MTS 211 Structures

MTS 211 - Abstract Algebra - 3 Units
Professor Agboola A.A.A.

Department of Mathematics, Federal University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria. (agboolaaaa@funaab.edu.ng)
A Virtual Lecture Presented To: 200 Level Mathematics Students
Mounted by: Department of Mathematics

Federal University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria
February 1 - March 31, 2021
Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

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AlgebraAbeokuta, agboolaaaa@funaab.edu.ng
- 3 Units Nigeria. ( February 1 - March 31, 2021 1 / 1) (
Abstract
Abstract
The objective of this lecture is to teach Algebraic Structures. At the end of
the lecture, the students should be able to:
1 Understand what is meant by Algebraic Structures.
2 Have Examples of some Algebraic Structures and their Basic Properties.
3 Solve Problems involving some Algebraic Structures.

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Course Contents
Introduction to the language and concepts of modern Mathematics. Topics
include: Basic set theory. Mappings, relations, equivalence and other
relations. Cartesian products. Binary logic. Methods of Proof. Binary
operations. Algebraic structures, semigroups, groups, rings, integral domains,
fields and homomorphisms.
Prerequisite: MTS 101.
Useful Textbooks
1 Basic Abstract Algebra by Bhattacharya P.B., Jain S.K. and Nagpaul S.R.
2 Guide to Abstract Algebra by Carol Whitehead.
3 Introduction to Abstract Algebra by Thomas A Whitelaw.
4 A First Course in Abstract Algebra by Fraleigh J.B.
5 Algebra 1 by Coh P.M.
6 Topics in Algebra by Herstein I.N.
7 Elements of Modern Algebra by Gilbert Gilbert.
8 Theory and Problems of Group Theory by Benjamin B. and Bruce C.
[Schaum’s Outline Series].
9 Any available online textbooks and materials in Abstract Algebra.
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Algebraic Structures
Introduction
An algebraic structure, or an abstract system, or an algebraic system is a
nonempty set X together with one or more binary operations ∗, ◦, 4, ... on that
set. Algebraic structures are named according to the properties or rules or
axioms satisfied by ∗. Notations like (X , ∗), (X , ∗, ◦), (X , ∗, ◦, 4) etc are used
to represent algebraic structures. Some algebraic structures whose binary
operations satisfy particularly important properties/axioms are groupoids,
monoids, semigroups, groups, rings, fields, integral domains, vector spaces,
modules, topologies and so on.
In this lecture, we are going to study a simple algebraic system known as a
group in which we consider only a single binary operation. The binary
operation of the group satisfies certain basic rules known as the group
axioms. Using the group axioms, we will derive some elementary properties
of a group. The notion of a group is used in many branches of Mathematics
and in a wide variety of applications, including computer design and
programming languages, coding, elementary particle and nuclear physics,
quantum mechanics, molecular structure and crystallography.
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Group Structure
Also in this lecture, we are going to study an algebraic structure with only two
binary operations of addition and multiplication which is called a ring. Rings
have their applications in Mathematics, Science, Engineering, Coding and
Computer Science in general.
1. Groups
Definition 1.1 Let G be a nonempty set and let ∗ be a binary operation on G.
The abstract system (G, ∗) is called a group if the following axioms are
satisfied:
(G1) ∗ is closed in G, i.e
a ∗ b ∈ G ∀a, b ∈ G.
(G2) ∗ is associative in G, i.e
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c ∀a, b, c ∈ G.
(G3) G has an identity element i.e ∃e ∈ G such that
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a ∀a ∈ G.
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(G4) Every element of G has a ∗-inverse in G i.e for a ∈ G, ∃b ∈ G such that
a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.
If only G1 is satisfied, (G, ∗) is called a groupoid. If only G1 and G2 are
satisfied, (G, ∗) is called a semigroup. If only G1, G2 and G3 are satisfied,
(G, ∗) is called a monoid and for a full group, we have G1, G2, G3 and G4 are
satisfied. If in addition to G1, G2, G3 and G4 we also have the axiom
(G5) ∗ is commutative, i.e
a ∗ b = b ∗ a ∀a, b ∈ G,
then we say that (G, ∗) is an abelian or a commutative group.
If (G, ∗) is a group, we often say that G is a group under ∗ or simply refer to it
as the group G.
A group G is said to be a finite group if the set G is finite and an infinite group
if the set G is infinite.
Definition 1.2 If G is a finite group, then the number of elements in G is called
the order of the group G and is denoted by | G | or o(G) or #(G). If G is
infinite, we write o(G) = ∞.
If G is finite and o(G) = n ≤ 10, we can display the compositions of elements
of G wrt a binary operation ∗ in a special table called Cayley Table.
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For example, consider G = {e, a, b, c} and let ∗ be a binary operation on G as
∗ e a b c
e e a b c
shown in the Cayley table: a a e c b It is clear from the table that
b b c e a
c c b a e
G1, G3, G4 and G5 are satisfied: e is the identity element and every element
of G has an inverse i.e e−1 = e, a−1 = a, b−1 = b and c −1 = c. Lastly
assuming that G2 is satisfied which we always assume when using the Cayley
table, then we have that (G, ∗) is an abelian group. This special group is
called a Klein 4-group. Note in the Cayley table that no element is repeated
either in a row or a column. (G, ∗) will not be a group if any of the elements of
G is repeated in a row or column of the Cayley table of G.
Example 1.3 (i) (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +) and (C, +) are abelian groups.
Proof: Easy.
(ii) Let M = {[ann ] : ann ∈ R} be the set of all n × n non-singular matrices.
Then (M, .) is a non-abelian group.
Proof: Easy.
(iii) In the set G = Z of all integers, define ∗ as
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a ∗ b = a + b − 4 ∀a, b ∈ Z.
Then (G, ∗) is an abelian group.
Proof: G1 is clear since ∀a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b ∈ G. For G2,
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a + b + c − 8. For G2, e = 4 is the identity element
in G. For G4, a−1 = 8 − a ∀a ∈ G. Finally for G5, a ∗ b = b ∗ a = a + b − 4.
Hence, (G, ∗) is indeed an abelian group.
(iv) Let G = Z4 . Then (G, +4 ) is an abelian group where +4 is addition
modulo 4.
Proof: G = Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The result follows from the Cayley table:
+4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0 .
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2
(v) Let G = {a, b, c, d} and let ∗ be a binary operation defined on G as
shown in the Cayley table.

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∗ a b c d
a b c a b
b c d b a .
c a b c d
d a b d d
It is clear that (G, ∗) is not a group.
(vi) Let G = {1, 3, 7, 9} ⊆ Z10 . Then (G, ×10 ) is a group where ×10 is
multiplication modulo 10.
×10 1 3 7 9
1 1 3 7 9
Proof: The result follows from the Cayley table: 3 3 9 1 7 .
7 7 1 9 3
9 9 7 3 1
(vii) Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Let S3 denote the set of all bijective mappings from S
onto S. If f : S → S is such
that f (1) =i, f (2) = j, f (3) = k , for i, j, k ∈ S,
1 2 3
then f will be denoted by . With this notation, S3 can be
i j k
written as
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1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
S3 = , , ,
1 2 3 2 1 3 3 2 1

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, , .
1 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 2
In the cycle notation, S3 can be written as
S3 = {(1), (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)} .
With ◦ as the binary operation of composition of mappings, It can be shown

that (S3 , ◦) is a non-abelian group. To see this, we construct the Cayley table
below:

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◦ (1) (12) (13) (23) (123) (132)
(1) (1) (12) (13) (23) (123) (132)
(12) (12) (1) (132) (123) (23) (13)
(13) (13) (123) (1) (132) (12) (23)
(23) (23) (132) (123) (1) (13) (12)
(123) (123) (13) (23) (12) (132) (1)
(132) (132) (23) (12) (13) (1) (123)
G1 is clearly satisfied. For instance,

