SAND75-0275

Unlimited Release
Printrd May 1975

WELL-LOGGING TECHNOLOGY AND GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS:

A SURVEY AND ASSESSMENT WITH RECOMMENDATIONS

Leonard E. Baker
Alan B. Campbell
Robert L. Hughen
Sandia Laboratories
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87115

Approved by:
Drilling Research Division

ABSTRACT
This report presents the results of a study o f well-logging as it applies to geothermal
wells. Included is an assessment of the current state-of-the-art of well-logging in general
with a detailed summary of logging tools and their characteristics. The phenomenon of geo-
thermal energy is considered briefly, as well as the role of well-logging in the develop-
ment of the geothermal resource, including problems which arise when geothermal wells are
logged. It is concluded that present well-logging equipment and techniques are not
adequate for geothermal well applications. Recommendations are presented for actions to
foster timely development of geothermal well-logging capabilities in support of Project
Independence geothermal energy goals.

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 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
 DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in

electronic image products. Images are produced
from the best available original document.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

W e would l i k e t o acknowledge t h e h e l p we r e c e i v e d from a l a r g e number o f p e o p l e who

a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h oil, g a s , and g e o t h e r m a l e n d e a v o r s . These i n c l u d e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
w e l l s e r v i c e companies, equipment m a n u f a c t u r e r s , major o i l companies, c o n s u l t i n g f i r m s ,
u n i v e r s i t i e s , and government o r g a n i z a t i o n s and l a b o r a t o r i e s , as w e l l as members o f
Sandia Laboratories.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Summary 5
Objectives & S t r u c t u r e 7

Introduction 9
Geothermal Energy 11

We 11-Logging Technology 19

Geothermal Well-Logging and A s s o c i a t e d Problems 31

Conclusions 35
R e commendations 37

Appendix A : I n d i v i d u a l Tool D e s c r i p t i o n 43
Appendix B: Bibliography 69

Appendix C : P e r s o n s C o n s u l t e d and T h e i r A f f i l i a t i o n s 73

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 T y p i c a l Geothermal Well System 12

Figure 2 Arrangement o f Equipment f o r Logging 21

Figure 3 R e l a t i v e Usage o f V a r i o u s Types o f Well Logs 29

Figure 4 P r o p o s ed O r g a n i z a t i o n S t r u c t u r e 39

LIST O F TABLES

Table 1 A p p l i c a t i o n s f o r N o n c o m p e t i t i v e F e d e r a l Geothermal Leases 13

Table 2 S e l e c t e d 1974 KGRA S a l e s 14

Table 3 Geothermal W i l d c a t s ( O u t s i d e G e y s e r s K G R A ) 16

Table 4 Commercial Well-Logging and Sampling Equipment 26

Table 5 Well Parameters and Measurements from Which They are Derived 28

~ ~~ ~
~

NOTICE
7bh report was prepared as an aocount of work
sponrond by the United States Government. Neither
the United States nor the United States Energy
Raearch and Development Administntion. nor any of
their employees, nor any of their contractors,
subcontractors, or their employees, makes any
warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legat
liability or responsiiility for the accuracy, completeness
or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or
process disclosed, or represents that its use would not
infringe privately owned rights.
 This page intentionally left b l a n k .

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 SUMMARY

Geothermal e n e r g y i s s e e n a s one i m p o r t a n t component of t h e n a t i o n ’ s e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e

energy s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . However, w e l l s t h a t are d r i l l e d t o t a p g e o t h e r m a l e n e r g y d i f f e r
i n many i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s from t h e much more numerous o i l and gas w e l l s . Geothermal w e l l s
a r e u s u a l l y h o t t e r , and are o f t e n d r i l l e d i n h a r d e r r o c k s .

Well l o g g i n g , t h e s c i e n c e o f making and r e c o r d i n g s u r f a c e and b o r e h o l e measurements

and t h e a r t o f t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n needed d u r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g ,
c o m p l e t i o n , and p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e s of p e t r o l e u m and g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s . Broadly s p e a k i n g , w e l l
l o g g i n g can be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s : e l e c t r i c a l , r a d i o a c t i v i t y , a c o u s t i c a l ,
and s p e c i a l i z e d a u x i l i a r y l o g s .

Logging g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s p o s e s s p e c i a l problems b o t h i n t h e a r e a s o f d a t a g a t h e r i n g
and d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d a t a g a t h e r i n g come a b o u t b e c a u s e of
t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c a b l e s and t o o l s which can w i t h s t a n d t h e h e a t and c o r r o s i o n encoun-
t e r e d i n g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s . The problems o f d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o c c u r c h i e f l y b e c a u s e geo-
t h e r m a l w e l l s a r e o f t e n d r i l l e d i n u n f a m i l i a r f o r m a t i o n s , and t h e r e h a s n o t b e e n much
e x p e r i e n c e i n l o g g i n g i n such f o r m a t i o n s , n o r h a s t h e r e been much c o r i n g and s a m p l i n g o f
s u c h w e l l s . T h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r i e n c e and l o g / c o r e c o r r e l a t i o n s do n o t e x i s t t o a l l o w
adequate geothermal w e l l l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

The r e p o r t c o n c l u d e s t h a t w i t h t h e p r e s e n t economic c l i m a t e , p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y i s n o t
now d e v e l o p i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y t o o l s and t e c h n i q u e s for g e o t h e r m a l w e l l - l o g g i n g . It i s
t h e r e f o r e recommended t h a t t h e government f u n d t h e development o f v a r i o u s materials and
equipment , a l o n g w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a - g a t h e r i n g t o f a c i l i t a t e l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
The c r e a t i o n o f a management s t r u c t u r e i s a l s o recommended t o c o o r d i n a t e a l l t h e o r g a n i z a -
t i o n s , p u b l i c and p r i v a t e , t h a t w i l l b e p a r t of t h e g e o t h e r m a l w e l l - l o g g i n g e f f o r t .

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 T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t blank.

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 OBJECTIVES & STRUCTURE

C o n t r a c t u a l Goals
The p r i m a r y g o a l s of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n were t o
1. Determine t h e b a s i c downhole measurements t h a t must be made t o e v a l u a t e
g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and the a s s o c i a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l i m i t s .

2. Assess t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t as i t i s c u r r e n t l y a p p l i e d i n w e l l
logging.

3. I d e n t i f y r e s e a r c h t h a t i s p r e s e n t l y b e i n g conducted i n t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r
t o extend t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of logging i n s t r u m e n t s .

4. Suggest r e s e a r c h a r e a s t o a s s u r e t h a t formation e v a l u a t i o n t o o l s a r e
a v a i l a b l e as r e q u i r e d i n t h e development of g e o t h e r m a l r e s o u r c e s .

Twelve man-months were a l l o t e d f o r t h e t o t a l e f f o r t , i n c l u d i n g p u b l i s h i n g t h e r e p o r t ,

o v e r a t o t a l t i m e s p a n o f f o u r months.

Approach
Because t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h i s e f f o r t was a s u r v e y and a s s e s s m e n t , t h e main
approach was t h a t o f d i s c o v e r i n g t h e f a c t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f w e l l - l o g g i n g
c a p a b i l i t i e s and c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h d i r e c t i o n s f o r e x t e n d i n g t h o s e c a p a b i l i t i e s for u s e i n
g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s . Such f a c t s were g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h a l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h and d i s c u s s i o n s
w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s which have a n i n t e r e s t i n l o g g i n g g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s .
These o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n c l u d e d t h e w e l l s e r v i c e companies, s u p p l i e r s t o t h e w e l l s e r v i c e
companies, o p e r a t i n g g e o t h e r m a l development companies, major o i l companies, u n i v e r s i t y
and government g e o s c i e n t i s t s , a e r o s p a c e companies w i t h i n t e r e s t s i n t h e g e o s c i e n c e and
g e o t h e r m a l a r e a s , c o n s u l t a n t s , and d r i l l i n g c o n t r a c t o r s .

The recommendations i n t h i s r e p o r t were a r r i v e d at by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a d v i c e of

t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s l i s t e d a b o v e , and t h e n making judgments as t o
which s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t i e s a p p e a r e d most i n need o f government f u n d i n g f o r t i m e l y
development and t o p r o v i d e t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r government R&D f u n d s .

Form of R e s u l t s P r e s e n t a t i o n
1. Two t a b l e s a r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e Well-Logging Technology s e c t i o n .
The f i r s t t a b l e p r e s e n t s a c o n c i s e c o m p i l a t i o n of w e l l - l o g g i n g t o o l s and
t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s . The s e c o n d t a b l e p r e s e n t s w e l l p a r a m e t e r s t h a t are
d e s i r e d and t h e a c t u a l measurements from which t h o s e d e s i r e d p a r a m e t e r s a r e
inferred.

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I
2. An e x t e n s i v e l i s t of m a j o r l o g g i n g t o o l t y p e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s p r e s e n t e d
i n some d e t a i l i n Appendix A .

3. A l i s t o f c o n c l u s i o n s concerning geothermal well-logging i s p r e s e n t e d .

4. Recommendations are i n c l u d e d s u g g e s t i n g s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c t a s k s which t h e

government might i m m e d i a t e l y s u p p o r t .
 INTRODUCTION

The s t u d y p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t was conducted by S a n d i a L a b o r a t o r i e s a t t h e r e q u e s t

o f D r . L o u i s B. Werner and M o r r i s S k a l k a o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f Geothermal Energy, USERDA.

A c o n c e r n h a s been e x p r e s s e d t h a t w i t h t h e c u r r e n t h i g h l e v e l of a c t i v i t y i n t h e
p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n t economic c l i m a t e , t h e n e c e s s a r y a c t i v i t i e s f o r ,
development o f g e o t h e r m a l t e c h n o l o g y might n o t o c c u r s p o n t a n e o u s l y . Because ERDA i s c h a r g e d
w i t h t h e development o f t h e n a t i o n ’ s g e o t h e r m a l r e s o u r c e s , any l a g i n development t h a t
might d e l a y t h e t i m e l y u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h i s r e s o u r c e i s o f c o n c e r n . It i s t h e b a s i c p u r p o s e
o f t h i s r e p o r t t o examine t h e p r o b a b l e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f g e o t h e r m a l w e l l - l o g g i n g t e c h n o l o g y
a s i t i s needed t o d e v e l o p t h e g e o t h e r m a l r e s o u r c e , and t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e government
s h o u l d t a k e any a c t i o n s t o i n s u r e t h a t w e l l - l o g g i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s w i l l be a v a i l a b l e a s t h e y
a r e needed.

In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e above g o a l s , t h i s r e p o r t c o n s i d e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g t o p i c s :
0 Geothermal Energy, i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i m p o r t a n c e as a n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e .

0 Well-Logging Technology, i n c l u d i n g t h e r e a s o n s f o r l o g g i n g and t h e v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s

of well-logging a p p a r a t u s .

0 Geothermal Well-Logging and A s s o c i a t e d Problems

0 Conclusions concerning d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f geothermal well-

logging .
Recommendations f o r a p p r o p r i a t e government a c t i o n s t o e f f e c t t i m e l y r e m e d i e s
of p r e s e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s i n g e o t h e r m a l w e l l - l o g g i n g . Included i s a suggested
management s t r u c t u r e f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e recommendations.

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 T h i s p a g e i n t e n t i o n a l l y left b l a n k .

I 10
 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Any v e r y d e t a i l e d o r comprehensive d i s c u s s i o n o f g e o t h e r m a l e n e r g y i s beyond t h e scope

o f t h i s r e p o r t . However, t h e r e a r e some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e s u b j e c t which a r e appro-
p r i a t e f o r discussion here.

Geothermal e n e r g y r e f e r s t o t h e h e a t which n a t u r a l l y e x i s t s i n t h e e a r t h ' s i n t e r i o r ,

and which i s b e l i e v e d t o r e s u l t from r a d i o a c t i v e decay of t h e e l e m e n t s uranium, p o t a s s i u m ,
and t h o r i u m .

The a v e r a g e o r normal g e o t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t , a b o u t 25°C t o 30°C p e r k i l o m e t e r o f d e p t h ,

i s n o t now c o m m e r c i a l l y e x p l o i t a b l e and p r o b a b l y w i l l n o t be i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . However,
r e g i o n s e x i s t w i t h g r a d i e n t s two o r more t i m e s t h i s a v e r a g e , g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t e c t o n i c - p l a t e b o u n d a r i e s and v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y , and p o s s i b l y r e s u l t i n g from a n e a r
s u r f a c e i n t r u s i o n o f magma. These h i g h e r t h a n normal g r a d i e n t s may o c c u r i n c o n j u n c t i o n
w i t h a n a q u i f e r s y s t e m i n which c a s e d r y steam ( v a p o r dominated s y s t e m ) o r h o t water
( l i q u i d dominated s y s t e m ) i s produced which c a n be c o m m e r c i a l l y e x t r a c t e d . Lower tempera-
t u r e f l u i d s y s t e m s (<150°C/3000F)* have been u s e d f o r commercial, r e s i d e n t i a l , o r a g r i c u l -
t u r a l h e a t i n g p u r p o s e s ( e . g . , Klamath F a l l s , Oregon; Reykjavik, I c e l a n d ) . Higher tempera-
t u r e f l u i d s a r e u s e d t o s u p p l y steam f o r e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i n g s t a t i o n s . These may have
b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e s as h i g h as 300°C (570°F) f o r r e l a t i v e l y f r e s h water s y s t e m s ( e . g . ,
W a i r a k e i , N e w Z e a l a n d ) and up t o 3 8 5 " ~(725°F) f o r s y s t e m s w i t h h i g h s a l i n i t y ( e . g . , C e r r o
P r i e t o , Mexico). Vapor dominated s y s t e m s ( e . g . , t h e G e y s e r s , C a l i f o r n i a ; L a r d e r e l l o ,
I t a l y ) a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n i t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e s n e a r 240°C ( 4 6 5 ° F ) . A t y p i c a l r e s e r v o i r
showing e x t r a c t i o n , r e - i n j e c t i o n , and ground water r e c h a r g i n g i s shown i n F i g u r e 1.

Although n o t p r e s e n t l y b e i n g c o m m e r c i a l l y e x p l o i t e d , o t h e r g e o t h e r m a l s y s t e m s may
p r o v i d e e n e r g y i n t h e f u t u r e . I n areas w i t h above normal g e o t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t s b u t no
a q u i f e r s y s t e m , i t h a s been p r o p o s e d (by Los Alamos S c i e n t i f i c Lab and o t h e r s ) t o u s e t h e
e n e r g y i n t h e h o t d r y r o c k by pumping water down one w e l l and e x t r a c t i n g steam from a
second w e l l t o which a p a t h t h r o u g h t h e r o c k h a s b e e n i n t e n t i o n a l l y f r a c t u r e d . Temperature
of t h e h o t r o c k c o u l d r u n t o s e v e r a l hundred d e g r e e s C e l s i u s . L a r g e , h i g h l y g e o p r e s s u r e d
r e g i o n s e x i s t a l o n g t h e U . S . Gulf C o a s t which c o n t a i n m o d e r a t e l y h o t (175"C/350°F) waters
a t h i g h p r e s s u r e w i t h h i g h d i s s o l v e d methane c o n t e n t p r e s e n t i n g a t t r a c t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
f o r e n e r g y e x t r a c t i o n . I n t h e more d i s t a n t f u t u r e a r e p l a n s f o r e n e r g y e x t r a c t i o n u s i n g a
d i r e c t magma t a p . I n t h i s c a s e , t e m p e r a t u r e s o v e r 1000°C (1830°F) may be e n c o u n t e r e d .

