Soft water, 0-55 mg/L

Moderately hard water, 55-120 mg/L

Distribution of hard water in United States.
Hard water, 120-250 mg/L
The areas shown define approximate hardness values
Very hard water, 250+ mg/L for municipal water supplies.

Figure by MIT OCW.

Adapted from: Dekker, Marcel. Water and Water Pollution Handbook. Edited by L. Ciaccio. New York,
NY: 1971.
 a

Ca2+ Mg2+ K+ Na+

Equivalents liter-1
2- 2-
HCO3- CO3 SO4 Cl- NO3-
[Alk] b

c
a
H+ Al (III) Ca2+ Mg+2 NH4+ Na+ K+
2-
HCO3- Org- SO4 NO3- Cl-
d b
Equivalents liter-1

Natural water charge balance for an alkaline system (Alk = a-b) and
an acid system (Alk = a-b = d-c).

Figure by MIT OCW.

Adapted from: Schnoor, J. L. Environmental Modeling:fate and

transport of pollutants in water, air, and soil. New York, NY: John
Wiley & Sons. 1996.
 Figure by MIT OCW.
Adapted from: MWH, J. C. Crittenden, R. R. Trussell, D. W. Hand, K. J. Howe, and G. Tchobanoglous.
Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005, p. 1601.
 Figure by MIT OCW.
Adapted from: Viessman, W., Jr., and M. J. Hammer. Water Supply and Pollution Control. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education,
Inc., 2005, p. 446.
Before treatment:

0.4 0 3.5 4.3 4.6

2+ 2+ +
Ca Mg Na
CO2
– 2–
HCO3 SO4 Cl–
2.3

2.3 meq Ca(HCO3)2 1.2 meq CaSO4 0.8 meq MgSO4 0.3
0.4 CO2
Carbonate hardness Non-carb. hardness NCH NaCl

After treatment with lime Ca(OH)2 and intermediate reaction to remove carbonate hardness:
(chemical equations 1, 2, & 3)
1.25 0 1.2 2.0 2.3

Ca2+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+

OH– SO42– Cl–

0.3
1.25 meq excess lime 2.0 meq NCH
NaCl

After treatment with lime and intermediate reaction to remove noncarbonate Mg hardness:
(chemical equations 4 & 5)
1.25 0 1.8 2.0 2.3

Ca2+ Ca2+ Mg Na+

OH– SO42– Cl–

0.3
1.25 meq excess lime 2.0 meq NCH
NaCl

After treatment with soda ash Na2CO3:

(chemical equations 8 & 9)
1.25 0 0.6 0.8 2.8 3.1
2+ 2+ +
Ca Ca Mg Na
– 2– 2–
OH CO3 SO4 Cl–

residual 2.0 meq 0.3

1.25 meq excess lime
0.8 meq hardness added soda ash NaCl

After recarbonation:
(chemical equations 6 & 7)
0 0.6 0.8 2.8 3.1
2+ +
Ca Mg Na
– 2–
HCO3 SO4 Cl–

residual 2.0 meq 0.3

0.8 meq hardness added soda ash NaCl
 Carbonate system equilibrium

1.E+00

1.E-01

1.E-02

1.E-03

D1 - [HCO3–]
1.E-04
D0, D1, D2

D0 - [H2CO3*]
1.E-05

D2 - [CO32–]
1.E-06

1.E-07

1.E-08

1.E-09
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
pH
 Summary of chemical dosage calculations required for lime & lime-soda ash softening*

PROCESS REQUIRED CHEMICAL DOSAGE CALCULATIONS

Single-Stage Lime: Lime addition for softening:

For waters with high CaO = {carbonic acid concentration} + { calcium carbonate hardness}
calcium, low magnesium, Soda ash addition for softening:
& carbonate hardness Na2CO3 = none
Carbon dioxide for pH adjustment after softening:
source water
CO2 =
{ estimated carbonate
alkalinity of softened
water
{ {
=
source water
alkalinity { {
- calcium
hardness
{
+
{ estimated residual
calcium hardness
of softened water
{
Excess Lime: Lime addition for softening:
For waters with high
calcium, high magnesium,
and carbonate hardness;
CaO = { carbonic acid
concentration { { + total alkalinity
{{ +
magnesium
hardness { {
+
excess lime
dose {
process may be one or Soda ash addition for softening:
two stages Na2CO3 = none