1 2 3 1 2 3
(23)(13) = ◦
1 3 2 3 2 1

1 2 3
= = (123) ∈ S3 .
2 3 1
G2 is obvious since composition

of mappings
is always associative. The
1 2 3 •
identity element in S3 is = (1) and •• G3 is satisfied.
1 2 3
G4 is satisfied since every element of S3 has an inverse. For instance,
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−1
1 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 3
(123)−1 = = = = (132).
2 3 1 1 2 3 3 1 2
It is clear from the table that ◦ is not commutative and thus, G5 is not satisfied.
Accordingly, (S3 , ◦) is a non-abelian group.
Theorem 1.4 In a group G:
(i) Identity element is unique.
(ii) Every element has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
Proof: (i) Suppose that e and f are two identities in G. Then ef = e (since f is
•
an identity element). Also, ef = f (since e is an identity element). •• e = f and
the proof is complete.
(ii) Suppose that b and c are both inverses of a ∈ G. Then
b = be = b(ac) = (ba)c = ec = c.
(iii) ∀a ∈ G, ∃a ∈ G such that aa−1 = a−1 a = e. Also for a−1 ∈ G, ∃a ∈ G
−1
such that a−1 a = aa−1 = e. Hence by definition, a ∈ G is the inverse of

•
a−1 ∈ G and •• (a−1 )−1 = a.
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(iv) To show that (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 , it suffices to show that
(ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = (b−1 a−1 )(ab) = e. To this end,
(ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = ((ab)b−1 )a−1 = (a(bb−1 )a−1 = (ae)a−1 = aa−1 = e.
(b−1 a−1 )(ab) = b−1 (a−1 (ab)) = b−1 ((a−1 a)b) = b−1 (eb) = b−1 b = e.
Since the inverse of any element in G is unique, it follows that
(ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 and the proof is complete.
Theorem 1.5 ∀a, b, c in a group G,
(i) ab = ac ⇒ b = c [Left Cancellation Law].
(ii) ba = ca ⇒ b = c [Right Cancellation Law].
Proof: (i)
ab = ac ⇒ a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac) ⇒ (aa−1 )b = (aa−1 )c ⇒ eb = ec
•
•• b = c.
(ii)
ba = ca ⇒ (ba)a−1 = (ca)a−1 ⇒ b(aa−1 ) = c(aa−1 ) ⇒ be = ce
•
•• b = c.
Theorem 1.6 For element a, b in a group G, the equations ax = b and ya = b
have unique solutions in G.
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Proof:
For a, b ∈ G, consider ab−1 ∈ G so that
a(a−1 b) = (aa−1 )b = eb = b.
This shows that a−1 b ∈ G is the solution of the equation ax = b i.e ax = b is

solvable in G. For uniqueness, let x1 , x2 ∈ G be two solutions of ax = b. Then
ax1 = b = ax2 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Hence, a−1 b ∈ G is the unique solution of the
equation ax = b.
Similarly, it can be shown that ba−1 ∈ G is the unique solution of the equation
ya = b. The proof is complete.
Theorem 1.7 Let G be a group. ∀a ∈ G and m, n ∈ Z:
(i) am an = am+n .
(ii) (am )n = (an )m = amn .
(iii) (a−1 )n = a−n .
Proof: See the recommended textbooks.

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Problem 1.8
Let (G, ∗) be a group and let p, q, r be any three elements of G such that
p ∗ q ∗ r = e. Show that q ∗ r ∗ p = e where e is the identity element of the
group.
Solution:
p∗q∗r = e ⇒ p ∗ (q ∗ r ) = e ⇒ p−1 = q ∗ r
•
•• q ∗ r ∗ p = (q ∗ r ) ∗ p = p−1 ∗ p = e.
Problem 1.9 Let a = (123), b = (132) ∈ S3 . Show that (a2 b3 )−4 = a.
Solution:
a2 b 3 = (aa)(bbb) = a(ab)(bb) = ae(bb) = a(bb) = (ab)b = eb = b
• 2 3 −4
•• (a b ) = b−4 = (b−1 )4 = ((132)−1 )4 = (123)4
= (123)(123)(123)(123) = (123) = a.
Practice Problems 1
(1.1) Let ∗ be a binary operation on Z. Determine if (Z, ∗) is an abelian group
or not if ∗ is defined as follows:
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(i) x ∗y = x + y + 1.
(ii) x ∗y = x + y − 1.
(iii) x ∗y = x + xy .
(iv) x ∗y = xy + y .
(v) x ∗y = x + y + xy .
(vi) x ∗y = x − y.
(vii) x ∗y =| x | y .
(viii) x ∗y = 2x − y .  
 1 a b 
(1.2) (a) Let G = M3×3 (R) =  0 1 c  : a, b, c ∈ R . Prove or disprove
0 0 1
 
that:
(i) (G, +) is an abelian group where + is the addition of matrices.
(ii) (G, •) is a non-abelian group where • is the multiplication of matrices.
(b) Let A be a nonempty set and let G = P(A) = 2A , the power set of A. For
X , Y ∈ G, let ⊕ be a binary operation on G defined by
X ⊕ Y = (X ∪ Y ) − (X ∩ Y ) = (X − Y ) ∪ (Y − X ).
(i) Show that (G, ⊕) is an abelian group.
(ii) If A has n distinct elements, state the order of G.
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(c) Show that Z2 × Z4 is an abelian group.
(1.3) (a) An element x in a multiplicative group G is called idempotent if
x 2 = x. Show that the identity element e is the only idempotent element
in a group G.
(b) Let G be a group.
(i) Show that the relation τ on G, defined by xτ y iff ∃ an a ∈ G such that
y = a−1 xa, is an equivalence relation.
(ii) Let x ∈ G. Find [x], the equivalence class containing x, if G is abelian.
(c) Let (G, ∗) be a finite group. Show that each element of G appears in the
Cayley table for G once in each row and exactly once in each column.
(d) Let G be a group. Show that G is abelian if:
(i) x = x −1 ∀x ∈ G.
(ii) ab = ca ⇒ b = c ∀a, b, c ∈ G.
(iii) and only if (ab)2 = a2 b2 for a, b ∈ G.
(iv) (ab)−1 = a−1 b−1 for a, b ∈ G.
(1.4) (a) Let a, b, c, and d be elements of a group G. Find an expression for
(abcd)−1 in terms of a−1 , b−1 , c −1 and d −1 .
(b) Use mathematical induction to show that if a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an−1 , an are
elements of a group G, then (a1 a2 a3 · · · an−1 an )−1 = an−1 an−1
−1
· · · a2−1 a1−1 .
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(1.5) Let G = S3 and let x = (12), y = (23) and z = (132) be three elements of
G. Compute α ∈ G given that
−10
α = x −4 y 6 z −8

.
(1.6) (a) Let (G, ∗) and (H, ◦) be groups and let G × H be their Cartesian
product. If is a binary operation on G × H defined by
(a, b) (c, d) = (a ∗ c, b ◦ d), ∀(a, b), (c, d) ∈ G × H,
Show that:
(i) (G × H, ) is a group.
(ii) G × H is abelian if both G and H are abelian.
(b) Let G = {1, 3} ⊆ Z8 and let H = {(1), (123), (132)} ⊆ S3 . Show that:
(i) (G, ×8 ) is an abelian group where ×8 is multiplication modulo 8.
(ii) (H, ◦) is a non-abelian group where ◦ is the composition of mappings.
(iii) (G × H, ⊗) is a non-abelian group where ⊗ is a binary operation on
G × H defined by
(a, b) ⊗ (c, d) = (a ×8 c, b ◦ d), ∀(a, b), (c, d) ∈ G × H.