* Temperature c o n v e r s i o n s a r e rounded t o t h e n e a r e s t f i v e d e g r e e s .

11
 TEMPERATURE DEPTH
-/ km
/:e- OC

/7 -,/ I 2o0 - 0
- 11-

300' 3

400' 4

F i g u r e ,1

Geothermal e n e r g y i s s e e n as one i m p o r t a n t component o f t h e n a t i o n ' s e f f o r t t o a c h i e v e

energy s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . The P r o j e c t Independence R e p o r t p r e d i c t s t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f from
7,000 t o l5,OOO megawatts o f e l e c t r i c i t y from g e o t h e r m a l s o u r c e s by 1 9 8 5 , on t h e b a s i s o f
t h e i r a c c e l e r a t e d development s c e n a r i o . The r e p o r t from J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y e n t i t l e d
" S t a t u s R e p o r t , Geothermal Program D e f i n i t i o n P r o j e c t , A p r i l 4 , 1975," e s t a b l i s h e s a t e n t a -
t i v e g o a l f o r t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f g e o t h e r m a l e n e r g y o f 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o 30,000 megawatts e l e c t r i c a l
by 1985, a u t i l i z a t i o n l e v e l t h a t w i l l s a v e one m i l l i o n b a r r e l s o f o i l p e r d a y . G e n e r a t i o n
of e l e c t r i c i t y a t t h i s r a t e w i l l r e q u i r e d r i l l i n g a n a v e r a g e o f a b o u t 1 0 0 0 wells p e r y e a r
over t h e next 1 0 years.

It i s n o t a b l e t h a t t h e p r o d u c t s o u g h t from g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s i s h e a t i t s e l f r a t h e r t h a n
a p r o d u c t which can b e b u r n e d t o p r o d u c e h e a t . The g e o t h e r m a l h e a t , w h e t h e r i n t h e form
of steam o r h o t water, c a n n o t b e p r a c t i c a l l y t r a n s p o r t e d l o n g d i s t a n c e s .

Of c o u r s e , g e o t h e r m a l heat c a n be u s e d t o g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y , which i s e a s i l y
transportable. Although t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e h e a t e n e r g y i n t o e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y d o e s s o l v e t h e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problem, t h e r e a r i s e s t h e new problem o f i n s u r i n g t h a t a d e q u a t e g e o t h e r m a l
e n e r g y w i l l b e a v a i l a b l e a t a s i t e b e f o r e l a r g e c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s a r e made i n a c o n v e r s i o n
p l a n t , which must be n e a r t h e e n e r g y s o u r c e . The i n v e s t o r s must b e r e a s o n a b l y s u r e t h a t
t h e r e w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t e n e r g y a v a i l a b l e a t a f i x e d s i t e f o r a s u f f i c i e n t time t o j u s t i f y
t h e l a r g e i n v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e d . The n e c e s s i t y f o r a l a r g e c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t a t t h e s i t e
o f t h e e n e r g y s o u r c e makes r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g f o r g e o t h e r m a l f i e l d s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t .

12
It is clear that the development of geothermal reservoir engineering, which requires down-
hole well-logging as a source of information, is of paramount importance among the activities
necessary for the efficient utilization of the geothermal energy resource.

Geothermal wells differ from oil or gas wells in many important respects. Geothermal
wells are usually hotter, and often they are drilled in harder rocks. Most oil wells are
drilled in sedimentary formations, whereas many geothermal wells are drilled in igneous or
metamorphic formations. These harder rocks often are fractured, and many of the formations
are underpressured. This combination of high temperatures and hard, fractured, and unfami-
liar rock types causes a great number of problems in the drilling, logging, and completion
of geothermal wells. Typical problems are crooked holes, the loss of drilling fluid in
fractured or underpressured formations, and failure of drilling fluids and drilling and
logging tools because of the elevated temperatures. Additionally, there are often problems
of corrosion caused by naturally occurring gases such as hydrogen sulfide, as well as
saline formation fluids.

As a resource geothermal energy has been slow to be exploited. There are only a few
areas in the United States where geothermal energy is used at all, and only one (the Geysers
in California) where significant electrical power is generated. However, at the Geysers
several hundred megawatts are now being produced, with more in the planning stage. Commercial
interest in geothermal energy is increasing rapidly. In recognition of this, the United
States government has designated certain Known Geothermal Resource Areas (KGRA's). Within
these KGRA's leases must be obtained on the basis of competitive bids. Tables which indicate
recent geothermal activity, both within and outside the KGRA's, are given below in Tables 1,
2, and 3 . "

Table 1
Applications for Noncompetitive Federal Geothermal Leases
(Filed in January 1 9 7 4 in 11 western states)*
Number of Approximate Area Percent of Total
State App 1icat ions (in acres) January Filings
California 528 1,070,000 21.5
Oregon 458 1,000,000 18.6
Nevada 433 goo ,0 0 0 17.7
Idaho 265 ,
5 8 0 000 10.8
New Mexico 274 630,000 11.2
Utah 207 450,000 8.5
Washington 151 340,000 6.1
Colorado 64 120,000 2.6
Montana 55 1 0 0 ,000 2.2
Arizona 18 4 0 ,000 0.7
, Wyoming 3 6,000 0.1

TOTAL 2,456 5 ,2 3 6 ,000 100.0

* Copyright 1975, Engineering and Mining Journal, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020.
 Table 2
Selected 1974 KGRA Sales*
High Bid (gross value) High Bid (per acre)
Area Company Amount Company Amount
Geysers , Calif.1 Shell O i l $3,200,000 Natomas O i l $3,297.00
Mono-Long Valley,
Calif. 2 Republic 515,767 Republic 210.00
Geothermal Geothermal
East Mesa, Calif. Republic 432,810 Republic 170 . O O
Geothermal Geothermal
Vale, Oregon3 Republic 13,831 Republic 10.25
Geothermal Geothermal
Roosevelt, Utah 4 Phillips Pet. 314,200 Phillips Pet. 128.06
Brady , Nevada 5 Southern Union 15 ,108 Geotherma1 10.16
Production Res. Int .
1) Proven field; 2) Existing high temperature water wells; 3) Boiling springs in
area; 4 ) Shallow steam well exists; 5) Several steam/water wells exist.

* Copyright 1975, Engineering and Mining Journal, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020.

14
This page intentionally left blank.
 Table 3
Geothermal W i l d c a t s ( O u t s i d e o f Geysers KGRA) ii

1972
-
Are a Company Well Name

Imperial Valley , Calif. Magma-San Diego Gas & E l e c t r i c Magmamax 1

Dearborn 1
Sharp 1
Woolsey 1
Holtz 1
Holtz 2
Magmamax 3
Magmamax 4
US Bureau o f R e c l a m a t i o n Mesa 1
C a l i f . Dept. o f Water R e s . Dunes 1
Chevron Oil Nowlin P a r t n e r s h i p 1
Mendocino County , Calif Sun O i l Torchio-Ferro
Lake County, C a l i f . Getty O i l Kettenhofen 1 (deepen)
E. B . Towne Sullivan 1
Steamboat S p r i n g s , Nev. Gulf O i l -
S u r p r i s e Valley , Calif. Magma Phipps 2

1973
I m p e r i a l Valley , Calif. Magma Mary Casey 1
Bonanza Farms 1
Fed-Rite Bonanza 1
KK S h a r p Farms I n c .
Sharp 3
Bonanza 2
Chevron O i l Nowlin P a r t n e r s h i p 2
Phillips O i l Sinclair 3
Sinclair 4
U.S. Bureau o f R e c l a m a t i o n Mesa 2
Lake County, C a l i f . P a c i f i c Energy Corp. Kettenhofen 1 (deepen)
E . B. Towne Sullivan 2
Mendocino Co. , C a l i f . Sun O i l - A 1 A q u i t a i n e -
Sonoma County, C a l i f . Signal O i l Bianchi 1
Surprise Valley, Calif. Gulf O i l S V - 1 ST
SV - 2 ST
Honey Lake, C a l i f . Gulf O i l Honey Lake 1
Honey Lake 2
Lakeview , Ore. Gulf O i l F a v e l l - U t ley-1-ST
Chandler, Ariz. Ge o t h e rmal Kine t i c s Power Ranches 1
Power Ranches 2
C h o c o l a t e Mtns. , Calif. QB R e s o u r c e s -

16
 T a b l e 3 (Continued)
Geothermal W i l d c a t s ( O u t s i d e o f Geysers K G R A ) *

1974 (TO AUGUST 31)

Are a C omp any Well Name
Imperial Valley, Calif. Chevron O i l J . D . Jackson
C . B. Jackson
Hulse
US Bureau o f R e c l a m a t i o n Mesa 5-1
Mesa 8-1
Mesa 3-1
Magma Elmore 1
Mendocino County, C a l i f . Sun O i l Macii-St a t e
Torchio-Ferro 2
Plumas County, C a l i f . Phillips O i l F i l i p p i n i A-1
Surprise Valley, Calif. American Thermal R e s o u r c e s ATR-1
ATR- 2
ATR- 3
Magma Phipps 2 (deepen)
V a l l e s C a l d e r a , NM Atomic Energy Commission -1
-2
Union O i l Baca 11
Baca 1 2
Brady, Nev. Union-Magma SP-1
P h i l l i ps-Southern P a c i f i c Desert Peak 1-29
I n d i a n Hot S p r i n g s , A r i z . Nix D r i l l i n g Company -
P i n e Farms, A r i z . Geothermal Kine tics-Amax P i m a Farms 1
Oreana, I d a . .
Anschut z Corp ( O & G ) -
R a f t River, Ida. G r i f f it h -
Beowawe, Nev. Chevron-ATR Ginn
Brigham C i t y , Utah Geothermal K i n e t i c s - U t a h Steam V e n t u r e s
Power & L i g h t Davis 1
Canby, C a l i f . G e o t h e r m a l Power Corp. K e l l y Hot S p r i n g s 1
M a r y s v i l l e , Mont. National Science Foundation -
San L u i s V a l l e y , Colo. Mid-American P i p e l i n e Company -
Hot Lake, Ore. Magma -

* C o p y r i g h t 1975, E n g i n e e r i n g and Mining J o u r n a l , McGraw-Hill, I n c . , 1 2 2 1 Avenue o f t h e

Americas, N e w York, NY 1 0 0 2 0 .
 T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t b l a n k .

18
 Well-Logging Technology

Background
When t h e o i l i n d u s t r y was i n i t s i n f a n c y , t h e d e t e c t i o n of a s u c c e s s f u l o i l w e l l was
o f t e n e a s y b e c a u s e d r i l l i n g i n t o a p r e s s u r e d o i l - b e a r i n g s t r a t u m p r o d u c e d a g u s h e r . However,
allowing such an u n c o n t r o l l e d flow of o i l i s a n i n h e r e n t l y dangerous procedure, o f t e n l e a d i n g
t o f i r e s , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of e q u i p m e n t , and t h e i n j u r y of p e r s o n n e l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , methods
f o r c o n t r o l l i n g wells were d e v i s e d , and t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r s u c h w e l l c o n t r o l has b e e n w i d e l y
r e q u i r e d by l a w .

The key t o t h e c o n t r o l of a w e l l i s t h e u s e o f d r i l l i n g ''mudt1 i n t h e b o r e h o l e . T h i s mud

i s u s u a l l y a s l u r r y of water o r o i l a n d v a r i o u s c h e m i c a l s ( o r sometimes j u s t water o r o i l
a l o n e ) which p r o v i d e s a h y d r o s t a t i c h e a d s u f f i c i e n t t o overcome t h e p r e s s u r e s of t h e sub-
s u r f a c e zones i n t o which t h e b o r e h o l e p e n e t r a t e s , a n d t h u s t o p r e v e n t t h e o c c u r r e n c e of
"blowouts" ( t h e r e i s a l s o a hardware blowout p r e v e n t e r a t t h e w e l l h e a d ) . D r i l l i n g mud h a s
two o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s i n r o t a r y d r i l l i n g : t h e mud c o o l s t h e r o t a r y b i t , and t h e
c o n s t a n t c i r c u l a t i o n of mud down t h e d r i l l s t e m , t h r o u g h t h e b i t , and b a c k up t h e b o r e h o l e
a n n u l u s a r o u n d t h e d r i l l stem s e r v e s t o remove t h e c u t t i n g s from t h e b o t t o m of t h e h o l e .

The u s e of d r i l l i n g mud h a s t h e u n f o r t u n a t e s i d e - e f f e c t o f making more d i f f i c u l t t h e

t a s k of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s u b s u r f a c e f o r m a t i o n s t h r o u g h which t h e b o r e -
h o l e i s b e i n g d r i l l e d . The mud makes t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n more d i f f i c u l t i n two ways: f i r s t ,
t h e mud p r e v e n t s t h e r e a d y f l o w of s u b s u r f a c e l i q u i d s o r g a s e s i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e , a n d ,
s e c o n d , t h e mud f i l t r a t e a c t u a l l y p e n e t r a t e s t h e f o r m a t i o n s , f l u s h i n g t h e s u b s u r f a c e l i q u i d s
and gases b a c k away from t h e b o r e h o l e . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , v a r i o u s methods
of measurement have b e e n d e v i s e d t o a i d i n a n s w e r i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e f o r m a t i o n s i n t e r s e c t e d by t h e b o r e h o l e .

Purpose
W e l l - l o g g i n g , t h e s c i e n c e o f making a n d r e c o r d i n g s u r f a c e a n d b o r e h o l e measurements and
t h e a r t of t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e s u b s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
t o f a c i l i t a t e a d d r e s s i n g f o u r r e l a t e d areas of r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n .
To p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n , and o p e r a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s .

To p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o a i d i n r e s o u r c e e x p l o r a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t .

To p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r f o r m u l a t i o n of models o f r e s e r v o i r s t o f a c i l i t a t e
e f f i c i e n t production.

To p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t i n e n t t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l and l e g a l a s p e c t s of t h e r e s o u r c e
development.

19
 The need for this information in the petroleum industry has stimulated the development
of sophisticated devices capable of making measurements under field conditions both at the
surface and in the borehole. Appendix A contains descriptions of industrial logging tools.
Logging equipment, techniques for its use, and interpretation of the resulting data are
usually provided by specialized service companies as requested (often on short notice).

The potential for great economic gain, the risk of large amounts of capital, and the
highly competitive nature of the petroleum industry have provided the economic incentive
that has resulted in the highly developed well-logging services available to the oil industry.
This logging technology has made possible the reservoir modeling and resource evaluation
used in petroleum exploration, evaluation, and production. It is through use of logging
information and reservoir models that reserves are estimated and production is regulated
in conformance with establshed conservation practices.

Operation and Limitations

The downhole devices used in well-logging are referred to as "tools" o r "sondes.
Most of these tools are operated in the hole using multiple or single conductor armored
cable which serves both as a supporting cable and as a data transmission link for surface
recording of measurements. The cable also provides the required borehole depth information
which is used when plotting and correlating formation parameters. This depth measuring use
o f the cable is reflected in the cable armor design, which provides mechanical strength,
abrasion resistance, and stretch resistance, and in the usual practice of logging on the
uphole travel of the sonde. Figure 2 illustrates a typical logging operation.

