofuel production
• Pyrolysis/gasification>organic material is heated in the
absence of air until the molecules thermally break down to
become Liquid, gas and residual solid matter..
• Gas produced by by pyrolysis is called syngas.it
comprisescarbon monoxide<25%>,hydrogen and
hydrocarbon<15%>and carbon dioxide and
nitrogen<60%>..
 Co-generation
•

In powerplant>low pressure
exhaust steam coming out
Is producing two of the turbine is not
forms of energy condensed ,but used for
heating purposes in
from one fuel. factories or houss and thus
very efficient
•
• Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean
and sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy range
from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock
found a few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and
down even deeper to the extremely high temperatures
of molten rock called magma.
• Potential in india>india >10600 MW of power
from geothermal resources