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Subgroups
2. Subgroups
Introduction
In the studies of any algebraic structure X , it is important and customary to
study sub-structures of X . H1 , H2 , · · · , Hn are sub-structures of X if Hi are
nonempty subsets of X and they are also algebraic structures with the same
algebraic properties as in X under the same binary operation(s) inherited from
the parent structure X . For groups we have subgroups, for rings we have
subrings, for fields we have subfields, for vector spaces we have subspaces
and so on.
For a group in particular, let (G, ∗) be a group and let H be a nonempty subset
of G. H is said to be closed for the binary operation in G, if a ∗ b ∈ H
∀a, b ∈ H. If H is closed for the binary operation in G, then (H, ∗) can be
considered as an algebraic system, (H, ∗) itself may or may not be a group. If
(H, ∗) is a group in its own right under the same binary operation ∗ inherited
from the parent group G, then H is called a subgroup of G which is denoted by
H ≤ G. If H is a proper subset of G and (H, ∗) is a group, then we write
H < G.
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Definition 2.1
Let (G, ∗) be a group and let H be a nonempty subset of G. H is said to be a
subgroup of G if the following conditions hold:
(i) H is closed for ∗ and
(ii) (H, ∗) is itself a group.
In symbols, we write the conditions as:
(i) ab ∈ H ∀a, b ∈ H.
(ii) e ∈ H, where e is the identity element of G.
(iii) a−1 ∈ H ∀a ∈ H.
Example 2.2 (i) (Z, +) ≤ (Q, +) ≤ (R, +) ≤ (C, +).
(ii) (nZ, +) ≤ (Z, +) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · .
(iii) Let G = {e, a, b, c} be the Klein 4-group. Then H = {e, a}, K = {e, b}
and L = {e, c} are subgroups of G.
(iv) Let G = S3 be the symmetric group of order 3. Then
H = {(1), (123), (132)} is a subgroup of G.
(v) Let G = Z8 and let H = {0, 2, 4, 6}. Then H is a subgroup of G.
(vi) In any group G, {e} and G are subgroups of G. These two subgroups are
called the trivial subgroups of G.
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Theorem 2.3
Let G be a group. A nonempty subset H of G is a subgroup of G iff either of
the following holds:
(i) ∀a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H and a−1 ∈ H.
(ii) ∀a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H.
Proof: Suppose that H ≤ G. Then (i) and (ii) are obviously true.
conversely, suppose that H satisfies (i). Then for any a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H. Hence,
•
e = aa−1 ∈ H and •• H ≤ G.
Next, suppose that H satisfies (ii). Let a, b ∈ H. Then e = bb−1 ∈ H. Hence
•
b−1 = eb−1 ∈ H and •• ab = a(b−1 )−1 ∈ H, which shows that H ≤ G.
Theorem 2.4 Let G be a group. A nonempty finite subset H of G is a
subgroup iff ab ∈ H ∀a, b ∈ H.
Theorem 2.5 Intersection of any two subgroups of a group is itself a subgroup.
Proof: Suppose that H and K are subgroups of a group G. We are to show
that H ∩ K ≤ G. Clearly, H ∩ K 6= ∅ since e ∈ H and e ∈ K ⇒ e ∈ H ∩ K . Now
let x, y ∈ H ∩ K . Then x, y ∈ H and x, y ∈ K so that xy −1 ∈ H and xy −1 ∈ K
•
and •• xy −1 ∈ H ∩ K . Accordingly, H ∩ K is a subgroup of G.
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Remark 2.6
Even though H ∩ K , the intersection of two subgroups H and K of a group G is
itself a subgroup of G, H ∪ K , the union of H and K is not always a subgroup
of G. For example, consider H = 2Z = {0, ±2, ±4, ±6, · · · , } ≤ Z = G and
K = 3Z = {0, ±3, ±6, ±9, · · · , } ≤ Z = G. H ∩ K = {0, ±6, ±12, ±18, · · · , } is
a subgroup of G whereas H ∪ K = {0, ±2, ±4, ±6, · · · , ±3, ±6, ±9, · · · , } is
not a subgroup of G. To see this, 3, 4 ∈ H ∪ K but 3 + 4 = 7 6∈ H ∪ K . Hence,
H ∪ K is not a subgroup of G.
However, if H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H, then H ∪ K ≤ G.
Practice Problems 2
(2.1) Let G be a group and let a ∈ G. Show that the set
N(a) = {x ∈ G : ax = xa for some x ∈ G}
is a subgroup of G. N(a) is called the centralizer of a in G.
(2.2) Let G be a group and let a ∈ G. Show that the set
Z (G) = {x ∈ G : ax = xa ∀x ∈ G}
is a subgroup of G. Z (G) is called the center of G in G.
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(2.3) Let H and K be two subgroups of a group G such that H ∪ K is also a
subgroup of G. Show that H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H.
(2.4) Let H be a subgroup of G and let K be a subgroup of H. Show that K is a
subgroup of G.
(2.5) Show that the intersection of a finite number of subgroups of a group is
itself a group.
(2.6) Let H be a subgroup of G, let a be a fixed element of G, and let K be a
set given by
K = {x ∈ G : x = aha−1 for some h ∈ H}.
Show that K is a subgroup of G.

(2.7) Let G be a group and let τ be the equivalence relation on G defined by
xτ y iff ∃ an element a ∈ G such that y = a−1 xa. If x ∈ Z (G), find [x], the
equivalence class containing x.
(2.8) For fixed integers a and b, let
S = {ax + by : x, y ∈ Z}.
Show that S is a subgroup of the group (Z, +).

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Group Homomorphisms
3. Group Homomorphisms
Introduction
Let ∗1 : G1 × G1 → G1 and ∗2 : G2 × G2 → G2 be two binary operations on the
nonempty sets G1 and G2 respectively. If (G1 , ∗1 ) and (G2 , ∗2 ) are groups,
then any mapping φ : G1 → G2 that preserves the binary operations ∗1 and ∗2
is called a group homomorphism. Such mappings are very fundamental in the
theory of groups because they exhibit algebraic relationships between the
groups. The kernel, image and inverse image of such homomorphisms
characterize G1 and G2 respectively.
Definition 3.1 Let (G, ∗) and (H, ◦) be groups. A mapping φ : G → H is called
a group homomorphism from G to H iff
φ(x ∗ y ) = φ(x) ◦ φ(y ), ∀x, y ∈ G.
If the group operations are addition, then we write
φ(x + y ) = φ(x) + φ(y ), ∀x, y ∈ G.
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If φ is injective, then φ is called a monomorphism.
If φ is surjective, then φ is called an epimorphism.
φ is called an endomorphism if φ : G → G that is φ maps G onto itself.
A bijective homomorphism is called an isomorphism and we write G ∼ = H.
An isomorphism of G onto itself is called an automorphism.
Let g be a fixed element of G. The automorphism φg : G → G defined by
φg (x) = gxg −1 , x ∈ G
is called the inner automorphism of G determined by g.
Example 6.2 (i) Let G and H be groups and let eH be the identity of H. Then
the mapping β : G → H given by β(x) = eH ∀x ∈ G is trivially a
homomorphism. To see this, let x, y ∈ G be arbitrary. Then
β(xy ) = eH = eH eH
= β(x)β(y )
•
•• β is a group homomorphism.
(ii) Let G = (R+ , .) and H = (R, +) be groups. Then the mapping α : R+ → R