The use of surface recording in logging as opposed to recording in the sonde itself
offers the advantages of immediate access to data, visual observation o f tool function,
and a timely option for additional logging, perhaps at slower rates, for interesting
sections. However, some tools are used which include an onboard recording o r sampling
capability. These tools are often attached to the drill string or the tubing, or they may
be run by wire line or pumped down through the drill string.

Logging speeds range from a maximum of approximately 1000 ft/min to zero (stationary
measurements, requiring up to 10 minutes). Typical logging speeds range from 10 to 5 0 ft/min.
Thus, if a 3000-foot section is logged, the sonde and cable will be exposed to the downhole
environment for times of one to five hours plus the run-in time.

' Logging tools are designed for both open-hole and cased-hole operation. Those which
require contact with the rock surfaces o r which must not be shielded by casing are limited
to open hole use (i.e., Electrical logs, Formation Samplers, Bore Calipers, and Induction
Logs 1.

Drilling fluids, usually called "muds," are used to cool the drill bit, to flush cuttings
from the drill face and from the borehole, and to provide a weighted medium to control
formation pressure. The common weighted muds are of three basic types: water based, oil
based, and oil emulsion based. The oil based muds offer the greatest thermal resistance
but are electrically nonconductive and are expensive. Some logging t o o l s are not suitable
for use in conductive muds, while the operation of others is adversely affected by non-
conductive muds. Some tools are usable only in holes filled with mud o r some other liquid,
whereas others can be run in dry holes.

20
 ARRANGEMENT OF
EQUIPMENT FOR LOGGING

Figure 2

When t h e v a r i o u s t o o l s a r e u s e d w i t h i n t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s , good d a t a a r e o b t a i n a b l e which

p r o v i d e t h e f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t l y measurable parameters: t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e , r e s i s t i v i t y ,
flow, d e p t h , and h o l e s i z e . However, many of t h e d e s i r e d p a r a m e t e r s must be c a l c u l a t e d ,
d e r i v e d , o r i n f e r r e d from l o g g i n g measurements: no d i r e c t measurements i n t h e b o r e h o l e a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r s u c h p a r a m e t e r s as p o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y , r o c k f r a c t u r i n g , l i t h o l o g y , forma-
t i o n d i p , h e a t flow, f l u i d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , formation p r e s s u r e , formation mechanical proper-
t i e s , cement bond q u a l i t y , c a s i n g c o n d i t i o n , h o l e d i r e c t i o n , or f o r m a t i o n d e n s i t y .

Broadly speaking, well-logging can be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s : electrical,

r a d i o a c t i v i t y , a c o u s t i c a l , and s p e c i a l i z e d a u x i l i a r i e s .

E l e c t r i c a l Well-Logging
The e l e c t r i c a l l o g g i n g t o o l s , t h e f i r s t t o b e e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d i n t h e p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y ,
were i n i t i a l l y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 ' s i n F r a n c e by t h e Schlumberger b r o t h e r s . E l e c t r i c a l
w e l l - l o g g i n g i n v o l v e s t h e downhole measurement o f e l e c t r i c a l q u a n t i t i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y v o l t a g e
and r e s i s t a n c e . The v o l t a g e which i s measured i s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e d r i l l i n g mud column i n
t h e b o r e h o l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o ground p o t e n t i a l n e a r t h e d r i l l i n g r i g . T h i s p o t e n t i a l i s

21
generated through the operation of several mechanisms which involve the fluid in the bore-
hole and the boundaries between the subsurface strata. Measurement of this voltage is
accomplished by lowering a sonde that carries one electrode down the hole and recording the
difference in voltage between that sonde-borne electrode and an electrode driven into the
ground at the surface. Since the potential is at least partially produced by the interface
between strata, this measurement of Spontaneous Potential (SP) is useful in defining the
locations of the formation boundaries and identifying the types of strata on either side of
those boundaries. The resistance of the naturally occurring waters in the subsurface
formations can also be determined from the SP measurement.

The resistances of the formations are measured in two general ways. One method involves
placing electrodes in various configurations on a sonde in the borehole, with another
ground electrode at the surface, and then exciting various of these electrodes with some
sort of electrical signal while measuring the voltages between other electrodes. A varia-
tion of this method is to monitor the amount of current that is actually forced into the
formation from certain of the electrodes. This method, like the SP, requires that the
drilling mud be conductive, to provide electrical contact between the electrodes and the
formation through the mud. The second method involves the use of induction, and thus
nonconducting muds can be used. An induction log uses a transmitter in one end of a sonde
to generate a magnetic field that induces eddy currents in the formation surrounding the
borehole. These eddy currents in turn generate their own magnetic fields, which are sensed
by a receiver in the other end of the sonde. Because the magnltude of the induced eddy
currents and their associated magnetic fields is a function of the formation resistivity,
the magnetic fields that are sensed by the receiver allow a determination of that
resistivity. Resistivity measurements are important because they allow the determination
of boundaries of beds, water saturation, and, perhaps most important, porosity.

One major consideration in measuring electrical resistance is the volume of the

formation in which resistance is to be measured. In general, the farther apart the electrodes
between which the current is passed, the greater the investigation region. A great deal of
ingenuity has been displayed in the placement of electrodes, with some being as near each
other as an inch or less, to investigate the region very close to the borehole; and others
with spacings between electrodes as great as several thousand feet, to investigate very
large volumes. The induction log investigates a medium-sized volume around the borehole
because of the method of inducing currents with an alternating magnetic field.

With almost all electric logging, the resistance measured is that of the formation
fluids. The resistance of the matrix material is usually assumed to be infinite.

A different type of electrical logging tool is the nuclear magnetism log. A strong
magnetic field is used to align individual nuclear magnetic moments. When the field is
removed, measurements are taken to give the magnitude of the alignment effect (or
polarization) and, if desired, the time constant ( o r thermal relaxation time). Hydrogen
is the only element that gives a significant response to this log, and, to respond, the
hydrogen must be in a free fluid, i.e., not bound by surface tension, or appearing as
water of hydration. Oil and water have different thermal relaxation times, which allows
the nuclear magnetism log to distinguish between the two.

22
 A l l e l e c t r i c a l l o g s must be r u n i n uncased h o l e s , b e c a u s e t h e v e r y low r e s i s t a n c e o f
t h e metal c a s i n g between t h e sonde and t h e f o r m a t i o n s h i e l d s t h e f o r m a t i o n from t h e e l e c t r i c a l
logging t o o l s .

R a d i o a c t i v i t y Logs
With t h e a d v e n t o f t h e n u c l e a r a g e , a new s e r i e s o f t o o l s was d e v e l o p e d based on radia-
t i o n s c a t t e r i n g o r on t h e r a d i o a c t i v e decay of u n s t a b l e n u c l e i and t h e d e t e c t i o n of t h e
e m i t t e d r a d i a t i o n . Because c e r t a i n t y p e s of r a d i a t i o n a r e v e r y p e n e t r a t i n g , many o f t h e l o g s
based on r a d i o a c t i v i t y c a n b e u s e d i n c a s e d h o l e s . For t h e same r e a s o n , t h e a b s e n c e or
p r e s e n c e o f b o r e h o l e f l u i d i s immaterial. These f a c t s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e v e r s a t i l i t y o f t h e
r a d i a t i o n logging devices.

Common t o a l l r a d i a t i o n l o g g i n g d e v i c e s i s some means of m e a s u r i n g r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n t h e

b o r e h o l e . The r a d i o a c t i v i t y may be e i t h e r n a t u r a l o r i n d u c e d , or i t c a n r e s u l t from i n j e c t i o n
o f a n i s o t o p e used as a t r a c e r .

A n a t u r a l r a d i a t i o n l o g measures t h e gamma r a d i a t i o n produced by t h e decay o f uranium,

t h o r i u m , or p o t a s s i u m (and t h e i r d a u g h t e r p r o d u c t s ) . Because t h e e n e r g y o f decay a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h each element i s d i f f e r e n t , use of a spectrum d i s c r i m i n a t i n g d e t e c t o r a l l o w s deter-
m i n a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r element or e l e m e n t s p r e s e n t . A n a t u r a l r a d i a t i o n l o g may a l s o b e
used t o d e t e c t a r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r .

A gamma d e n s i t y t o o l i n c l u d e s a s o u r c e of gamma r a y s c o l l i m a t e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a t
t h e borehole w a l l . A gamma d e t e c t o r a s h o r t d i s t a n c e away measures t h e f l u x o f gamma r a y s
s c a t t e r e d by t h e f o r m a t i o n . Because Compton s c a t t e r i n g d o m i n a t e s f o r t h e gamma e n e r g i e s
used, t h e d e t e c t e d f l u x w i l l be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y i n t h e formation,
which w i l l b e r o u g h l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f o r m a t i o n b u l k d e n s i t y .

Neutrons c a n b e i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h s e v e r a l e f f e c t s . The s t a n d a r d n e u t r o n
l o g depends on t h e m o d e r a t i o n of n e u t r o n e n e r g i e s and t h e s u b s e q u e n t c a p t u r e o f t h e thermal
n e u t r o n s . Moderation ( t h e r e d u c t i o n of n e u t r o n e n e r g y t h r o u g h e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n s ) i s
a l m o s t t o t a l l y dominated by hydrogen. If a l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f hydrogen i s p r e s e n t ,
m o d e r a t i o n and c a p t u r e w i l l o c c u r n e a r t h e s o u r c e . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a small s i g n a l from a
d e t e c t o r s p a c e d a s h o r t d i s t a n c e away ( 1 2 t o 1 8 i n c h e s ) and s e n s i t i v e t o n e u t r o n s or t o
gamma r a y s e m i t t e d upon n e u t r o n c a p t u r e . As t h e amount of hydrogen d e c r e a s e s , m o d e r a t i o n
w i l l o c c u r p r o g r e s s i v e l y f a r t h e r from t h e s o u r c e and n e a r e r t h e d e t e c t o r , w i t h a c o r r e s -
ponding i n c r e a s e i n s i g n a l l e v e l . T h i s l o g t h u s measures t h e hydrogen i n t h e f o r m a t i o n .
I f t h e hydrogen i s c o n t a i n e d i n f l u i d (water or o i l ) , t h e p o r o s i t y may b e i n f e r r e d .

Another t y p e o f n e u t r o n l o g u s e s a p u l s e d s o u r c e and d e t e c t o r t i m e g a t i n g t o measure

t h e decay t i m e s o f t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n f l u x from which thermal n e u t r o n c a p t u r e c r o s s s e c t i o n
may b e d e t e r m i n e d . S i n c e c h l o r i n e h a s a v e r y h i g h r e l a t i v e c a p t u r e c r o s s s e c t i o n , t h i s l o g
g i v e s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c h l o r i n e as w e l l as t h e hydrogen p r e s e n t .

O t h e r t y p e s o f n e u t r o n l o g s i n c l u d e t h e n e u t r o n a c t i v a t i o n l o g and t h e c a r b o n l o g .
Most e l e m e n t s , upon a c t i v a t i o n by n e u t r o n bombardment, a r e t r a n s m u t e d t o u n s t a b l e gamma
r a y e m i t t i n g i s o t o p e s . The n e u t r o n a c t i v a t i o n l o g i s c o n f i g u r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c r a t e o f decay o f t h e gamma r a d i a t i o n and hence t o i n f e r t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p a r t i c u -
l a r e l e m e n t . S i l i c o n , oxygen, and aluminum have decay times ( a c t i v a t i o n h a l f l i v e s ) and

23
gamma e n e r g i e s s u i t a b l e f o r downhole n e u t r o n a c t i v a t i o n l o g g i n g . The c a r b o n l o g i s con-
f i g u r e d t o d e t e c t t h e gamma r a y s e m i t t e d as a r e s u l t o f i n e l a s t i c s c a t t e r i n g o f h i g h e n e r g y

-
n e u t r o n s by c a r b o n atoms. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e d e t e c t o r ( a s c i n t i l l a t i o n s p e c t r o m e t e r ) i s
enabled only during the neutron pulse.

Many o f t h e t o o l s d i s c u s s e d above c a n be compensated f o r b o r e h o l e e f f e c t s by i n c l u d i n g

more t h a n one d e t e c t o r w i t h d i f f e r e n t s p a c i n g s from t h e s o u r c e . R a t i o s o f r e a d i n g s from
t h e d e t e c t o r s c a n b e used t o d e r i v e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s .

A c o u s t i c Logging
The growing u s e o f s e i s m i c s u r v e y s t o l o c a t e and d e f i n e s u b s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t
might c o n t a i n h y d r o c a r b o n d e p o s i t s , and t h e need f o r improved i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d
t h e need t o measure i n s i t u s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s f o r t h e o v e r l y i n g f o r m a t i o n s . T h i s need and
t h e r a p i d a d v a n c e s b e i n g made i n e l e c t r o n i c s l e d t o t h e development o f a number o f t o o l s
f o r b o r e h o l e measurements o f a c o u s t i c v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n r o c k s . The s o n i c l o g g i n g
t o o l s , which i n c l u d e a c o u s t i c c a l i p e r , a c o u s t i c cement bond, s o n i c v e l o c i t y , s o n i c ampli-
t u d e , b o r e h o l e compensated s o n i c v e l o c i t y , t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s o n i c v e l o c i t y , and s o n i c
t e l e v i e w e r , have r e c e i v e d wide u s e and a c c e p t a n c e i n downhole d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n and
interpretation.

The m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d of t h e s e s o n i c t o o l s , t h e s o n i c t e l e v i e w e r ( e . g . , Seisviewer),
p r o d u c e s a s h a d e d b l a c k and w h i t e p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e e n t i r e i n n e r s u r f a c e o f a s e c t i o n o f
t h e b o r e h o l e , s p l i t a l o n g a l i n e w i t h magnetic n o r t h a t t h e edges. T h i s photograph i s
made from a d i s p l a y on a n o s c i l l o s c o p e . When t h e l o g i s r u n i n open h o l e s , i t p r o v i d e s
i n f o r m a t i o n on f r a c t u r e s , v o i d s , b e d d i n g o r i e n t a t i o n , and f o r m a t i o n d i p . If t h e measurement
i s made i n c a s e d h o l e s , t h e p h o t o g r a p h c a n show c a s i n g s h o e l o c a t i o n and s u p p o r t as w e l l as
l o c a t i o n s o f c o l l a r s , p e r f o r a t i o n s , and c a s i n g damage o r c o r r o s i o n .

The o t h e r s o n i c t o o l s p r o v i d e measurements o f compression ( P ) and shear ( S ) wave

v e l o c i t i e s and s i g n a l a t t e n u a t i o n s t h a t a r e u s e d i n c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
p o r o s i t y , f r a c t u r e s , cement bond q u a l i t y , and m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s ( b u l k modulus and
Young's m o d u l u s ) . These s o n i c t o o l s a l l u s e s i g n a l g e n e r a t o r s o f t h e m a g n e t o s t r i c t l v e o r
p i e z o e l e c t r i c t y p e and t r a n s d u c e r r e c e i v e r s t h a t a r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y l o c a t e d and i s o l a t e d
w i t h i n t h e t o o l . Measurements a r e made o f t r a n s i t t i m e t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a t i o n s o r p i p e
walls a n d / o r a t t e n u a t i o n o f t h e s i g n a l when r e f l e c t e d from t h e s u r f a c e u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n
o r transmitted through the formation.