Carbon dioxide for pH adjustment after softening:

estimated residual
CO2 =
{ source water
alkalinity {{
-
source water
total hardness {{ {{
- excess lime + calcium hardness
dose of softened water
{
estimated residual
+2
{ excess lime
dose {{
+ magnesium hardness
of softened water
{
Single-Stage Lime Soda Lime addition for softening:
Ash: CaO = {carbonic acid concentration} + { calcium carbonate hardness}
For water with high Soda ash addition for softening:
calcium, low magnesium, Na2CO3 = {calcium noncarbonate hardness} and /or {magnesium noncarbonate hardness}
& carbonate and
Carbon dioxide for pH adjustment after softening:
noncarbonte hardness
source water estimated residual
CO2 = { source water
alkalinity {{ +
soda ash
dose
-
{{ calcium
hardness
{{
+ calcium hardness
of softened water
{
Excess Lime - Soda Lime addition for softening:
magnesium magnesium
Ash:
For waters with high
calcium, high magnesium,
{ carbonic acid
CaO = concentration + {{
concentration
calcium carbonate
{ { {{
+ 2 carbonate + noncarbonate
hardness hardness
{
and carbonate and
noncarbonate hardness;
process may be one or two
+
{ excess lime
requirement {
stages Soda ash addition for softening:

Na2CO3 =
{ calcium
noncarbonate
hardness
{{
magnesium
+ noncarbonate
hardness
{
Carbon dioxide for pH adjustment after softening:
estimated hydroxide estimated residual
CO2, first stage =
{ {{
excess lime
alkalinity of softened = dose
water
{{
+ magnesium hardness
of softened water
{
source
CO2, second stage =
{ estimated hydroxide
{{
source water
alkalinity of softened = alkalinity
water
soda ash
+ dose
{{
- water total
hardness
{{ {
+
{ estimated residual
hardness of softened
water
{
* All quantities are expressed as mg/L as CaCO3

Figure by MIT OCW.

Adapted from: MWH, J. C. Crittenden, R. R. Trussell, D. W. Hand, K. J. Howe, and G. Tchobanoglous.

Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005, pp. 1610-1611.
Source: NIOSH, 2003. Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building Environments from Airborne
Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks. DHHS (NIOSH) Pub No. 2003-136. National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, Centers for Disease Control, Cincinnati, Ohio. April 2003. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-136/2003-
136c.html. Accessed February 21, 2006.
 Figure by MIT OCW.

Adapted from Culp, G.L., and R.L. Culp. New Concepts in Water Purification. New
York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 1974
 GAC Tank Full open cover
with porthole

Bolt ring

}
Influent
Backwash

Surface wash
Wash
water Carbon charge

Carbon bed surface

4 to 5 m

25 mm
2 to 3 m

sampling taps

Neva clog
screen

Figure by MIT OCW. Carbon discharge

Source: Metcalf & Eddy Inc. Effluent

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Backwash
Disposal, Reuse. McGraw-Hill, New 1 to 2 m
York, 1979.
 Granular activated carbon tanks at MMR

Source: MMR, undated. Extraction, treatment and reinjection. Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, Installation
Restoration Program, Massachusetts Military Reservation. http://www.mmr.org/community/guide/extraction.htm. Accessed
March 7, 2004.
 GAC Breakthrough

δ
δ
δ <δ
Ci C2 Cb
Cl
Effluent Solute Concentration

Exhaustion

Py

Cb
Vb Vx
Volume of Water Treated, V

Typical Breakthrough Curve for Activated Carbon

igure yb MIT C
F .O
W
Source: Metcalf & Eddy Inc.
Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,
Disposal, Reuse. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1979.
 1.40

Fe(OH)2+
1.00
Fe3+ Water Oxidized

FeOH2+
0.50
EH, v

Fe(OH)3(s)
Fe2+
0.00

FeCO3(s)

-0.50

Water Reduced

-1.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
pH

Forms of Iron in Water as Function of Redox Potential Versus pH Constructed with Total Iron Activity 10-7M
or 5.6 µg/L, 96 mg/L SO42-, CO2 Species at 1000 mg/L HCO3-, Temperature at 25oC, and Pressure of 1 atm.

Figure by MIT OCW.

Adapted from: MWH, J. C. Crittenden, R. R. Trussell, D. W. Hand, K. J. Howe, and G. Tchobanoglous.
Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005, p. 1571.
 +1.6

MnO4 -
+1.2

Wate
rO xidiz
+0.8 ed

MnO
2 (s)
+0.4 Mn2+
Mn2O3(s)
EH, v

0
Mn3O4(s)
Wate
-0.4 rR educ
ed

-0.8 [Mn]total = 10-6 M

Mn(OH)2(s)
-1.2

-1.6 Mn(s)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
pH

Forms of Manganese in Water as Function of Redox Potential Versus pH at a Water Temperature of

25oC.

Figure by MIT OCW.

Adapted from: MWH, J. C. Crittenden, R. R. Trussell, D. W. Hand, K. J. Howe, and G. Tchobanoglous.
Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005, p. 1579.