given by α(x) = ln x is an isomorphism. To see this, let x, y ∈ G be
arbitrary. Then
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α(xy ) = ln(xy )
= ln x + ln y
= α(x) + α(y )
•
•• α is a group homomorphism.
For injectivity, let
α(x) = α(y )
⇒ ln x = ln y
⇒x = y
•
•• α is injective.
For surjectivity, For any h ∈ H, we have h = ln g ⇒ g = eh ∈ G. This shows
that every element h ∈ H has a preimage g for some g ∈ G. Hence α is
surjective. Since α is a bijective homomorphism, it follows that α is an
isomorphism that G ∼ = H.
(iii) For any group G, the identity mapping i : G → G is an automorphism.
This is obvious since i(x) = x is an isomorphism ∀x ∈ G.
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Theorem 3.3
Let G and H be groups with identities eG and eH respectively and let
φ : G → H be a homomorphism. Then
(i) φ(eG ) = eH .
(ii) φ(x −1 ) = (φ(x))−1 for each x ∈ G.
Proof: (i) Consider
φ(eG )φ(eG ) = φ(eG eG ) = φ(eG ) = eH φ(eG ).
By the right cancellation law, we have φ(eG ) = eH and the proof is complete.
(ii) Consider
φ(x)φ(x −1 ) = φ(xx −1 ) = φ(eG ) = eH .
Hence, φ(x −1 ) = (φ(x))−1 and the proof is complete.
Definition 3.4 Let G and H be groups, and let φ : G → H be a group
homomorphism. The kernel of φ denoted by Ker φ is defined to be the set of
all the elements that are mapped to the identity element of H, that is
Ker φ = {x ∈ G : φ(x) = eH }.
Since φ(eG ) = eH , it follows that Ker φ 6= ∅.
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The image of φ denoted by Imφ is defined to be the set of images of elements
of G, that is
Imφ = {y ∈ H : y = φ(x), x ∈ G}.
Problem 3.5: Let φ : Z3 × Z3 → Z3 be the projection defined by
φ(x, y ) = x ∀x, y ∈ Z3 .
(i) Show that φ is a group homomorphism.

(ii) Compute K the kernel of φ.
(iii) Compute H the image of φ.
(iv) Determine whether or not φ is an isomorphism.
Solution: (i) It can easily be shown that (Z3 × Z3 , ⊕) is an abelian where ⊕ is
a binary operation on Z3 × Z3 defined by
(x, y ) ⊕ (a, b) = (x +3 a, y +3 b) ∀(x, y ), (a, b) ∈ Z3 × Z3
where +3 is addition modulo 3. To this end, let (x, y ), (a, b) ∈ Z3 × Z3 be

arbitrary. Then
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φ((x, y ) ⊕ (a, b)) = φ(x +3 a, y +3 b))
= x +3 a
= φ(x, y ) +3 φ(a, b)
•
•• φ is a group homomorphism.
(ii)
Z3 × Z3 = {(0, 1, 2} × {0, 1, 2}
= {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2)}
•
•• φ((0, 0)) = 0, φ((0, 1)) = 0, φ((0, 2)) = 0, φ((1, 0)) = 1, φ((1, 1)) = 1,
φ((1, 2)) = 1, φ((2, 0)) = 2, φ((2, 1)) = 2, φ((2, 2)) = 2.
•
•• K = Ker φ = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2)}.
(iii) From (ii) we obtain
H = Imφ = {0, 1, 2} = Z3 .
•
(iv) It is clear from (iii) that φ is onto and •• it is an epimorphism. It is clear
from (ii) that φ is not 1-1 since φ((1, 1)) = φ((1, 2)) = 1 but (1, 1) 6= (1, 2).
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Hence, φ is not an isomorphism but an epimorphism.
It should be observed that K is a subgroup of Z3 × Z3 and H is a trivial
subgroup of Z3 .
Problem 3.6 Let Z12 be the group of integers modulo 12 and let φ : Z12 → Z12
be a mapping defined ∀x ∈ Z12 by φ(x) = 3x.
(i) Show that φ is a homomorphism.
(ii) Find Ker φ.
(iii) Find Imφ.
(iv) Is φ an epimorphism or a monomorphism ?
(v) Find φ−1 ({3}), φ−1 ({6}), φ−1 ({9}) and φ−1 ({10}).
Solution: (i) Let x, y ∈ Z12 be arbitrary. Then
φ(x + y ) = 3(x + y ) = 3x + 3y = φ(x) + φ(y )
•
•• φ is a group homomorphism.
(ii)
φ(0) = 0, φ(1) = 3, φ(2) = 6, φ(3) = 9, φ(4) = 0, φ(5) = 3, φ(6) = 6,
φ(7) = 9, φ(8) = 0, φ(9) = 3, φ(10) = 6, φ(11) = 9
•
•• Ker φ = {0, 4, 8} ≤ Z12 .
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(iii) From (ii) we obtain
Imφ = {0, 3, 6, 9} ≤ Z12 .
(iv) Let x, y ∈ Z12 be arbitrary. Then
φ(x) = φ(y )
⇒ 3x = 3y = 15y
⇒x 6= y
•
•• φ is not 1-1 and thus φ is not a group monomorphism.
Alternatively, note that φ(2) = 6 = φ(6) but 2 6= 6. This shows that φ is not 1-1
•
and •• not a monomorphism.
If φ(x) = 3x, then φ−1 (x) = 13 x. Now
φ−1 (0) = 0, φ−1 (1) = 1/3, φ−1 (2) = 2/3, φ−1 (3) = 1, 5, 9, φ−1 (4) = 4/3,
φ−1 (5) = 5/3, φ−1 (6) = 2, 6, 10, φ−1 (7) = 7/3, φ−1 (8) = 8/3,
φ−1 (9) = 3, 7, 11, φ−1 (10) = 10/3, φ−1 (11) = 11/3
•
•• φ is not onto and thus φ is not a group epimorphism.
(v) From (iv), we obtain
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φ−1 ({3}) = {1, 5, 9}, φ−1 ({6}) = {2, 6, 10}, φ−1 ({9}) = {3, 7, 11},
φ−1 ({10}) = ∅.
Theorem 3.7 Let φ : G → H be a group homomorphism. Then Ker φ ≤ G and
Imφ ≤ H.
Proof: Clearly, Ker φ and Imφ are both nonempty. Let x, y ∈ Ker φ. Then
φ(x) = φ(y ) = eH and so, φ(xy −1 ) = φ(x)(φ(y ))−1 = eH eH−1 = eH eH = eH
⇒ xy −1 ∈ Ker φ. Accordingly, Ker φ ≤ G.
Next, let α, β ∈ Imφ. Then α = φ(x) and β = φ(y ) for some x, y ∈ G. Hence
αβ −1 = φ(x)(φ(y ))−1 = φ(x)φ(y −1 ) = φ(xy −1 ) ∈ Imφ. Accordingly, Imφ ≤ H
and the proof is complete.
Theorem 3.8 A group homomorphism φ : G → H is a monomorphism iff
Ker φ = {eG }.
Proof: Suppose that φ is a monomorphism. Let x ∈ Ker φ. Then
•
φ(x) = eH = φ(eG ). Hence, x = eG and •• Ker φ = {eG }.
Conversely, suppose that Ker φ = {eG }. Let φ(x) = φ(y ). Then
φ(x)(φ(y ))−1 = φ(y )(φ(y ))−1 = eH . Thus,
φ(x)(φ(y ))−1 = φ(x)φ(y −1 ) = φ(xy −1 ) = eH ⇒ xy −1 ∈ Ker φ = {eG }
• •
⇒ xy −1 = EG and •• x = y . Thus, φ is 1-1 and •• it is a monomorphism.
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Note 3.9
If φ : G → H and ψ : H → K are group homomorphisms (isomorphisms), then
the composite mapping ψφ : G → K is also a group homomorphism
(isomorphism). Further, if φ : G → H is an isomorphism of G onto H, then the
inverse mapping φ−1 : H → G is also an isomorphism. Since every group is
isomorphic to itself, it then follows that isomorphism of groups is an
equivalence relation.
Practice Problems 3
(3.1) Let G = Z12 and H = Z6 be groups and let φ : G → H be a mapping
defined by
φ(x12 ) = x6 ∀x12 ∈ G.
(i) Show that φ is a group homomorphism.
(ii) Find the Ker φ.
(iii) Find the Imφ.
(iv) Determine whether or not φ is an epimorphism or a monomorphism.
(v) Find φ−1 ({16 }), φ−1 ({26 }) and φ−1 ({46 }).
(3.2) Show that a group G is abelian iff the mapping φ : G → G, given by
φ(x) = x −1 , ∀x ∈ G is a group homomorphism.
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(3.3) Let G and H be groups such that G ∼
= H. If G is abelian, show that H is
also abelian.
(3.4) Show that isomorphism of groups is an equivalence relation.
(3.5) Let H and K be two subgroups of the group G and let H + K be a set
defined by
H + K = {h + k : h ∈ H, k ∈ K }.
If G is abelian and H ∩ K = {e}, then H + K is written as H ⊕ K and it is
called the direct sum of H and K .
(a) Show that H + K is a subgroup of G.
(b) If G = Z12 , find H + K given that:
(i) H =< 3 > and K =< 2 >.
(ii) H =< 3 > and K =< 4 >.
(iii) H =< 2 > and K =< 4 >.
(iv) H =< 3 > and K =< 6 >.
(3.6) Let H = {0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60}, K = {0, 14, 28, 42, 56} and J = {0, 35}
be subgroups of the group G = Z70 . Show that
G = H ⊕ K ⊕ J.
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Ring Structure
4. Rings
Introduction
A ring is an algebraic structure R together with two binary operations of
addition 00 +00 and multiplication 00 .00 . Rings have a lot of real life applications in
science, engineering and technology. For instance, rings are very useful in
coding, cryptography, machine languages and so on.
Definition, Examples and Properties of a Ring
Definition 4.1 A ring (R, +, .) is a nonempty set R together with two binary
operations denoted by + and . such that the following conditions are satisfied:
(R1) (R, +) is an abelian group.
(R2) (R, .) is a semigroup.
(R3) The left and right distributive laws hold, i.e ∀a, b, c ∈ R, we have
a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c and (b + c).a = b.a + c.a
The most familiar examples of rings are (Z, +, .), the ring of integers,
(Zn , +, .), the ring of integers modulo n, (Q, +, .), the ring of rational numbers,
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(R, +, .), the ring of real numbers, (C, +, .), the ring of complex numbers and
(RX , +, .) the ring of all functions from a nonempty set X to the set of real
numbers R. If f , g ∈ RX , then
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