The s o n i c v e l o c i t y l o g i s a r e c o r d o f t h e t r a v e l t i m e f o r c o m p r e s s i o n a l waves a l o n g a
p a t h from a t r a n s m i t t e r t o a r e c e i v e r . It i s used t o o b t a i n a s o n i c p o r o s i t y (which i s
l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e d by s e c o n d a r y p o r o s i t y ) , u s i n g t h e known s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s f o r t h e m a t r i x
and f o r t h e f l u i d c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p o r e s .

The s o n i c c a l i p e r l o g makes u s e o f t h e t r a v e l time o f t h e compression wave between

t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e b o r e h o l e wall.
The t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r make u s e o f t h e same
t r a n s d u c e r . The f i r s t s i g n a l r e c e i v e d a f t e r e a c h t r a n s m i t t e r p u l s e i s t h e s i g n a l r e f l e c t e d
from t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l and i s u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e h o l e s i z e .

The cement bond l o g r e c o r d s t h e a m p l i t u d e s o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n a l waves as t h e y t r a v e l

a l o n g t h e c a s i n g w a l l - b e t w e e n t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r . Where t h e bond between t h e c a s i n g

24
and the cement is good, attenuations are 20 to 30 times as great as in an unbonded
section.

The mechanical properties log records the transit times for the compression and shear
waves through the formation as part o f a variable density photographic presentation of the
total wave train. This information is used to determine rock quality and deformation.

Specialized Auxiliary Logs

Most logs exhibit temperature dependence and require temperature compensations for
greater accuracy. The need for knowing the temperature in order to make corrections has
encouraged the development of temperature logging tools, as has their increased use in
production logging. Temperature logs are of three types: those that measure absolute
temperature, those that measure the equilibrium thermal gradient, and those that measure
the transient changes in temperature that result when heat is added to or extracted from
the formations in a well bore.

Temperatures are measured downhole with thermocouples, resistance thermometers,

thermistors, and mercury thermometers. A bridge circuit is generally used for temperature
measurements. This can be accomplished with only one leg of the bridge in the borehole and
with all other electronics on the surface for simplified tool design. However, greater
accuracy is obtained by putting the bridge within the sonde. As with radiation logs,
temperature measurements can be made in cased or uncased holes. They are often used to locate
flow behind casing or through unbonded cemented sections, or to locate cement tops.

A directional survey provides information on borehole slope and direction and estab-
lishes bottom hole and production zone locations with relation to the surface entry point.
It is also a necessary input f o r all directional drilling operations.

A caliper log provides a direct measurement of borehole diameter which aids in log
interpretation and serves to establish cement volumes required f o r cementing casing. This
log also allows detection of permeable zones through location o f mud cake buildup over such
zones and indicates formation instability by identifying washouts and sloughing zones.

The dipmeter log, which measures the slope and direction of formation bedding, provides
information needed to map subsurface strata.

Flow, pressure, and fluid density logs are principally used as production control tools
in the petroleum industry. These tools and others that have had limited use, such as
magnetic susceptibility and gravity, may find additional uses in the geothermal field.

Logging Summary
The logs discussed above, along with the many surface logs, such as drilling rate and
mud logs, provide the information that has permitted the petroleum industry to develop into
the high technology industry that it is today. Important characteristics of the major
commercially available l o g g i n g tools are summarized in Table 4 with more details on each
tool given in Appendix A. The use of various tools f o r determining well parameters is
indicated in Table 5. A graph showing the relative importance of the principal logs to
the petroleum industry over the years is shown in Figure 3. This existing petroleum
technology base must be used in the growth of geothermal exploration and development.

25
 Table 4
Commercial Well-Logging and Sampling Equipment

Min. T o o l Max. Temp.

Type o f P a r a m e t e r s t h a t may D i ame t er Degrees
Equipment P a r a m e t e r s Measured be D e r i v e d (inches) O C (OF)"

Cables and 250 ( 4 8 0 )

Connectors
E l e c t r i c a l Tools
Inducti o n Conductivity ( o r resis- P o r o s i t y , water s a t u r a t i o n , 2 3/4 260 (500)
t i v i t y ) of formation boundaries of beds
fluids
I n d u c t i o n Cas- R e 1 a t i v e con d u c t i v i t i e s Casing t h i c k n e s s 3 1/2 145 (285)
i n g Thickness o f t h e c a s i n g (measured
Log from s e n s i n g p h a s e
differences i n a received
magnetic s i g n a l )
Microlaterolog R e s i s t i v i t y of a t h i n R e s i s t i v i t y of t h e f l u s h e d 3 5/8 175 (350)
section of the flushed zone
zone
M i C Y 0 log- R e s i s t i v i t y o f a few D e f i n i t i o n o f p o r o u s and 3 518 175 (350)
Microcaliper c u b i c i n c h e s o f forma- permeable beds, h o l e
t i o n n e x t t o t h e bore- diameter
hole w a l l
Nuclear Magnetic p o l a r i z a t i o n , Free f l u i d density, f l u i d 4 1/4 175 (350)
Magnet i s m relaxation t i m e identification

Resistivity, Resistivity of thin D e f i n i t i o n o f b e d s and t h e 3 3/8 175 (350)

focused segment o f f o r m a t i o n t r u e r e s i s t i v i t y of undis-
t u r b e d f o r m a t i o n waters
Resistivity, R e s i s t i v i t y of forma- P o r o s i t y , water q u a l i t y , 1 1/2 260 ( 5 0 0 )
non- fo c u s e d tion fluids boundaries of beds
Spontaneous Voltages i n t h e bore- L i t h o l o g y ( c o r r e l a t i o n ) and 2 3/4 260 ( 5 0 0 )
P o t e n t i a l (SP) h o l e mud f o r m a t i o n waters res i s t i v i t y

Radioactivity
Tools
Gamma- Gamma Compton s c a t t e r e d gamma Formation b u l k d e n s l t y , poro- 1 11/16 205 (400)
Density radiation s i t y , lithology
Gamma, N a t u r a l Gamma i n t e n s i t y Lithology, c o r r e l a t i o n 718 260 ( 5 0 0 )
(spectrum)
Neutron N e u t r o n mode r a t i o n Hydrogen d e n s i t y , p o r o s i t y 1
distance lithology
Neutron Gamma from decay o f Elemental density (0, S i , A l , 2 3/16
Activation neutron activated Mg) , l i t h o l o g y
e leme n t s
Neutron c a p t u r e Thermal n e u t r o n decay Chlorine density, p o r o s i t y , 1 11/16
cross section time water s a t u r a t i o n
Neut r o n / c a r b o n Gamma from i n e l a s t i c Carbon d e n s i t y 3 518
neutron s c a t t e r i n g
Radioactive Gamma F l u i d movements 1 3/8 1 5 0 (300)
Tracers

26
 T a b l e 4 (Continued)
Commercial Well-Logging and Sampling Equipment
Min. Tool Max. Temp.
Type o f P a r a m e t e r s t h a t may Diameter Degrees
Equipment Parameters Measured b e Derived (inches ) O C (OF)*

Acoustical
Tools
Borehole Photograph of bore- Fractures, formation dip col- 3 3/8 150 (300)
Televiewer hole w a l l l a r l o c a t i o n , c a s i n g shoe
Cement Bond Log P wave a t t e n u a t i o n Cement bond q u a l i t y 1 11/16 190 ( 3 7 5 )
S o n i c Logs V e l o c i t y o f P&S waves, Porosity, correlation, litho- 1 11/16 205 ( 4 0 0 )
a m p l i t u d e of S waves logy, p e r m e a b i l i t y mechan-
i c a l properties
Auxiliary
Tools
Caliper Hole diameters P e r m e a b i l i t y , cement volumes 1 1/4 150 ( 3 0 0 )
Dip m e t e r R e s i s t i v i t y of a t h i n Dip of t h e s u b s u r f a c e 3 518 175 (350)
s e c t i o n n e a r t h e bore- f o r m a t i ons
h o l e w a l l a t 3-4 p l a c e s
Directional Hole azimuth and Bottom h o l e l o c a t i o n 1 3/4 315 ( 6 0 0 )
Survey direction
Flow Meter F l u i d flows Flow r a t e s , s o u r c e , and 1 11/16 315 (600)
i n j e c t i o n o r t h i e f zones
F l u i d Samplers Borehole f l u i d s Water q u a l i t y 3 13/16 175 (350)
Formation Cores Porosity density, lithology, 4 3/4 270 (430)
Samplers c o r r e l a t i o n , heat conducti-
vity
Gradi omanome t e r Pressure gradient Multi-phase f l u i d flow 1 11/16 175 ( 3 5 0 )
G r a v i t y Meter Gravity d i f f e r e n t i a l D e n s i t y , p o r o s i t y , hydro- 4 150 (300)
carbons behind c a s i n g
Temperature Temperatures, a b s o l u t e & Heat flow, cement t o p s , s o u r c e 7/8 315 ( 6 0 0 )
gradient and s i n k z o n e s , f l u i d flow
behind casing

8
Temperature c o n v e r s i o n s a r e rounded t o t h e n e a r e s t f i v e d e g r e e s .

27
 Table 5
Well Parameters and Measurements from Which They are Derived

Correlation Resistivity, S.P., Gamma Ray, Induction,

Sonic, Density, Caliper, Cuttings, Cores,
Nuclear Magnetism
Permeability S.P., Resistivity, Caliper, Microlog,
Gamma Ray, Sonic, Density, Neutron
Porosity Sonic, Density, Neutron, Resistivity, Cores,
Cuttings, S.P., Gamma Ray
Lithology Neutron, Density, Sonic, Gamma Ray, S.P.,
Resistivity, Cores, Cuttings
Mechanical Properties 3-D Sonic, Density

Water Quality Resistivity, S.P., Fluid Samples

Temperature Temperature gradient, Differential
Pressure Bottom hole, Shut-in, Buildup, Decline
Flow Rates Flow Meters, Tracers, Gradiomanometer
Formation Dip Seisviewer, Dipmeter
Deviation Borehole Surveys (Azimuth, Direction)
Borehole Properties Caliper, Temperature, Seisviewer

Cement Bond Sonic Amplitude , Temperature Logs

Heat Flow Temperature Logs , Cores
Magnetic Properties Magnetic Susceptibility Log

Natural Gamma Log

Radioactivity
Thermal None
Conductivity In Situ

28
 I I I I I I
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

Relative Usage of Various Types of Well Logs.

F i g u r e 3"

* By p e r m i s s i o n of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s , D i v i s i o n o f E x t e n s i o n , A u s t i n , T e x a s .

29
T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t b l a n k .
 GEOTHERMAL WELL-LOGGING AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS

W e l l - l o g g i n g h a s d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e p a s t d e c a d e s i n t o a mature t e c h n o l o g y , p r i n c i -
p a l l y i n s u p p o r t o f , and s u p p o r t e d b y , t h e o i l i n d u s t r y . The e x i s t e n c e o f l a r g e economic
i n c e n t i v e s and k e e n c o m p e t i t i o n h a s l e d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s t r o n g programs i n r e s e a r c h
and development. These have r e s u l t e d i n a n i n d u s t r y t h a t makes i n t e n s i v e u s e o f advanced
technology t o f u r t h e r t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t i n well-logging f o r t h e o i l i n d u s t r y .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e have been a l m o s t no economic i n c e n t i v e s f o r t h e development o f

w e l l - l o g g i n g i n s u p p o r t o f g e o t h e r m a l development. The number o f g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s d r i l l e d
( a n d l o g g e d ) t o d a t e h a s been i n s i g n i f i c a n t compared t o t h e more t h a n 2 5 , 0 0 0 w e l l s d r i l l e d
for o i l and g a s p e r y e a r i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . A s a r e s u l t , i n t h o s e a r e a s where g e o t h e r m a l
w e l l - l o g g i n g and o i l w e l l - l o g g i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s d i f f e r , t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t i n g e o t h e r m a l
well-logging i s r e l a t i v e l y primitive.

The problems o f o b t a i n i n g needed i n f o r m a t i o n on g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s by l o g g i n g may b e

grouped i n t o two b r o a d areas: d a t a g a t h e r i n g and d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t
t h e s e two are somewhat i n t e r r e l a t e d . Without d a t a t h e r e can be no i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a n a l y s i s methods u s e d have a b e a r i n g on t h e measurements r e q u i r e d . Each
o f t h e s e a r e a s p r e s e n t s unique problems t h a t a r e d i s c u s s e d below.

Data G a t h e r i n g
The s i n g l e major o b s t a c l e t o d a t a g a t h e r i n g a p p e a r s t o be l a c k o f s u f f i c i e n t h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e c a p a b i l i t y . Equipment and t e c h n i q u e s f o r working a t t e m p e r a t u r e s up t o 175°C
(35OOF) a r e h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d and s u c h o p e r a t i o n s may b e d e s c r i b e d as r o u t i n e when l o g g i n g
i n f a m i l i a r f o r m a t i o n s . When w e l l t e m p e r a t u r e s e x c e e d t h i s l i m i t , a number o f problems
a r e e n c o u n t e r e d . Many of t h e t o o l s a r e n o t made i n h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e v e r s i o n s and s o t h e
v a r i e t y o f measurements t h a t may be t a k e n is l i m i t e d . Logging h o t w e l l s r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l
h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e 260°C ( 5 0 0 ° F ) r a t e d c a b l e t h a t i s more c o s t l y and n o t w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e .
Those h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e " h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t " t o o l s t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e e x i s t o n l y i n s m a l l
q u a n t i t i e s and may b e d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n on s h o r t n o t i c e . The f i e l d e n g i n e e r s and
t e c h n i c i a n s i n g e n e r a l have had l i t t l e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e equipment and
p r o c e d u r e s and s o are more p r o n e t o make e r r o r s . The equipment i t s e l f i s seldom, i f e v e r ,
t e s t e d a t i t s a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t , b e c a u s e l i f e a t t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e extreme
i s s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d . Hence, f r e q u e n t breakdowns may be e x p e c t e d . A s a r e s u l t of equipment
t i m e / t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t a t i o n s , l o g g i n g may need t o b e r u s h e d , l e a d i n g t o a d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s .

The p r e c e d i n g problems are e n c o u n t e r e d when l o g g i n g h o l e s up t o 260°C. P r e s e n t l y

no l o g g i n g equipment ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a v e r y few s p e c i a l p u r p o s e t o o l s ) e x i s t s which
h a s a c l a i m e d c a p a b i l i t y f o r u s e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s g r e a t e r t h a n 2 6 0 ° C . The method now i n u s e
f o r r e a l l y h o t h o l e s i n v o l v e s c o o l i n g t h e h o l e by c i r c u l a t i o n of c o o l e d f l u i d f o r a p e r i o d
o f t i m e b e f o r e l o g g i n g . T h i s r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l c o s t l y r i g t i m e and e n t a i l s r i s k s t o t h e
b o r e h o l e , as w e l l as masking i m p o r t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e .
 Even w i t h c o o l i n g , l o g g i n g o f t e n i n v o l v e s s a c r i f i c e o f some equipment, and o f t e n t h e r e s u l t s
.
are d i s a p p o i n t i n g

Many c o n c e r n e d w i t h g e o t h e r m a l l o g g i n g have e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e c a b l e
l i m i t a t i o n s now p r e s e n t t h e most s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e t o h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g . L i t t l e
i n c e n t i v e t o d e v e l o p h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t o o l s e x i s t s , i f c a b l e s are n o t a v a i l a b l e on which t o
run them. Well t e m p e r a t u r e s s l i g h t l y o v e r 370°C (700OF) have b e e n measured ( w i t h maximum
r e a d i n g mercury t h e r m o m e t e r s ) , which i m p l i e s an e v e n t u a l g o a l of 400°C (750'F) f o r equipment
( p e r h a p s h i g h e r t o s u p p o r t h o t d r y r o c k and magma p r o j e c t s ) . For t h e n e a r f u t u r e , a
t e m p e r a t u r e c a p a b i l i t y o f a b o u t 345°C (650'F) would be a d e q u a t e f o r most g e o t h e r m a l r e q u i r e -
ments and a p p e a r s t o b e w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of t h e a r t f o r c a b l e t e c h n o l o g y .