(fg)(x) = f (x)g(x).
Another example of a ring is an additive abelian group G in which

multiplication is defined by ab = 0 ∀a, b ∈ G. The ring (G, +, .) so obtained is
called a trivial ring.
Definition 4.2 (i) A commutative ring is a ring R such that a.b = b.a
∀a, b ∈ R. Otherwise, R is said to be non-commutative. All the rings listed in
Definition 4.1 are all commutative rings. However, (Mn×n (R), +, .), the ring of
all n × n matrices with real entries is an example of non-commutative ring.
(ii) A ring R with unity is a ring (R, +, .) in which the semigroup (R, .) has an
identity element i.e ∃e ∈ R such that a.e = e.a = a ∀a ∈ R. The element
e is called unity or the identity element of R. Generally, the unity or
identity element is denoted by 1. For example, (Z4 , +, .) is a commutative
ring with unity. To see this, consider the Cayley tables below.

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+ 0 1 2 3 . 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 3 e = 1.
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 0 2
3 3 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1
(iii) An element x in a ring R with unity is said to be invertible if ∃y ∈ R such

that xy = yx = e. In this case, y = x −1 . For example in Z4 , 1 and 3 are
invertible elements.
(iv) An element x in a ring R is called an idempotent element if x 2 = x. For
example in Z4 , 0 and 1 are the only idempotent elements.
(v) An element x in a ring R is called a nilpotent element if for some positive
integer n, we have x n = 0. For example in Z4 , 0 and 2 are the only
nilpotent elements.
(vi) An element x in a ring R is called a right zero divisor if ∃ a nonzero
element y ∈ R such that yx = 0. One can similarly define left zero
divisor. An element is called a zero divisor if it is both a right and left zero
divisor i.e xy = 0 ⇒ x 6= 0 and y 6= 0. For example in Z6 , 2,3 and 4 are
zero divisors as can be seen in the second Cayley table below.
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+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 . 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 2 0 4 2
5 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 4 3 2 1
Definition 4.3 A ring R with no zero divisor is called an integral domain. In an

integral domain R, if xy = 0, then x = 0 or y = 0 ∀x, y ∈ R. For example, Z,
the ring of integers is an integral domain. Also, Z2 , Z3 and Z5 are integral
domains.
Definition 4.4 Let R be a ring. The least positive integer n such that nx = 0
∀x ∈ R is called the characteristic of R denoted by Char (R). If no such n
exists, then R is called a ring of characteristic zero. For example, Z, Q, R and
C are rings of characteristic zero since 0.x = 0 ∀x ∈ Z, R, Q, C. For R = Zn ,
Char (R) = n since nx = 0 ∀x ∈ Zn .
Definition 4.5 (i) A ring R whose nonzero elements form a multiplicative
group is called a division ring.
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(ii) A commutative division ring is called a field denoted by F .
Note that in a division ring or a field, every element must have an inverse.
For example, Z5 is a field. To see this, consider the Cayley table below:
. 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3 .
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
It is clear from the table that (Z5 − {0}, .) is a commutative group and hence
the claim.
Theorem 4.6 Every field is necessarily an integral domain.
Proof: Suppose that F is a field. Let x, y ∈ F such that xy = 0. Since x 6= 0,
•
then x −1 ∈ F so that x −1 (xy ) = x −1 × 0 ⇒ y = 0 and •• F is an integral
domain.
Remark 4.7 The converse of Theorem 4.6 is false. For example, Z is an
integral domain but neither a division ring nor a field.
Problem 4.8 Let R = Z2 × Z2 . Let equality, ⊕ and be defined on R
∀a, b, c, d ∈ Z2 as follows:
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(a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d,
(a, b) ⊕ (c, d) = (a + c, b + d),
(a, b) (c, d) = (ad + bc + bd, ad + bc + ac).
(a) Show that (R, ⊕, ) is a ring.

(b) Determine if:
(i) R is a commutative ring.
(ii) R has a unity.
(iii) R is an integral domain.
(iv) R is a field.
Solution: (a) R = Z2 × Z2 = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}. (R, ⊕) is clearly an
abelian group as can be seen in the Cayley table below.