The major s e r v i c e companies a r e p r e s e n t l y working t o e x t e n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s of

l o g g i n g t o o l s t o 260°C (500°F) t o a l l o w l o g g i n g i n t h o s e few h o t h o l e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n o i l
and g a s w e l l s . There a p p e a r s t o b e l i t t l e , i f a n y , i n t e n t i o n t o e x t e n d c a p a b i l i t y beyond
this l i m i t . Government i n c e n t i v e s t o i n d u s t r y w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o a s s u r e n e a r term develop-
ment o f l o g g i n g t o o l s w i t h c a p a b i l i t y beyond 2 6 0 0 ~ . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h o s e companies b e s t
a b l e t o c a r r y o u t s u c h programs a r e h e s i t a n t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n government funded development,
b e c a u s e o f l a c k o f p r o t e c t i o n of p r o p r i e t a r y i n f o r m a t i o n .

C o r r o s i o n h a s a l w a y s been a problem i n t h e o i l and g a s i n d u s t r y , b u t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

normal c a u s e s o f c o r r o s i o n , g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s a l s o p r e s e n t new c o n d i t i o n s imposed by h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e and h o t g e o t h e r m a l b r i n e s . T h e g e o t h e r m a l development a t C e r r o P r i e t o i n Mexico
has e x p e r i e n c e d e x t r e m e d i f f i c u l t i e s b e c a u s e of t h e u n e x p e c t e d t y p e s o f c o r r o s i o n c a u s e d
by g e o t h e r m a l b r i n e s .

Data I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

The g e n e r a l p r o b l e m o f d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n c l u d e s a l l t h o s e f a c t o r s which are

i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e u s e o f l o g s , i n c l u d i n g s p e c i f y i n g measurements t o b e made , d e r i v i n g w e l l
p a r a m e t e r s from t h e measurements , and a p p l y i n g t h e p a r a m e t e r s t o d e r i v e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n
f o r r e s o u r c e development and u t i l i z a t i o n .

R e s e r v o i r models f i g u r e i n d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n two ways : f i r s t , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n

o f measurements t o be made i s d e t e r m i n e d by r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e v a r i o u s models, and s e c o n d ,
t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e measurements a r e used as s p e c i f i c i n p u t s t o t h e models. I n t h e petroleum
i n d u s t r y , e x p l o i t a t i o n i s g u i d e d by s u c h models, which a l l o w o p t i m i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o r .
w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t . R e s e r v o i r models are p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r geo-
t h e r m a l e x p l o i t a t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e l a r g e o n - s i t e c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e d . F o r t h e
p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y , r e s e r v o i r modeling i s h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d and t h e p a r a m e t e r s needed from
f i e l d measurements a r e w e l l d e f i n e d . Geothermal r e s e r v o i r models a r e n o t s o w e l l
d e v e l o p e d . While some of t h e same t e c h n i q u e s w i l l c e r t a i n l y a p p l y , g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r
models may r e q u i r e t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r s . Hence , modeling o f t h e
d i f f e r e n t g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r t y p e s i s needed i n o r d e r t o d e f i n e t h o s e p a r a m e t e r s t h a t
must be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h w e l l l o g g i n g f o r e f f i c i e n t r e s o u r c e development.

32
 A s e c o n d problem a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s t o do w i t h t h e u n f a m i l i a r l i t h o -
l o g i e s i n which t h e w e l l s o f t e n a r e d r i l l e d . These u n f a m i l i a r l i t h o l o g i e s p r o d u c e u n f a m i l i a r
r e s p o n s e s from t h e l o g g i n g t o o l s . T h i s d i s a d v a n t a g e shows up i n a t l e a s t two ways. F i r s t ,
b e c a u s e t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e t o o l s are d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e t h e l o g g i n g crew n o r m a l l y s e e s ,
t h e r e a r e o f t e n m a l f u n c t i o n s i n a t o o l t h a t go u n d e t e c t e d w h i l e t h e l o g g i n g r u n i s b e i n g made.
Again, t h i s i s a p r o b l e m o f i n e x p e r i e n c e , b e c a u s e m a l f u n c t i o n s t h a t o c c u r i n t h e l o g g i n g o f
o i l or g a s w e l l s are o f t e n i m m e d i a t e l y d e t e c t e d when t h e l o g g i n g crew r e c o g n i z e s a p e c u l i a r
t o o l r e s p o n s e . The s e c o n d p r o b l e m imposed by t h e u n f a m i l i a r l i t h o l o g i e s i s t h a t i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n of t h e l o g s a f t e r t h e y are r u n i s s u p p o r t e d n e i t h e r by t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h o s e
who a r e d o i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n o r by w e l l - d e v e l o p e d t h e o r e t i c a l models of t o o l r e s p o n s e s .
T e m p e r a t u r e c a n p l a y a p a r t here a l s o i n t h a t t h e f o r m a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s t h e m s e l v e s a r e some-
t i m e s a f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e , o f t e n a f f e c t i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n model.

Because s o l i t t l e l o g g i n g and c o r i n g h a s b e e n done i n g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s , v e r y l i t t l e

i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e t o a l l o w c o r r e l a t i o n o f l o g s w i t h s u b s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The
development o f e f f e c t i v e l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s w i l l r e q u i r e t h a t an e x t e n s i v e
program of c o r i n g and logging be undertaken so t h a t f u t u r e geothermal w e l l l o g s can b e
understood.

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 T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t b l a n k .

34
 CONCLUSIONS

The f o l l o w i n g are m a j o r c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y :

1. Geothermal measurement r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e n o t w e l l d e f i n e d d u e t o l a c k of
r e s e r v o i r models and t o l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n problems i n u n f a m i l i a r f o r m a t i o n s .

2. Logging problems d i f f e r w i t h g e o t h e r m a l w e l l t y p e .

3. A t t e m p t s t o l o g g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s t o d a t e o f t e n have m e t w i t h m a r g i n a l
success.

4. Geothermal w e l l s u s u a l l y e x h i b i t t e m p e r a t u r e s h i g h e r t h a n n o r m a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d
(-175°C/3500F) i n o i l and g a s w e l l s .

5. Maximum c l a i m e d t e m p e r a t u r e c a p a b i l i t y o f w e l l - l o g g i n g equipment i s
p r e s e n t l y a b o u t 2 6 O O C ( 5 0 0 ° F ) . Many g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s a r e h o t t e r t h a n t h a t .

6. S p e c i a l c o r r o s i o n problems may b e e n c o u n t e r e d i n g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s
r e s u l t i n g from h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e v a r i e d n a t u r e s o f g e o t h e r m a l f l u i d s .

7. L a r g e - s c a l e g e o t h e r m a l w e l l - l o g g i n g , s u c h as i s i m p l i e d by P r o j e c t
I n d e p e n d e n c e g o a l s , s h o u l d b e done by p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y .

8. T h e r e i s i n s u f f i c i e n t economic i n c e n t i v e a t p r e s e n t f o r p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y
t o provide adequate geothermal logging c a p a b i l i t y .

9. Government s u p p o r t o f g e o t h e r m a l w e l l - l o g g i n g t e c h n o l o g y w i l l be r e q u i r e d
t o m e e t t h e goals for g e o t h e r m a l r e s o u r c e development c o n t a i n e d i n t h e
P r o j e c t I n d e p e n d e n c e r e p o r t . T h i s s u p p o r t c a n buy l e a d t i m e f o r t h e
p r o c e s s o f e v e n t u a l i n d u s t r i a l development, as w e l l as promote a d v a n c e s
i n near-term logging c a p a b i l i t y .

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 T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t b l a n k .

36
 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on t h e p r e c e d i n g c o n c l u s i o n s , recommendations f o r s p e c i f i c government a c t i o n s

a r e g i v e n below. These recommendations f a l l i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : g e o s c i e n c e s ,
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , and f i e l d s u p p o r t .

Geosciences
Survey e x i s t i n g g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r modeling e f f o r t s and e x t e n d as needed.

Develop l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n models and t e c h n i q u e s f o r g e o t h e r m a l f o r m a t i o n s .

E s t a b l i s h o r s u p p o r t a d a t a bank t h a t w i l l
a) Fund c o l l e c t i o n of d a t a ( l o g s and s a m p l e s ) , and
b) C a t a l o g , s t o r e , and d i s s e m i n a t e t h e s e t o i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s .

S e l e c t w e l l s t o b e I.ogged/sampled and d e f i n e t h e measurement programs.

D e f i n e p r i o r i t y o f need f o r w e l l p a r a m e t e r i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e measurements

t o d e t e r m i n e them.

Instrumentation
Survey e x i s t i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e components and m a t e r i a l s .

Fund development of p r o m i s i n g new h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t e c h n o l o g i e s .

Develop t o o l i n s u l a t i o n a n d / o r c o o l i n g t e c h n i q u e s .

0 Develop s p e c i f i c h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t o o l s once need i s e s t a b l i s h e d .

Develop t e c h n o l o g i e s l e a d i n g t o s o n d e s , c a b l e s and c o n n e c t o r s u s a b l e a t
>345"C (650'F).

Investigate alternative data link technologies.

0 Obtain use of a laboratory test f a c i l i t y ( s ) .

0 Develop as n e c e s s a r y improved h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e c o r i n g and s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e s .

F i e l d Support
Arrange f o r c o l l e c t i o n of w e l l c o r e s and s a m p l e s .

0 C o n t r a c t f o r l o g g i n g s e r v i c e s i n s p e c i f i c cases of i n t e r e s t .

0 Obtain use of a f i e l d t e s t f a c i l i t y ( s ) (e.g., a hot borehole).

37
 E s s e n t i a l t o c o m p l e t i n g t h e t a s k s o u t l i n e d above i s a management framework w i t h i n which
two b a s i c f u n c t i o n s o c c u r : d i r e c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l a c t i v i t i e s , and c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s i m i l a r
a c t i v i t i e s b e i n g c a r r i e d on i n i n d u s t r y and by g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s . It would b e h i g h l y
d e s i r a b l e t o s e l e c t a s i n g l e g r o u p , r e p o r t i n g t o ERDA, t h a t would have o v e r a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r g e o t h e r m a l l o g g i n g development. T h i s would a s s u r e t h e most e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f
r e s o u r c e s and t i m e l y development o f t h e r e q u i r e d t e c h n o l o g y . Program d i r e c t i o n c o u l d be
a c c o m p l i s h e d a t ERDA H e a d q u a r t e r s i f s t a f f i n g p e r m i t s , o r c o u l d b e delegated t o one of t h e
Energy R e s e a r c h C e n t e r s ( E R C ' s ) o r some o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n .

Three major a c t i v i t i e s would b e conducted u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e management group

and a lead l a b o r a t o r y f o r e a c h a c t i v i t y s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d . The t h r e e areas o f i n t e r e s t
are 1) g e o s c i e n c e s t u d i e s t o a i d p a r a m e t e r s e l e c t i o n , l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and modeling;
2 ) development o f i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f o r d a t a g a t h e r i n g ; and 3 ) f i e l d s u p p o r t a c t i v i t i e s . As
d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s are m u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t . However, t h e d i s c i p l i n e s
r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y and a d i v i s i o n of a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
a g e o s c i e n c e l a b , a n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n l a b , and a f i e l d s e r v i c e s group would b e a p p r o p r i a t e .

It i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t some o f t h e n e c e s s a r y a c t i v i t y i n e a c h area i s a l r e a d y underway,

b u t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a management team t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e s e e f f o r t s and i n i t i a t e t a s k s t h a t
are n o t y e t b e i n g done w o u l d b e m o s t d e s i r a b l e . The t e c h n i c a l a c t i v i t y i n each area w o u l d
b e c o n d u c t e d by c o n t r a c t s w i t h i n d u s t r y , u n i v e r s i t i e s , government l a b o r a t o r i e s , o r t h r o u g h
i n house e f f o r t s as a p p r o p r i a t e . The t a s k s t h a t s h o u l d b e i n i t i a t e d i n FY76 are summarized
at the conclusion of t h i s section.

The p r o j e c t management g r o u p , w h e t h e r a t ERDA, a n ERC, o r elsewhere would s e l e c t t h e

l e a d l a b o r a t o r y f o r e a c h of t h e t h r e e m a j o r areas o f a c t i v i t y . The p r i m a r y p r o j e c t
management tasks would b e t o o r g a n i z e and manage t h e t o t a l g e o t h e r m a l l o g g i n g development
program, and t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e o v e r a l l government e f f o r t w i t h i n d u s t r i a l and academic
programs.

The g e o s c i e n c e l a b would b e r e s p o n s i b l e for c o o r d i n a t i n g e x i s t i n g r e s e r v o i r modeling

e f f o r t s , i d e n t i f y i n g and c o n d u c t i n g a d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s a s r e q u i r e d , e s t a b l i s h i n g p r i o r i t i e s
o f tasks and c o n t r a c t i n g f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e d work. A s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n would b e performed
with respect t o log interpretation studies.

To assist i n t h e s e s t u d i e s , t h e l a b would b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w e l l i n f o r m a t i o n . These

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s would i n c l u d e t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n , c a t a l o g i n g , a n a l y s i s , and s t o r i n g of l o g s ,
c o r e s and samples. The g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ERDA d e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t s s h o u l d
b e among t h o s e u t i l i z e d i n s u c h a n o v e r a l l p l a n . T h i s l a b would b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o i d e n t i f y
t h o s e p a r a m e t e r s most u r g e n t l y needed f o r g e o t h e r m a l r e s o u r c e e v a l u a t i o n and t h e measure-
ments r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a r a m e t e r s . S p e c i f i c a s s i g n m e n t s a r e as i n d i c a t e d above
under Geosciences.

The i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n l a b would b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s s e s s i n g e x i s t i n g l o g g i n g equipment

c a p a b i l i t i e s and e x t e n d i n g t h e s e c a p a b i l i t i e s as needed by s p o n s o r i n g t h e development of
h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e g e o t h e r m a l o r i e n t e d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n hardware and t e c h n i q u e s . T h i s w i l l
r e q u i r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e m a t e r i a l s and components and d e v e l o p -
ment of new h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t e c h n o l o g i e s as n e c e s s a r y . These would be a p p l i e d as a v a i l a b l e
i n t h e development of h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e equipment needed i n t h e f i e l d . Primary t a s k s are t h o s e
i n d i c a t e d above u n d e r I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .

38
 The f i e l d s u p p o r t group would p r o v i d e a c a p a b i l i t y t o c o l l e c t needed w e l l l o g s and
s a m p l e s , and t o p r o v i d e f i e l d t e s t i n g of new w e l l l o g g i n g and sampling equipment. Primary
a s s i g n m e n t s would i n c l u d e t h e t a s k s l i s t e d above u n d e r F i e l d S u p p o r t .

F i g u r e 4 p r e s e n t s a s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e p r o p o s e d management s t r u c t u r e .

GEOSCIENCES

SPECIFICATION OF WELLS REQUIREMENTS FOR:

AND PROGRAMS FOR MEASUREMENTS AND ~NFORMAT~ON
LOGS, CORES, LOGGING, CORING, AND ERDA/ ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNING
& SAMPLES PROJECT MEASUREMENT
MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES CAPABILITIES

TEST RESULTS AND

FIELD FIELDING EXEWENCE INFORMATION INSTRUMENTATION
SERVICES DEVELOPMENT
TEST REQUIREMENTS &
EQUIPMENT FOR EVALUATION

PROPOSED ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE:

GEOTHERMAL WELL-LOGGING DEVELOPMENT
Figure 4

Recommended FY76 A c t i v i t i e s
Of t h e recommendations l i s t e d above, t h o s e t h a t are most u r g e n t and s h o u l d be
i n i t i a t e d i n t h e coming f i s c a l y e a r are d i s c u s s e d below.

P r o j e c t Management
1. Conduct a g e o t h e r m a l l o g g i n g workshop. The h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t o o l s which a r e most
needed s h o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d and g i v e n p r i o r i t y . Disagreement and u n c e r t a i n t y
h a v e b e e n found t o e x i s t among t h e v a r i o u s g e o t h e r m a l d e v e l o p e r s as t o what t h i s
p r i o r i t y s h o u l d b e . A v a l u a b l e f i r s t s t e p i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s p r i o r i t y would
b e a workshop w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n by i n d u s t r y , u n i v e r s i t i e s , and government
w o r k e r s i n t h e s e f i e l d s . The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h e workshop w i l l b e t o f o s t e r
d i s c u s s i o n of t h e needed measurements program and e s t a b l i s h a c o n s e n s u s on
p r i o r i t i e s f o r sonde development.

2. S e l e c t g r o u p s t o manage t h e g e o s c i e n c e , i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , and f i e l d s u p p o r t f u n c t i o n s .

39
 Geoscience
1. Organize a c o o r d i n a t e d program o f g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r modeling. The USGS i n
Menlo P a r k c u r r e n t l y has underway a g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r modeling s t u d y
t h a t c o u l d s e r v e as a n u c l e u s f o r e x t e n s i o n t o v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r t y p e s .

2. Promote t h e development o f g e o t h e r m a l l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . T h i s i s a
major problem i n g e o t h e r m a l l o g g i n g . The USGS i n Denver h a s a n a c t i v e program
i n g e o t h e r m a l l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a n a l y s i s which c o u l d s e r v e as a b a s i s f o r
a d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s t o e x t e n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o v a r i o u s f o r m a t i o n t y p e s . Such
s t u d i e s s h o u l d i n c l u d e government s u p p o r t o f c o r i n g , s a m p l i n g , and l a b a n a l y s i s
f o r comparison w i t h w e l l l o g s from d i f f e r e n t g e o t h e r m a l s i t e s . T h i s w i l l
r e q u i r e , i n some c a s e s , development of c h e a p e r and more r e l i a b l e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e
c o r i n g and f l u i d s a m p l i n g d e v i c e s and t e c h n i q u e s .

I n s t rumen t a t i on
1. I n i t i a t e p r o c u r e m e n t of h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , m u l t i - c o n d u c t o r l o g g i n g c a b l e .
A h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g c a b l e i s b a s i c t o t h e needs of geothermal logging.
T h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t one or more companies may be i n a p o s i t i o n t o
p r o d u c e a 315°C t o 345°C (600OF t o 650°F) m u l t i - c o n d u c t o r l o g g i n g c a b l e . RFP's
s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d and s e n t t o I n d u s t r y . Samples o f t h e s e c a b l e s s h o u l d b e
p u r c h a s e d , e v a l u a t e d , and t h e r e s u l t s made a v a i l a b l e t o p o t e n t i a l users.

2. I n i t i a t e development and e v a l u a t i o n o f h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e m a t e r i a l s , components,

and s u b a s s e m b l i e s f o r g e o t h e r m a l s o n d e s . High t e m p e r a t u r e materials and
components w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r t h e development of h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g t o o l s .
RFP's s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d and s e n t t o t h e e l e c t r o n i c s i n d u s t r y . P r o m i s i n g
a p p r o a c h e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e RFP's s h o u l d be f u n d e d .

3. Conduct a s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t a s s e s s m e n t o f h o t h o l e c o r i n g and f l u i d s a m p l i n g
t e c h n i q u e s . The a c q u i s i t i o n o f c o r e s and i n s i t u f l u i d samples i s e s s e n t i a l
t o t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . Improved t e c h n i q u e s
s h o u l d b e i d e n t i f i e d by RFP's t r a n s m i t t e d t o i n d u s t r y . Development of s e l e c t e d
t e c h n i q u e s s h o u l d be s u p p o r t e d .

4. Acquire t h e u s e o f a h i g h p r e s s u r e , h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t f a c i l i t y .
The s u c c e s s f u l development o f e x t e n d e d r a n g e s y s t e m s and components r e q u i r e s
e n v i r o n m e n t a l t e s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s t h a t are c a p a b l e of s i m u l a t i n g t h e extreme
e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t t h e equipment must s u r v i v e . To o u r knowledge t h e r e a r e no
f a c i l i t i e s i n e x i s t e n c e a t t h i s t i m e t h a t can p r o v i d e t h e combined r a n g e o f
t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and c o r r o s i v e atmosphere e x p e c t e d i n g e o t h e r m a l w e l l
b o r e s , a l t h o u g h two t h a t a p p r o a c h t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e i n development. These
two are t h e Reed/Terra Tek D r i l l i n g R e s e a r c h Lab i n S a l t Lake C i t y , Utah,
and S a n d i a L a b o r a t o r i e s S p a r k D r i l l i n g T e s t Chamber i n Albuquerque, New Mexico.

F i e l d Support
1. I n i t i a t e a program t o p r o v i d e r e s e a r c h f i e l d l o g g i n g s e r v i c e s on s e l e c t e d
g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s . The USGS, Denver, h a s two l o g g i n g t r u c k s t h a t may be u s e d
f o r i n i t i a l d a t a g a t h e r i n g . I n t h e l o n g e r term, an expanded c a p a b i l i t y w i l l

40
T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t blank.
 b e r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t g e o t h e r m a l development. Eventually, the petroleum industry
s e r v i c e companies w i l l assume t h i s r o l e , b u t i n t h e i n t e r i m , a n expanded c a p a b i l i t y ,
o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t h e c o l l e c t i o n of r e s e a r c h d a t a , s h o u l d b e encouraged.

2. I n i t i a t e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h s e r v i c e companies f o r g e o t h e r m a l f i e l d s u p p o r t . The
n e a r t e r m ( o n e t o two y e a r ) c a p a b i l i t y t o l o g g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s w i l l depend on t h e
commercial s e r v i c e Companies and t h e small, b a s i c a l l y r e s e a r c h o r i e n t e d , c a p a b i l i t y
o f t h e USGS i n Denver. Government f u n d i n g s h o u l d b e u s e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e commercial
c a p a b i l i t y and t o p r o v i d e e x p e r i e n c e i n h o t w e l l - l o g g i n g t o encourage improvement
i n equipment and t e c h n i q u e s .

3. Acquire t h e use o f a h i g h temperature f i e l d t e s t f a c i l i t y . A t e s t f a c i l i t y i s

r e q u i r e d f o r r e a l i s t i c t e s t i n g o f equipment i n a c t u a l f o r m a t i o n s u n d e r f i e l d
c o n d i t i o n s . Such a f a c i l i t y might b e an a l r e a d y - d r i l l e d - h o t b o r e h o l e , i f
s u f f i c i e n t c o r e s and samples were t a k e n d u r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g .

41
 Appendix A
I N D I V I D U A L TOOL DESCRIPTIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Logging Cost C a l c u l a t i o n s for t h i s Appendix 45

Tools
E l e c t r i c a l Tools 47
I n d u c t i o n C a s i n g - T h i c k n e s s Log 47
I n d u c t i o n Log 47
Microlaterolog 48
M i c r o l o g - M i c r o c a l i p e r Log 49
Microwave Log 50
N u c l e a r Magnetism Log 50
Pulsed-Radar Log 51
R e s i s t i v i t y , Focused-Current ( L a t e r o l o g and 51
G u a r d - E l e c t r o d e Logs )
R e s i s t i v i t y Log, Lateral 51
R e s i s t i v i t y Log, Normal 52
Spontaneous P o t e n t i a l (SP) 53

R a d i o a c t i v i t y Tools 55

Gamma-Gamma D e n s i t y Log 55
Gama Log 55
N e u t r o n A c t i v a t i o n Log 56
N e u t r o n C a p t u r e C r o s s - S e c t i o n Log 56
Neutron/Carbon Log 57
N e u t r o n Log 57
R a d i o a c t i v e T r a c e r Logs 58

Acoustical Tools 59

Borehole Televiewer 59
Cement Bond Log 59
Seiscaliper 60
S o n i c Log 60

Auxiliary Tools 63

C a l i p e r Logs 63
Dipmeter Log 63
D i r e c t i o n a l Survey
64
D r i l l i n g Time Log
64
D r i l l Stem T e s t T o o l s 65

43
 Appendix A ( C o n t i n u e d )
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Page

Flow Meters 65
F l u i d Samplers 65
Formation Samplers (Sidewall Coring) 66
Gradiomanometer 66
G r a v i t y Meter, Downhole 67
Magnetic S u s c e p t i b i l i t y Log 67
T e m p e r a t u r e Log 67

44
 L O G G I N G COST CALCULATIONS FOR THIS APPENDIX

C o s t s shown a r e i n t e n d e d t o g i v e r e l a t i v e c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n . Except as n o t e d , c o s t s a r e
b a s e d on S c h l u m b e r g e r ' s September 22, 1 9 7 4 , C a l i f o r n i a - l a n d s c h e d u l e for l o g g i n g t h e b o t t o m
2000 f e e t of a 5000-foot h o l e o f which t h e f i r s t 3000 f e e t have a l r e a d y been l o g g e d .
S e r v i c e or m i l e a g e c h a r g e s a r e n o t i n c l u d e d . A d d i t i o n a l c o s t s are i n c u r r e d f o r h o l e s
d e e p e r t h a n 15,000 f e e t , and f o r bottom-hole t e m p e r a t u r e s which e x c e e d 325°F. Some t y p i c a l
a d d i t i o n a l c h a r g e s f o r h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e b o r e h o l e s a r e shown below.

H I G H TEMPERATURE A d d i t i o n a l c h a r g e s a r e a p p l i e d on o p e r a t i o n s performed i n w e l l s h a v i n g
CHARGES bottom-hole t e m p e r a t u r e s i n e x c e s s o f 325°F a s measured or e s t i m a t e d
by Customer p r i o r t o j o b . The f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l c h a r g e s are
a p p l i e d on e a c h t r i p i n t o t h e w e l l f o r a l l s e r v i c e s e x c e p t p e r f o r a t i n g ,
p l u g s e t t i n g , p a c k e r s e t t i n g , and customer i n s t r u m e n t s e r v i c e s .
Depth 325" t o 400" t o 450" t o
(feet) 400°F 450°F 5000~

0-15,000 $ 350 $ 600 $ 990

15-20,000 510 750 1,210
24-25,000 1,210 1,600 2 310
29-30,000 2,170 2,700 3,690

45
T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t b l a n k .
 E l e c t r i c a l Logging T o o l s

TOOL : INDUCTION CASING-THICKNESS LOG

P a r a m e t e r : Measures t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l c a s i n g t h i c k n e s s w i t h r e s p e c t t o normal c a s i n g
thickness.
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : T h i s t o o l i s a s p e c i a l i z e d v a r i a t i o n o f t h e i n d u c t i o n t o o l . Whereas
t h e i n d u c t i o n t o o l i s d e s i g n e d t o measure t h e r e s i s t i v i t y i n t h e f o r m a t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g
t h e b o r e h o l e , t h e c a s i n g t h i c k n e s s t o o l i s d e s i g n e d t o be r u n i n c a s i n g , and i t t h e r e -
f o r e measures r e s i s t i v i t i e s i n t h e c a s i n g . T h i s t o o l h a s a t r a n s m i t t i n g c o i l which
g e n e r a t e s an a l t e r n a t i n g magnetic f i e l d which i n d u c e s eddy c u r r e n t s i n t h e c a s i n g
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e t o o l . These eddy c u r r e n t s i n t u r n g e n e r a t e a m a g n e t i c f i e l d which i s
s e n s e d by a r e c e i v e r c o i l . The p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c u r r e n t e x c i t i n g t h e t r a n s -
m i t t e r c o i l and t h e c u r r e n t i n d u c e d i n t h e r e c e i v e r c o i l i s a measure o f t h e t h i c k n e s s
of t h e casing.
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : S i n c e t h i s t o o l measures r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c a s i n g t h i c k -
n e s s , i t i s t h e r e l a t i v e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e e x c i t i n g c u r r e n t and t h e
r e c e i v e d c u r r e n t which a r e r e c o r d e d . R e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c a s i n g t h i c k n e s s of a
few t h o u s a n d t h s of an i n c h can be d e t e r m i n e d .
Logging Rate: 50 f t / m i n
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : The c a s i n g may be f i l l e d w i t h any f l u i d , or empty. Minimum c a s i n g
d i a m e t e r i s 44 i n c h e s .
Volume Investigated: A few c u b i c i n c h h s o f t h e c a s i n g .

Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 145'C (285'F)

Maximum P r e s s u r e : 10,000 p s i
Minimum Tool Diameter: 3% i n c h e s
Cost: $1,040

TOOL : INDUCTION LOG

Used With: Most l o g s .
Parameters : P o r o s i t y , water s a t u r a t i o n , b o u n d a r i e s of b e d s .
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : A t r a n s m i t t e r c o i l i n one end of t h e sonde i s d r i v e n w i t h an a l t e r -
n a t i n g c u r r e n t s o t h a t a n a l t e r n a t i n g m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s s e t up i n t h e r o c k f o r m a t i o n
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b o r e h o l e . T h i s m a g n e t i c f i e l d i n d u c e s eddy c u r r e n t s which f l o w i n t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g f o r m a t i o n . These eddy c u r r e n t s i n t h e i r t u r n s e t up a m a g n e t i c f i e l d which
i s s e n s e d by one or more r e c e i v e r c o i l s i n t h e end o f t h e sonde o p p o s i t e t o t h e end w i t h
t h e t r a n s m i t t e r c o i l . The magnitude o f t h e eddy c u r r e n t s and t h e i r r e s u l t i n g m a g n e t i c

47
 f i e l d depends on t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e f o r m a t i o n , s o t h a t t h e r e s i s t i v i t y c a n b e
c a l c u l a t e d from t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d which i s measured by t h e s e n s i n g c o i l s .
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : A s w i t h o t h e r e l e c t r i c l o g g i n g , t h e r e are w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d
e q u a t i o n s which r e l a t e p o r o s i t y and water s a t u r a t i o n t o t h e r e s i s t i v i t i e s measured
i n t h e f o r m a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e b o r e h o l e . However, t h e i n d u c t i o n l o g has t h e a d v a n t a g e
o v e r o t h e r e l e c t r i c l o g s t h a t if t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e t r u e u n d i s t u r b e d f o r m a t i o n i s
l e s s t h a n t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e zone n e a r t h e b o r e h o l e which h a s b e e n i n v a d e d by mud
f i l t r a t e , t h e n t h e r e s i s t i v i t y which i s measured i s t h a t of t h e t r u e u n d i s t u r b e d
formation.