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⊕ (0, 1) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 1) (0, 1) (0, 0) (1, 1) (1, 0) .
(1, 0) (1, 0) (1, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1)
(1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 0) (0, 1) (0, 0)
To show that (R, ) is a semigroup, let (a, b), (c, d), (e, f ) ∈ R be arbitrary.
Then
(a, b) ((c, d) (e, f )) = (a, b) (cf + de + df , cf + de + ce)
= (a(cf + de + ce) + b(cf + de + df )
+b(cf + de + ce), a(cf + de + ce)
+b(cf + de + df ) + a(cf + de + df ))
= (acf + ade + ace + bcf + bde + bdf
+bcf + bde + bce, acf + ade + ace + bcf
+bde + bdf + acf + ade + adf )
= (acf + ade + ace + bdf + bce, ace
+bcf + bde + bdf + adf )
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Also,
((a, b) (c, d)) (e, f ) = (ad + bc + bd, ad + bc + ac) (e, f )
= ((ad + bc + bd)f + (ad + bc + bd)e
+(ad + bc + ac)f , (ad + bc + bd)f
+(ad + bc + ac)e + (ad + bc + bd)e)
= (adf + bcf + bdf + ade + bce + ace
+adf + bcf + acf , adf + bcf + bdf
+ade + bce + ace + ade + bce + bde)
= (bdf + ade + bce + ace + acf , adf
+bcf + bdf + ace + bde)
= (a, b) (c, d) (e, f )
These show that (R, ) is a semigroup. For the distributive laws, let
(a, b), (c, d), (e, f ) ∈ R be arbitrary. Then
(a, b) ((c, d) ⊕ (e, f )) = (a, b) (c + e, d + f )
= (a(d + f ) + b(c + e) + b(d + f ), a(d + f )
+b(c + e) + a(c + e))
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= (ad + af + bc + be + bd + bf , ad
+af + bc + be + ac + ae).
((a, b) (c, d)) ⊕ ((a, b) (e, f )) = (ad + bc + bd, ad + bc + ac) ⊕ (af
+be + bf , af + be + ae)
= (ad + bc + bd + af + be + bf , ad
+bc + ac + af + be + ae)
= (a, b) ((c, d) ⊕ (e, f )).
((a, b) ⊕ (c, d)) (e, f ) = (a + c, b + d) (e, f )
= ((a + c)f + (b + d)e + (b + d)f ,
(a + c)f + (b + d)e + (a + c)e)
= (af + cf + be + de + bf + df , af
+cf + be + de + ae + ce)
((a, b) (e, f )) ⊕ ((c, d) (e, f )) = (af + be + bf , af + be + ae) ⊕ (cf
+de + df , cf + de + ce)
= (af + be + bf + cf + de + df , af
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+be + ae + cf + de + ce)
= ((a, b) ⊕ (c, d)) (e, f ).
•
These show that the left and right distributive laws hold and •• (R, ⊕, ) is a
ring.
(b) (i)
(a, b) (c, d) = (ad + bc + bd, ad + bc + ac)

= (cb + da + db, cb + da + ca)
= (c, d) (a, b).
This show that (R, ⊕, ) is a commutative ring.

(ii) Consider the Cayley table below. It is clear from the table that (1, 1) is the
•
unity element and •• (R, ⊕, ) is a commutative ring with unity.

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(0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0) (0, 0)
(0, 1) (0, 0) (1, 0) (1, 0) (0, 1) .
(1, 0) (0, 0) (1, 1) (0, 1) (1, 0)
(1, 1) (0, 0) (0, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
(iii) R is an integral domain since R has no zero divisor.

(iv) R is not a field since not all nonzero elements of R are invertible. For
instance, (1, 0) ∈ R has no inverse.
Problem 4.9 Let (R, +, .) be a ring and let a, b ∈ R. Evaluate (a + b)2 and
(a − b)2 when:
(i) R is non-commutative.
(ii) R is commutative of characteristic 2.
Solution: (i)
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a2 + ab + ba + b2
2
(a − b) = (a − b)(a − b) = a2 − ab − ba + b2 .

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(ii)
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 = a2 + b2
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 = a2 + b2 .
Remark 4.10 In any commutative ring R, binomial theorem holds.
Practice Problems 4
(4.1) (a) Let R = Z and let ⊕ and be two binary operations defined on R as
follows:
x ⊕ y = x + y − 1, x y = x + y − xy .
(i) Show that (R, ⊕, ) is a commutative ring with unity and state the unity.
(ii) Determine whether or not R is an integral domain or a field.
(b) Let U = {1, 2} and let R = P(U) be the power set of U. Let ⊕ and ⊗ be
binary operations defined on R as follows:
A ⊕ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A), A ⊗ B = A ∩ B.
(i) Show that (R, ⊕, ⊗) is a commutative ring with unity and state the unity.
(ii) Determine whether√ or not R is an integral domain or a field.
(4.2) (a) Let R = {m + n 2 : m ∈ 2Z, n ∈ Z}.
(i) Show that (R, +, .) is a ring.
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(ii) Is R a commutative ring with unity ? State the unity if it exists.
(iii) Determine whether or not R is an integral domain or a field.

x −y
(b) Let R = : x, y ∈ R .
y x
(i) Show that (R, +, .) is a ring.
(ii) Is R a commutative ring with unity ? State the unity if it exists.
(iii) Determine whether or not R is an integral domain or a field.
(4.3) (a) Let (R, +, .) be a ring and let x, y , z ∈ R.
(i) Evaluate (x + y − z)3 .
(ii) Evaluate (x − y + z)4 if R is commutative of characteristic 2.
(b) Let R = Z24 be the ring of integer modulo 24. Find the following:
(i) Idempotent elements of R.
(ii) Nilpotent elements of R.
(iii) Unit/Invertible elements of R.
(iv) Zero divisor elements of R.
(4.4) Let R = {(x, y ) : x, y ∈ Z}. Let equality, ⊕ and be defined on R as
follows:
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(x, y ) = (z, w) if and only if x = z and y = w,
(x, y ) ⊕ (z, w) = (x + z, y + w),
(x, y ) (x, w) = (xz − yw, xw + yz).
(a) Show that (R, ⊕, ) is a ring.

(b) Determine if:
(i) R is a commutative ring.
(ii) R has a unity.
(iii) R is an integral domain.
(iv) R is a field.
5. Subrings, Ideals and Homomorphisms
Definition 5.1 Let (R, +, .) be a ring and let S be a nonempty subset of R.
Then S is called a subring if (S, +, .) is itself a ring. Similarly we can define a
subdivision ring of a division ring and a subfield of a field. Every ring R has
two trivial subrings, O = {0} and R.
Note 5.2 Let R be a ring (with or without unity). A subring of R may have unity
different from the unity of the parent ring R.
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Example 5.3
(i) nZ is a subring of Z ∀n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · ,.
(ii) Q is a subfield of R and R is subfield of C.
(iii) S1 = {0, 2} is a subring of Z4 and S1 = {0, 3} is a subring of Z6 .
Theorem 5.4 A subset S of the ring R is a subring of R iff the following
conditions hold:
(i) S 6= ∅.
(ii) x, y ∈ S ⇒ x + y and xy ∈ S.
(iii) x ∈ S ⇒ −x ∈ S.
Theorem 5.5 A subset S of the ring R is a subring of R iff the following
conditions hold:
(i) S 6= ∅.
(ii) x, y ∈ S ⇒ x − y and xy ∈ S.
Definition 5.6 Let R be a ring. The set Z (R) given by
Z (R) = {x ∈ R : rx = xr ∀r ∈ R}
is called the center of R.
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Theorem 5.7
Let R be a ring. Then Z (R) is a subring of R.
Problem 5.8 Let R = M2×2 (Z) bethe ring ofall 2 × 2 matrices with entries in
x x +y
Z, and let S = : x, y ∈ Z . Show that S is a subring of R.
x +y x