The measured d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s i s t i v i t y f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of r o c k s a l l o w t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r i e s between b e d s .
Logging R a t e : 100 ft/min

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Any f l u i d or no f l u i d i n an uncased h o l e . Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r

is four inches.

Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : The i n d u c t i o n l o g i n v e s t i g a t e s a f a i r l y d e e p volume, r o u g h l y e q u a l

i n d i a m e t e r t o t h e d i s t a n c e between t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r c o i l s . Thus w i t h t h e
t y p i c a l 4 0 i n c h s p a c i n g , t h e volume i n v e s t i g a t e d w i l l be on t h e o r d e r o f 1 0 0 c u b i c
feet.
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 26OOC (500'F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 2 3/4 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,080 ( i n c l u d e s s h o r t normal and S P ) .

Comments: T h i s i s one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t and commonly u s e d l o g s .

TOOL: MICROMTEROLOG
Used With: Most l o g s
Parameters: R e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e zone n e x t t o t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l which h a s b e e n f l u s h e d by
t h e encroachment o f mud f i l t r a t e , and d e f i n i t i o n o f t h i n b e d s .
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : A s w i t h a l l m i c r o d e v i c e s , t h e volume i n v e s t i g a t e d by t h i s d e v i c e
i s q u i t e small. A s w i t h r e g u l a r l a t e r o l o g s , t h e c u r r e n t e m i t t e d from t h e m e a s u r i n g
e l e c t r o d e i s c o n f i n e d by c u r r e n t s b e i n g e m i t t e d from f o c u s i n g e l e c t r o d e s n e a r t h e
m e a s u r i n g e l e c t r o d e . I n t h e m i c r o l a t e r o l o g , t h e m e a s u r i n g and f o c u s i n g e l e c t r o d e s
are c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s . The f o r c i n g o f t h e measurement c u r r e n t i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n
from t h e e l e c t r o d e s which are mounted on a p a d which i s h e l d a g a i n s t t h e b o r e h o l e
w a l l m i n i m i z e s t h e e f f e c t s of t h e mud c a k e .
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : S i n c e t h e c u r r e n t f l o w s p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y a c r o s s t h e mud c a k e ,
and s i n c e t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n i s u s u a l l y much g r e a t e r t h a n t h e r e s i s -
t i v i t y o f t h e mud c a k e , t h e mud c a k e h a s v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e measured
resistivity. For mud c a k e s o f t h i c k n e s s l e s s t h a n 3/8 i n c h e s , no c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e
measurement i s n e c e s s a r y . For mud c a k e s g r e a t e r t h a n 3/8 i n c h e s , c o r r e c t i o n c h a r t s
are a v a i l a b l e . The t h i c k n e s s of t h e mud c a k e i s f o u n d from t h e c a l i p e r which i s
p a r t o f t h i s t o o l . T h i s c a l i p e r i s implemented by m e a s u r i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between
t h e measurement p a d a n d t h e backup p a d which t o g e t h e r expand t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e

48
 measurement pad i s p r e s s e d f i r m l y a g a i n s t t h e b o r e h o l e wall.

S i n c e t h e c u r r e n t beam i s s o small (about 2 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r ) , t h e r e s o l u t i o n

of t h i s d e v i c e i s such t h a t very t h i n beds can b e d e f i n e d .
Logging Rate: 50 f t / m i n
B o r e h o l e R e s t r i c t i o n s : Conductive muds are r e q u i r e d , and t h e r e must n o t have been s i g n i f i -
c a n t c a v i n g of t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l . Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r i s 6 1 1 8 i n c h e s .

Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Quite small, a f e w cubic inches

Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 175 C (350 F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : l5,OOO p s i
Minimum T o o l D i a m e t e r : 3 5/8 i n c h e s
cost: $910

TOOL: M I CROLOG-MI CROCALIPER LOG

Used W i t h : Most l o g s
Parameters: D e f i n i t i o n o f p o r o u s and permeable b e d s , h o l e d i a m e t e r .
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : Logging d e v i c e s h a v i n g names which c a r r y t h e p r e f i x "micro" a r e
i n t e n d e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e v e r y small volumes, and t h e r e f o r e t h e i r e l e c t r o d e s a r e
c a r r i e d on a pad which i s p r e s s e d a g a i n s t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l , w i t h t h e e l e c t r o d e s b e i n g
mounted v e r y c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r . To i n s u r e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w a l l , a s e c o n d pad p u s h e s
a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l . R e c o r d i n g o f t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e
two p a d s g i v e s t h e c a l i p e r measurement. The m i c r o l o g d e v i c e i s a c t u a l l y a " l a t e r a l "
d e v i c e ; i . e . , a d e v i c e which u s e s two e l e c t r o d e s t o measure t h e g r a d i e n t o f a
f i e l d s e t up between two a c t i v e e l e c t r o d e s . The two a c t i v e e l e c t r o d e s s e t up t h e
f i e l d between one e l e c t r o d e on t h e s u r f a c e and t h e o t h e r c a r r i e d on t h e p a d w i t h t h e
two m e a s u r i n g e l e c t r o d e s . Two measurements a r e a c t u a l l y made w i t h t h e m i c r o l o g --
one i s t h e l a t e r a l f i e l d g r a d i e n t measurement, and t h e o t h e r i s a "normal" measurement,
w h i c h measures t h e p o t e n t i a l between one o f t h e t w o m e a s u r i n g e l e c t r o d e s on t h e p a d
and y e t a n o t h e r m e a s u r i n g e l e c t r o d e on t h e s u r f a c e .
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : C l e a r l y , t h e volume of i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s much g r e a t e r f o r t h e
normal measurement t h a n t h e volume f o r t h e l a t e r a l measurement. The normal measure-
ment t e n d s t o measure t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e zone n e a r t h e b o r e h o l e which h a s been
f l u s h e d by t h e mud f i l t r a t e i f t h e f o r m a t i o n i s p e r m e a b l e and p o r o u s enough t o a l l o w
s u c h f l u s h i n g , whereas t h e l a t e r a l measurement i n v e s t i g a t e s a r e g i o n which i s s o s m a l l
t h a t i t measures m o s t l y o n l y t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e mud c a k e on t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l . S i n c e
t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e f l u s h e d zone is u s u a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e mud
c a k e , porous and permeable z o n e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i g h e r r e s i s t a n c e measured by
t h e normal d e v i c e t h a n by t h e l a t e r a l d e v i c e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e s i s t i v i t y r e a d i n g s
a r e low, n o t more t h a n 2 0 t i m e s t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e mud, and t h e c a l i p e r shows any
mud cake b u i l d u p ( w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r b e i n g s m a l l e r t h a n t h e b i t s i z e ) .
Logging R a t e : 50 ft/min

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Conductive muds a r e r e q u i r e d , and t h e m i c r o l o g d o e s noi; work w e l l i f

t h e r e h a s been s i g n i f i c a n t c a v i n g of t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l s , b e c a u s e t h e n t h e p a d s a r e n o t
a p p l i e d f i r m l y t o t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l . Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r i s 6 118 i n c h e s .

49
 Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Very s m a l l , a f e w c u b i c i n c h e s
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 175°C (350'F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 15,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 3 5/8 i n c h e s

cost: $910

TOOL: MICROWAVE LOG

Parameters : Unidentified
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : Microwaves are g e n e r a t e d a t one o r more t r a n s m i t t e r s i n t h e s o n d e ,
p r o p a g a t e t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b o r e h o l e , a n d a r e s e n s e d a t one o r
more r e c e i v e r s on t h e s o n d e .
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : The r e c e i v e r s i g n a l s a r e t r a n s l a t e d down i n f r e q u e n c y t o
submicrowave s i g n a l s , and t h e i r p h a s e s are compared.
Comments: This t o o l h a s been p a t e n t e d , b u t i t s use i n t h e f i e l d i s u n c e r t a i n .

TOOL: NUCLEAR MAGilETISM LOG

Used With: Caliper log
Parameters: Effective porosity, correlation (permeability?).
P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n : Of t h e e l e m e n t s commonly e n c o u n t e r e d i n l o g g i n g , h y d r o g e n i s t h e
o n l y one which h a s a n u c l e a r m a g n e t i c moment s u f f i c i e n t t o r e s p o n d t o t h i s l o g . With
no m a g n e t i c f i e l d p r e s e n t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l m a g n e t i c moments w i l l b e randomly o r i e n t e d
due t o t h e r m a l m o t i o n . I f a s t r o n g e x t e r n a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d ( a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e
e a r t h ' s f i e l d ) i s a p p l i e d , t h e s e moments w i l l t e n d t o a l i g n w i t h t h e f i e l d o v e r a
p e r i o d o f t i m e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e t h e r m a l r e l a x a t i o n t i m e . When t h e f i e l d i s removed,
t h e moments w i l l a t t e m p t t o a l i g n w i t h t h e e a r t h ' s f i e l d , b u t , b e c a u s e o f s p i n and
g y r o s c o p i c e f f e c t , w i l l p r e c e s s . T h i s c a u s e s a r o t a t i n g p o l a r i z a t i o n which c a n b e
d e t e c t e d w i t h a s u i t a b l y p l a c e d c o i l . Because o n l y t h e h y d r o g e n i n a f r e e f l u i d c a n
r e s p o n d , t h e a m p l i t u d e of t h i s s i g n a l w i l l be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e number o f hydrogen
atoms i n f r e e f l u i d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . If s e v e r a l measurements are t a k e n w i t h
d i f f e r e n t p o l a r i z i n g t i m e s , t h e t h e r m a l r e l a x a t i o n t i m e may be c a l c u l a t e d .

P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Because o n l y h y d r o g e n i n f r e e f l u i d ( i . e , , n o t bound by s u r f a c e
t e n s i o n o r as water of h y d r a t i o n ) r e s p o n d s , p o r o s i t y d e r i v e d from t h i s l o g w i l l b e e f f e c -
t i v e p o r o s i t y . O i l a n d water h a v e d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e e f f e c t s , and t h e b u l k f l u i d s have
d i f f e r e n t thermal r e l a x a t i o n t i m e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s measurement may b e u s e d t o
d i s t i n g u i s h o i l and water.

Logging Rate: 1 2 0 f t / m i n f o r f r e e f l u i d l o g . Much s l o w e r f o r t h e r m a l r e l a x a t i o n (must s t o p

at each p o i n t logged).
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Any f l u i d o r d r y , u n c a s e d , 254 i n c h e s d i a m e t e r

Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 175°C ( 350°F)

Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 4% i n c h e s
Comments: Cannot be u s e d i n h i g h l y m a g n e t i c f o r m a t i o n s .
TOOL: PULSED-RADAR LOG
Parameters : S a l t dome/sediment i n t e r f a c e
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : The s a l t - s e d i m e n t i n t e r f a c e p r o v i d e s a r e f l e c t i v e s u r f a c e f o r
i m p i n g i n g microwaves.
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : A s w i t h any r a d a r s y s t e m , t h e r e f l e c t e d waves a r e a n a l y z e d f o r
t i m e d e l a y and a m p l i t u d e t o d e f i n e t h o s e o b j e c t s which a r e r e f l e c t i n g t h e i m p i n g i n g
radar signal.
Comments: T h i s s y s t e m i s e x p e r i m e n t a l , and has n o t had wide f i e l d u s e .

TOOL: RESISTIVITY, FOCUSED-CURRENT (LATEROLOG AND GUARD-ELECTRODE LOG)

Used With: Most l o g s
Parameters: L i t h o l o g y ( d e f i n i t i o n of b e d s a n d c o r r e l a t i o n ) and t h e t r u e r e s i s t i v i t y of
t h e undisturbed formation.
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : Both t h e l a t e r o l o g and t h e g u a r d - e l e c t r o d e d e v i c e s are d e s i g n e d t o
f o r c e t h e m e a s u r i n g c u r r e n t t o f l o w r a d i a l l y o u t from t h e b o r e h o l e i n a t h i n s h e e t ,
t h u s c o n f i n i n g t h e measurement t o a t h i n s e c t i o n of t h e s u b s u r f a c e f o r m a t i o n s , and
l e s s e n i n g t h e e f f e c t of t h e mud column. The p r i n c i p l e whereby t h e m e a s u r i n g c u r r e n t
i s c o n f i n e d i s t h a t t h e e l e c t r o d e from which t h a t c u r r e n t f l o w s i s b r a c k e t e d on
t h e s o n d e by e i t h e r two l o n g f o c u s i n g e l e c t r o d e s or two or s i x small o n e s . C u r r e n t s
are e m i t t e d from t h e s e f o c u s i n g e l e c t r o d e s , t h e r e b y c o n f i n i n g t h e c u r r e n t from t h e
c e n t r a l measurement e l e c t r o d e . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e l a t e r o l o g s and t h e guard-
e l e c t r o d e i s t h a t t h e c u r r e n t from t h e f o c u s i n g e l e c t r o d e s i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d
i n t h e l a t e r o l o g s , whereas t h e f o c u s i n g e l e c t r o d e s are m e r e l y c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h a low
r e s i s t i v i t y t o t h e measuring e l e c t r o d e i n t h e guard-electrode device.
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Because o f t h e f o c u s i n g o f t h e m e a s u r i n g c u r r e n t , t h e s e
d e v i c e s e x c e l a t d e l i n e a t i o n of t h i n b e d s . T h e r e are f o r m u l a s f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of t h e u n d i s t u r b e d r e s i s t i v i t i e s which c a n b e u s e d when t h e r a t i o o f t h e r e s i s t i v i t i e s
of t h e mud f i l t r a t e and t h e f o r m a t i o n waters i s s m a l l .
Logging R a t e : 100 ft/min

B o r e h o l e R e s t r i c t i o n s : The mud must b e c o n d u c t i v e , and t h e r a t i o o f t h e r e s i s t i v i t i e s o f t h e

mud f i l t r a t e a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n waters s h o u l d b e small. Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r i s
6 1/8 i n c h e s .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : B e c a u s e of t h e f o c u s e d c u r r e n t , t h e volumes i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e l a r g e ,
and e x t e n d i n a d i s c f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e .
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 1 7 5 ° C ( 350°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 3 3/8 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,080 (includes a dual-induction log)

TOOL: RESISTIVITY LOG, LATERAL

Used With: Normal r e s i s t i v i t y l o g , SP, i n d u c t i o n r e s i s t i v i t y l o g , m i c r o - r e s i s t i v i t y ,
microcaliper
 Parameters : Porosity, water s a t u r a t i o n , boundaries o f beds.
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : An e l e c t r o d e a t t h e s u r f a c e and an e l e c t r o d e on t h e sonde i n t h e
b o r e h o l e s e t up an e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d between them. A p a i r of f a i r l y c l o s e l y - s p a c e d
e l e c t r o d e s which a r e a l s o c a r r i e d on t h e sonde measures t h e g r a d i e n t o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l
f i e l d v e r s u s d e p t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e . From t h e s e f i e l d g r a d i e n t measurements, t h e
r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d .
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : There a r e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d e q u a t i o n s which r e l a t e p o r o s i t y and
w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n t o t h e v a r i o u s r e s i s t i v i t i e s measured i n t h e f o r m a t i o n s around t h e
borehole.