0 0
Solution: It is clear that S 6= ∅ since ∈ S. Suppose that
0 0
x x +y v v +w
A= and B = are arbitrary elements in
x +y x v +w v
S with x,y , v , w ∈ Z. Then
x −v (x − v ) + (y − w)
A−B = ∈ S. Also, AB =
(x − v ) + (y − w) x −v
(2xv + yv + xw) + yw (2xv + xw + yv + yw) + (−yw)
∈ S.
(2xv + xw + yv + yw) + (−yw) (2xv + yv + xw) + yw
Accordingly, S is a subring of R.
Definition 5.9 Let R be a ring.
(a) A nonempty subset I of R is called a left ideal of R if the following
conditions hold:
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(i) I is a subring of R.
(ii) x ∈ I and r ∈ R ⇒ xr ∈ I.
(b) A nonempty subset I of R is called a right ideal of R if the following
conditions hold:
(i) I is a subring of R.
(ii) x ∈ I and r ∈ R ⇒ rx ∈ I.
(c) A nonempty subset I of R is called an ideal of R if it is both left and right
ideals of R.
Note 5.10 If R is commutative, there is no distinction between the left and
right ideals of R. Ideals in a ring are analogous to normal subgroups in
groups. I = {0} and R are ideals called trivial ideals.
Theorem 5.11 A subset I of the ring R is an ideal of R iff the following
conditions hold:
(i) I 6= ∅.
(ii) x, y ∈ I ⇒ x − y and xy ∈ I.
(iii) x ∈ I and r ∈ R ⇒ xr and rx ∈ I.
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Example 5.11
(a) Let (R, ⊕, ) be the ring of Practice Problem 4.1 (a) where
x ⊕ y = x + y − 1 and x y = x + y − xy ∀x, y ∈ Z. Let
•
S = {±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, · · · }. It is clear that S is not a subring of (R, +, .) and ••
not an ideal of (R, +, .). To see this, −3, 5 ∈ S but 5 − (−3) = 8 6∈ S.
However, S is a subring of (R, ⊕, ). To see this, let a, b ∈ S be arbitrary.
Then a ⊕ (−b) = a − b − 1 ∈ S since a − b is even and a − b − 1 is odd. Also,
a b = a + b − ab ∈ S. Hence, S is a subring of (R, ⊕, ). S is also an ideal
of (R, ⊕, ). To see this, let x ∈ S and r ∈ R. If r is even, then
x r = x + r − xr ∈ S. If r is odd, then x r = x + r − xr ∈ S. Hence, S is an
ideal of (R, ⊕, ).
(b) An ideal is a subring, but the converse is not necessarily true. For
(Z, +, .) is a subring of (Q, +, .) but not an ideal since 3 ∈ Z and 21 ∈ Q
but 3 × 12 = 32 6∈ Z.
Problem 5.12 Let I be an ideal of a ring R with unity u. Show that I = R iff
u ∈ I.
Solution: Suppose that u ∈ I. Let x ∈ R. Then xu = x ∈ I ⇒ R ⊆ I. Suppose
again that y ∈ I. Then yu ∈ I and since I is an ideal, we must have y ∈ R and
•
•• I ⊆ R. Hence, I = R.
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Conversely, suppose that I = R. It is obvious that u ∈ I for a unit u ∈ R. The
proof is complete.
Theorem 5.13 Let R be a ring and let {Si }ni=1 be a family of subrings of R and
let {Ii }ni=1 and {Ji }ni=1 be families of ideals of R. Then
Tn
(i) i=1 Si is a subring of R.
Tn
(ii) i=1 Ii is an ideal of R.
(iii) Ii + Ji = {x + y : x ∈ Ii , y ∈ Ji } is an ideal of R.
Lemma 5.14 Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Then
(i) I + I = I.
(ii) x + I = I ∀x ∈ I.
Problem 5.15 (a) Let R be a commutative ring and let a be a fixed element of
R. Show that the set Ia = {x ∈ R : ax = 0} is an ideal of R.
(b) Let R be a commutative ring that does not have a unity and let a be a
fixed element of R. Show that the set I = (a) = {na + ra : n ∈ Z, r ∈ R} is
an ideal of R that contains a.
Solution: (a) Ia 6= ∅ since 0 ∈ Ia . Let x, y ∈ Ia be arbitrary. then ax = 0 and
•
ay = 0 so that a(x − y ) = ax − ay = 0 − 0 = 0 and •• x − y ∈ Ia . Also,
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•
a(xy ) = (ax)y = 0.y = 0 and •• xy ∈ Ia . Lastly for r ∈ R, we have
a(xr ) = (ax)r = 0.r = 0 ⇒ xr ∈ Ia . Accordingly, Ia is an ideal of R.
(b) I 6= ∅ since 0 ∈ I. Let x, y ∈ I be arbitrary. Then x = n1 a + r1 a and
y = n2 a + r2 a where ni ∈ Z, ri ∈ R i = 1, 2. Now,
x − y = (n1 − n2 )a + (r1 − r2 )a ∈ I. Also,
xy = (n1 n2 a)a + ((n1 r2 + n2 r1 + r1 r2 )a)a ∈ I. For r ∈ R, we have
xr = (n1 a + r1 a)r = n1 ra + r1 ra ∈ I. Accordingly, I is an ideal of R containing a.
Definition 5.16 Let I be an ideal of a ring (R, +, .). The set R/I is defined by
R/I = {r + I : r ∈ R}.
If ⊕ and are binary operations on R/I defined by
(x + I) ⊕ (y + I) = (x + y ) + I, (x + I) (y + I) = xy + I ∀x + I, y + I ∈ R/I,
it can be shown that ⊕ and are well defined and that (R/I, ⊕, ) is a ring
called a quotient or a factor ring of R modulo I.
Problem 5.17 Let R = Z and I = 4Z. Find R/I and show that (R/I, ⊕, ) is a
commutative ring.
Solution: R/I = {r + I : r ∈ R}. Then 0 + I = I, 1 + I = 1 + I, 2 + I = 2 + I,
3 + I = 3 + I, 4 + I = I, 5 + I = 1 + 4 + I = 1 + I,
6 + I = 2 + 4 + I = 2 + I,7 + I = 3 + 4 + I = 3 + I, 8 + I = 4 + 4 + I = I
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•
and •• R/I = {I, 1 + I, 2 + I, 3 + I}. Now consider the Cayley tables below.
⊕ I 1+I 2+I 3+I
I I 1+I 2+I 3+I
1+I 1+I 2+I 3+I I
2+I 2+I 3+I I 1+I
3+I 3+I I 1+I 2+I
I 1+I 2+I 3+I

I I I I I
1+I I 1+I 2+I 3+I
2+I I 2+I I 2+I
3+I I 3+I 2+I 1+I
It is clear from the first table that (R/I, ⊕) is an abelian group and from the
second table we see that is commutative . It can be shown that (R/I, ) is a
semigroup and that is distributive over ⊕. Hence, (R/I, ⊕, ) is a ring.
Definition 5.18 Let (R, +, .) and (S, ⊕, ) be two rings. A mapping φ : R → S
is called a ring homomorphism if the following conditions hold:
(i) φ(x + y ) = φ(x) ⊕ φ(y ),
(ii) φ(x.y ) = φ(x) φ(y ), ∀x, y ∈ R.
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If in addition φ is surjective, then φ is called an epimorphism, a
monomorphism if φ is injective and an isomorphism if φ is both surjective and
injective and we write R ∼ = S.
Definition 5.19 Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism.
(i) The kernel of φ denoted by Ker φ is defined by
Ker φ = {x ∈ R : φ(x) = 0S }.
where 0S is the additive zero element of S.

(ii) The Image of φ denoted by Imφ is defined by
Imφ = {y ∈ S : y = φ(x) for some x ∈ R}.
Example 5.20 Let R = Z6 be a ring and let φ : R → R be a mapping defined

by φ(x) = 4x ∀x ∈ R. Then, φ is a ring homomorphism. To see this, let
x, y ∈ R be arbitrary. Then
φ(x + y ) = 4(x + y ) = 4x + 4y = φ(x) + φ(y ).

φ(xy ) = 4(xy ) = (4x)(4y ) = φ(x)φ(y ) [since 16 ≡ 4 mod 4].
•
•• φ is a ring homomorphism.

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Also,
φ(0) = 0, φ(1) = 4, φ(2) = 2, φ(3) = 0, φ(4) = 4, φ(5) = 2.
•
•• Ker φ = {0, 3} and
Imφ = {0, 2, 4}.
φ is neither an epimorphism nor a monomorphism. It should be observed that
Ker φ and Imφ are subrings of R and in fact ideals of R.
Problem 5.21 Let (R/I, ⊕, ) be the factor ring of Problem 5.17. Let
ψ : R → R/I be a mapping defined by
ψ(x) = x + I ∀x ∈ R.
Show that:
(i) ψ is a homomorphism.
(ii) Ker ψ = I.
(iii) Imψ = R/I.
(iv) R ∼6 R/I.
=
Solution: (i) Let x, y ∈ R be arbitrary. Then
ψ(x + y ) = (x + y ) + I = (x + I) ⊕ (y + I) = ψ(x) ⊕ ψ(y ),
ψ(xy ) = (xy ) + I = (x + I) (y + I) = ψ(x) ψ(y ).
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•
•• ψ is a ring homomorphism.
Ker ψ = {x ∈ R : ψ(x) = 0R/I } = {x ∈ R : x + I = I} = {x ∈ R : x ∈ I} = I.
Imψ = {I, 1 + I, 2 + I, 3 + I} = R/I.
ψ is an epimorphism.
(iv) ψ is not 1-1 since ψ(2) = ψ(6) = 2 + I but then 2 6= 6. Hence R 6∼
= R/I.
Theorem 5.22 Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then
(i) Ker φ is an ideal of R.
(ii) Ker φ = {0R } iff φ is a monomorphism.
(iii) Imφ is a subring of S.
(iv) If K is an ideal of R, then φ(K ) is an ideal of S.
(v) If J is an ideal of S, then φ−1 (J) is an ideal of R.
Theorem 5.23 [ 1st Isomorphism Theorem] Let φ : R → S be a ring
homomorphism and let K = Ker φ. Then
R/K ∼ = Imφ.
If φ is an epimorphism, then
R/K ∼
= S.
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Proof:
See the recommended textbooks.
Problem 5.24 (i) Let A and B be ideals in a ring R such that B ⊆ A. Show that
(R/B)/(A/B) ∼
= R/A.
(ii) Let A and B be ideals in a ring R. Then

A/(A ∩ B) ∼
= (A + B)/B.
Solution: (i) Let φ : R/B → R/A be a mapping defined by φ(x + B) = x + A
∀x ∈ R. The mapping is well defined and it can be shown that φ is an
epimorphism. Now,
Ker φ = {x + B : φ(x + B) = 0R/A }
= {x + B : x + A = A}
= {x + B : x ∈ A}
= A/B.
The required result follows from the 1st isomorphism theorem.
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(ii) Let φ : A → (A + B)/B be a mapping defined by φ(x) = x + B ∀x ∈ A. The
mapping is well defined and it can be shown that φ is an epimorphism. Now,
Ker φ = {x ∈ A : φ(x) = 0(A+B)/B }
= {x ∈ A : x + B = B}
= {x ∈ A : x ∈ B}
= A ∩ B.
The required result follows from the 1st isomorphism theorem.
Practice Problems 5
(5.1) (a) Let S = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}. Show that S is a subring of R = Z10 with unity
different from the unity of R.
a 0
(b) Let R = M2×2 (Z) and let S = : a ∈ Z be a subset of R.
0 0
(i) Show that S is subring of R.
(ii) What is the unity of R.
(iii) Does S have a unity ?
(iv) Does S have any properties that R does not have ?
(v) Is S an ideal of R ?
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(5.2) Let R = {z, u, a, b} be a set and let ⊕ and ⊗ be two binary operations on
R as shown in the Cayley tables below:
⊕ z u a b ⊗ z u a b
z z u a b z z z z z
u u z b a u z u a b .
a a b z u a z a b u
b b a u z b z b u a
(a) Show that (R, ⊕, ⊗) is a commutative ring with unity.

(b) Show that R is a field.
(c) Find a subring of R that is not an ideal.
(d) Let x and y be unknowns. Solve the following system of linear equations
in R:
bx + y = u;
x + by = z.
(5.3) (a)Let I and J be two ideals of a ring R. Show that
I + J = {x + y : x ∈ I, y ∈ J} is an ideal of R containing I and J.
(b) Let R = Z. Show that every subring of R is an ideal.
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(c) Let I be the set of all nilpotent elements in a commutative ring R. Show
that I is an
ideal of R.
x y
(5.4) Let R = : x, y , z ∈ Z be a ring.
0 z
(a) Show that the mapping φ : R → Z defined by

x y
φ =z
0 z
is a ring epimorphism.
(b) Find K = Ker φ.
(c) Show that R/K ∼ = Z.
(5.5) (a) Show that φ : Z3 → Z12 defined by
φ(x3 ) = 3x12
is not a ring homomorphism.
(b) Let R and S be rings, and let A and B be ideals in R and S respectively.
Show that:
(i) R × S is a ring.
(ii) A × B is an ideal of A × B.
(iii) (R × S)/(A × B) ∼ = R/A × S/B.
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MTS 211 - Abstract Algebra - 3 Units

Professor Agboola A.A.A.

A Virtual Lecture Presented To: 200 Level Mathematics Students

Mounted by: Department of Mathematics

February 1 - March 31, 2021

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

In the cycle notation, S3 can be written as

S3 = {(1), (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)} .

With ◦ as the binary operation of composition of mappings, It can be shown

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

G1 is clearly satisfied. For instance,

G2 is obvious since composition

such that a−1 a = aa−1 = e. Hence by definition, a ∈ G is the inverse of

This shows that a−1 b ∈ G is the solution of the equation ax = b i.e ax = b is

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

(a, b) (c, d) = (a ∗ c, b ◦ d), ∀(a, b), (c, d) ∈ G × H,

(a, b) ⊗ (c, d) = (a ×8 c, b ◦ d), ∀(a, b), (c, d) ∈ G × H.

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

K = {x ∈ G : x = aha−1 for some h ∈ H}.

Show that K is a subgroup of G.

Show that S is a subgroup of the group (Z, +).

(ii) Let G = (R+ , .) and H = (R, +) be groups. Then the mapping α : R+ → R

(i) Show that φ is a group homomorphism.

(x, y ) ⊕ (a, b) = (x +3 a, y +3 b) ∀(x, y ), (a, b) ∈ Z3 × Z3

where +3 is addition modulo 3. To this end, let (x, y ), (a, b) ∈ Z3 × Z3 be

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

Another example of a ring is an additive abelian group G in which

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

(iii) An element x in a ring R with unity is said to be invertible if ∃y ∈ R such

Definition 4.3 A ring R with no zero divisor is called an integral domain. In an

(a) Show that (R, ⊕, ) is a ring.

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

(a, b) (c, d) = (ad + bc + bd, ad + bc + ac)

This show that (R, ⊕, ) is a commutative ring.

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

(iii) R is an integral domain since R has no zero divisor.

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

(a) Show that (R, ⊕, ) is a ring.

I 1+I 2+I 3+I

where 0S is the additive zero element of S.

Imφ = {y ∈ S : y = φ(x) for some x ∈ R}.

Example 5.20 Let R = Z6 be a ring and let φ : R → R be a mapping defined

φ(x + y ) = 4(x + y ) = 4x + 4y = φ(x) + φ(y ).

Professor Agboola A.A.A. Department of Mathematics, FederalMTS

(ii) Let A and B be ideals in a ring R. Then

(a) Show that (R, ⊕, ⊗) is a commutative ring with unity.

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