The measured d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s i s t i v i t y f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f r o c k s a l l o w t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r i e s between b e d s .
Logging R a t e : 100 ft/min

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Must be made i n uncased h o l e s c o n t a i n i n g water-base o r oil-emulsion

muds ( c o n d u c t i v e muds). Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r i s t h r e e i n c h e s .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Depending on t h e s p a c i n g o f t h e measuring e l e c t r o d e s , which v a r i e s
from 4 i n c h e s t o 1 8 f e e t 8 i n c h e s , from a few c u b i c f e e t t o 1 0 0 c u b i c f e e t .
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature: 26OOC (500'F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum Tool Diameter: 1% i n c h e s

Cost: $1,030 ( i n c l u d e s a l o n g normal, s h o r t normal, s t a n d a r d l a t e r a l and SP)

TOOL: RESISTIVITY LOG, NORMAL

Used With: L a t e r a l r e s i s t i v i t y l o g , SP, i n d u c t i o n r e s i s t i v i t y l o g , m i c r o r e s i s t i v i t y ,
m i c r o ca 1ip e r
Parameters: P o r o s i t y , w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n , b o u n d a r i e s of beds
P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n : An e l e c t r o d e a t t h e s u r f a c e and an e l e c t r o d e on t h e sonde i n t h e
b o r e h o l e set up a n e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d between them. A t h i r d e l e c t r o d e (which i s a l s o
c a r r i e d on t h e s o n d e ) measures t h e v a l u e o f t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d v e r s u s d e p t h i n t h e
b o r e h o l e . The v o l t a g e measured i s r o u g h l y t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e measuring e l e c t r o d e
r e f e r r e d t o a n i n f i n i t e l y d i s t a n t p o i n t . From t h e s e p o t e n t i a l measurements, t h e
r e s i s t a n c e of t h e f o r m a t i o n s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d .
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : There are w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d e q u a t i o n s which r e l a t e p o r o s i t y
and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n t o t h e v a r i o u s r e s i s t i v i t i e s measured i n t h e f o r m a t i o n s around
t h e borehole.

The measured d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s i s t i v i t y f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f r o c k a l l o w t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r i e s between b e d s .
Logging Rate: 1 0 0 f t / m i n ( e x c e p t f o r U l t r a - l o n g Spaced E l e c t r i c Logs which must be
b r o u g h t t o r e s t f o r 6 0 seconds b e f o r e e a c h r e a d i n g )
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Must be made i n uncased h o l e s c o n t a i n i n g w a t e r - b a s e o r o i l - e m u l s i o n
muds ( c o n d u c t i v e muds). Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r i s 6 118 i n c h e s .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Depending on t h e s p a c i n g between t h e down-hole a c t i v e and measuring

52
 e l e c t r o d e s , from 1 0 t o 1 0 0 c u b i c f e e t for u s u a l t o o l s , up t o s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d c u b i c f e e t
for Ultra-Long Spaced E l e c t r i c Log ( a Schlumberger d e v i c e ) .
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 2 6 O o C ( 500°F)

Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum Tool Diameter: 2 3/4 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,030 ( i n c l u d e s a l o n g normal, s h o r t n o r m a l , s t a n d a r d l a t e r a l and S P )
$1,080 ( i n c l u d e s s h o r t n o r m a l , i n d u c t i o n , and SP)

TOOL: SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG

Used With: S h o r t n o r m a l , l o n g normal, s t a n d a r d l a t e r a l , i n d u c t i o n , m i c r o r e s i s t i v i t y ,
m i c r o c a lip e r
Parameters: L i t h o l o g y ( c o r r e l a t i o n ) and r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e n a t u r a l l y - o c c u r i n g formation
waters .
P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n : Measures t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l as a f u n c t i o n of
d e p t h between t h e mud p i t a t t h e s u r f a c e and t h e mud column i n t h e b o r e h o l e .
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : The most i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of t h e p o t e n t i a l s i n t h e mud column
a r e t h e e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e s ( e m f ' s ) which o c c u r a t t h e p o i n t s of
c o n t a c t between t h e d r i l l i n g mud (or i t s f i l t r a t e ) and t h e f o r m a t i o n w a t e r s , i n t h e
p o r e s of t h e p e r m e a b l e b e d s , and a c r o s s impermeable s h a l e s . L a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s
have e s t a b l i s h e d c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e SP c u r v e and t h e
p r e s e n c e of p e r m e a b l e z o n e s , s o t h o s e zones and t h e i r b o u n d a r i e s a r e d e f i n a b l e from
t h e SP c u r v e . The t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t i c S P c u r v e (SSP) i s r e p r e s e n t e d as

w i t h Rmf b e i n g t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e mud f i l t r a t e , and Rwe b e i n g t h e r e s i s t i v i t y of t h e

e q u i v a l e n t f o r m a t i o n water.

T h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n w a t e r s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d from t h i s e q u a t i o n .

Logging Rate: 100 ft/min

B o r e h o l e R e s t r i c t i o n s : Must be made i n uncased h o l e s c o n t a i n i n g w a t e r - b a s e d or o i l -

e m u l s i o n muds ( c o n d u c t i v e muds). Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r i s f o u r i n c h e s .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : The volume which c o n t a i n s t h e mud a n d s t r a t a which g e n e r a t e t h e
e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d . T h i s c a n b e q u i t e l o n g , e x t e n d i n g o v e r many
f e e t , and e x t e n d i n g r a d i a l l y from t h e b o r e h o l e t o t h e m u d - f i l t r a t e / w a t e r i n t e r f a c e ,
and c o n t a i n i n g 1 0 t o 1 0 0 c u b i c f e e t .
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 2 6 O O C ( 50O0F)

Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 2 3/4 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,020 ( i n c l u d e s l o n g n o r m a l , s h o r t n o r m a l , and a s t a n d a r d l a t e r a l )

$1,080 ( i n c l u d e s s h o r t normal and i n d u c t i o n )

53
 This page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t b l a n k .

54
 Radioactivity Tools

TOOL: GAMMA-GAMMA DENSITY LOG

Used With: Gamma l o g , c a l i p e r l o g
Parameters : Density, porosity ( l i t h o l o g y )
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : An i s o t o p i c gamma r a y s o u r c e i s c o l l i m a t e d t o a beam which i s
Compton s c a t t e r e d by t h e f o r m a t i o n e l e c t r o n s t o t h e d e t e c t o r . The d e t e c t e d s i g n a l
w i l l be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y i n t h e p a t h t h r o u g h t h e
formation. Most t o o l s u s e two d e t e c t o r s t o a l l o w compensation f o r b o r e h o l e e f f e c t s .
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : This l o g measures e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y . S i n c e t h e r a t i o o f
c h a r g e t o mass (Z/A) i s a b o u t 0 . 5 f o r most e l e m e n t s e n c o u n t e r e d i n l o g g i n g , t h e
e l e c t r o n d e n s i t y i s approximately proportional t o t h e bulk density of t h e matter.
I f m a t r i x and f l u i d d e n s i t i e s a r e known, p o r o s i t i e s may be c a l c u l a t e d , and
conversely.
Logging R a t e : 30 f t / m i n . maximum
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Any f l u i d , p r i n c i p a l l y u n c a s e d h o l e s , 2 2 i n c h e s d i a m e t e r .
Needs a f a i r l y smooth h o l e .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Maximum p e n e t r a t i o n i s a b o u t s i x i n c h e s .
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 205OC ( 400°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i
Minimum T o o l Diameter: 1 11/16 i n c h e s

Cost: $ 1 , 0 8 0 (FDC)

TOOL: GAMMA LOG

Used With: Most l o g s
Parameters : Lithology ( c o r r e l a t i o n )
P r i n c i p l e of Operation: Measures gamma r a y s from n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g (U, T h , K ) o r
a r t i f i c i a l l y i n j e c t e d ( t r a c e r s ) r a d i o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s . There i s a l i m i t e d b u t
growing a v a i l a b i l i t y of s p e c t r a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y .
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : D i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o g i e s have d i f f e r e n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y l e v e l s
( s h a l e s h i g h e r t h a n s a n d s 1. With s p e c t r u m , p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t s may b e i d e n t i f i e d .
Logging Rate: 130 f t / m i n
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Any f l u i d , c a s e d o r u n c a s e d , 2 2 inches diameter
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : About a 12-inch r a d i u s s p h e r e
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 2 6 O O C ( 50O0F)

Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

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 Minimum T o o l Diameter: 7/8 i n c h e s
Cost: $140 (when r u n w i t h a n o t h e r l o g , no s p e c t r u m ) ; $680 ( r u n a l o n e , no s p e c t r u m )

TOOL: NEUTRON ACTIVATION LOG

Used With: Neutron c a p t u r e c r o s s s e c t i o n l o g (sometimes)
Parameters : Elemental a n a l y s e s - v a r i o u s elements ( w a t e r flow)
P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n : Most e l e m e n t s a r e t r a n s m u t e d t o a d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t o r i s o t o p e when
bombarded by n e u t r o n s . Such " a c t i v a t i o n p r o d u c t s " are u s u a l l y u n s t a b l e and w i l l
d e c a y , g i v i n g o f f r a d i a t i o n , a t a n e x p o n e n t i a l r a t e . Three p r o p e r t i e s , r a d i a t i o n
i n t e n s i t y , decay r a t e , and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e n e r g y , may b e measured t o g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n
on t h e e l e m e n t s a c t i v a t e d . U s u a l l y , t h e l o g g i n g p a r a m e t e r s ( d e l a y between i r r a d i a t i o n

I
and d e t e c t i o n , e n e r g y d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e v e l s ) w i l l be chosen for d e t e c t i o n of a
p a r t i c u l a r element.
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Oxygen i s e a s y t o d e t e c t b u t d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t s i n c e most
f o r m a t i o n m a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n a l o t of oxygen. One u s e i s a f l o w l o g i n which oxygen i n
water i s a c t i v a t e d and t h e n f l o w s p a s t a d e t e c t o r . S i l i c o n d e t e c t i o n i s u s e f u l as a
l i t h o l o g y i n d i c a t o r ( d i s t i n g u i s h e s lime from s a n d ) . Aluminum d e t e c t i o n is u s e f u l i n
i d e n t i f y i n g c l a y c o n t e n t . Magnesium d e t e c t i o n i s u s e f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g d o l o m i t e .
Logging Rate: Depends on t o o l d e s i g n ( s p a c i n g ) and e l e m e n t l o g g e d , -30 f t / m i n down t o
s t a t i o n a r y measurements.
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Any f l u i d , c a s e d o r uncased, 23% i n c h e s d i a m e t e r
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : -12 i n c h e s t o 24 i n c h e s p e n e t r a t i o n
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 175°C (350'F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i
Minimum T o o l Diameter: 2 3/16 i n c h e s

Cost: Varies w i t h method and e l e m e n t .

Comments : C a p a b i l i t y s h o u l d improve w i t h improved s p e c t r a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y .

TOOL: NEUTRON CAPTURE CROSS SECTION LOG

Used With: Gamma l o g , c o l l a r l o c a t o r
Parameters : Water s a t u r a t i o n , o i l g a s c o n t a c t ( p o r o s i t y )
P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n : A d e t e c t o r m e a s u r i n g c a p t u r e gammas i s g a t e d on f o r two i n t e r v a l s
f o l l o w i n g a p u l s e of h i g h e n e r g y n e u t r o n s . The decay t i m e of t h e gamma s i g n a l , which
i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e decay t i m e o f t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n p o p u l a t i o n , may b e
calculated. From t h i s , t h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n c a p t u r e c r o s s s e c t i o n may be d e r i v e d .
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : S i n c e c h l o r i n e h a s by f a r t h e l a r g e s t capture cross section
of e l e m e n t s commonly e n c o u n t e r e d i n l o g g i n g , t h i s l o g t e n d s t o respond t o f o r m a t i o n
c h l o r i n e . If water s a l i n i t y i s known, w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n may be found. I n a d u a l
s p a c e d d e t e c t o r v e r s i o n , p o r o s i t y and g a s may a l s o b e d e t e c t e d using t h e difference i n
n e a r and f a r d e t e c t o r r e s p o n s e .
Logging Rate: 130 f t / m i n

56
 Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Any f l u i d , - 2 i n c h e s diameter. Because of i n v a s i o n , t h i s l o g i s
most e f f e c t i v e i n c a s e d h o l e s .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : One t o two f o o t p e n e t r a t i o n
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 175°C (350°F) ; 150°C (300°F) d u a l s p a c e d
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 2 0 , 0 0 0 p s i (14,000 d u a l s p a c e d )

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 1 11/16 i n c h e s

Cost: $2,170 ( D u a l S p a c i n g TDT)

TOOL: NEUTRON/CAftBON LOG

Used With: Collar locator
Parameters : Formation c a r b o n c o n t e n t
P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n : A p u l s e d n e u t r o n s o u r c e i s used t o g e n e r a t e 1 4 MeV n e u t r o n s .
Gamma r a y s o f 4 . 4 3 MeV t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d by i n e l a s t i c s c a t t e r i n g of t h e s e n e u t r o n s
by c a r b o n are d e t e c t e d u s i n g a s c i n t i l l a t i o n s p e c t r o m e t e r . T h i s d e t e c t o r i s t i m e
g a t e d s o t h a t i t o n l y r e s p o n d s d u r i n g t h e n e u t r o n p u l s e t o maximize t h e s i g n a l t o
noise ratio. I n a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n a carbon/oxygen r a t i o i s d e t e r m i n e d .
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Carbon/oxygen r a t i o w i l l d i f f e r w i t h o i l c o n t e n t and
s o o i l s a t u r a t i o n c a n b e e s t i m a t e d i n many f o r m a t i o n s .
Logging Rate: U s u a l l y 1 t o 1 0 m i n u t e s p e r p o i n t l o g g e d d e p e n d i n g on a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d .
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Cased o r u n c a s e d , any f l u i d or d r y , 24% i n c h e s d i a m e t e r

Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : About 1 2 i n c h e s t o 24 i n c h e s p e n e t r a t i o n
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 175°C (350°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 15,000 p s i
Minimum T o o l Diameter: 3 5/8 i n c h e s

TOOL: NEUTRON LOG

Used With: C a l i p e r , gamma l o g
Parameters : Porosity (lithology)
P r i n c i p l e of O p e r a t i o n : N e u t r o n s e m i t t e d by a n i s o t o p i c s o u r c e a r e moderated t o t h e r m a l
e n e r g i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y by hydrogen i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g media, t h e n a r e c a p t u r e d ,
p r o d u c i n g a gamma p h o t o n . If t h e f o r m a t i o n i s r i c h i n hydrogen, t h i s t a k e s p l a c e
n e a r t h e s o u r c e , a n d t h e d e t e c t o r ( s p a c e d one t o two f e e t away) w i l l have a low
r e s p o n s e . If t h e f o r m a t i o n i s low i n h y d r o g e n (low water, h y d r o c a r b o n , or s h a l e
c o n t e n t ) , t h e n e u t r o n s w i l l d i f f u s e f a r t h e r b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e r m a l e n e r g i e s and t h e
d e t e c t o r ( s e n s i t i v e t o c a p t u r e gamma, t h e r m a l , o r e p i t h e r m a l n e u t r o n s ) w i l l have a
l a r g e r r e s p o n s e . Some t o o l s a r e "compensated," i . e . , u s e two d e t e c t o r s w i t h
d i f f e r e n t s p a c i n g t o a l l o w compensation f o r t h e e f f e c t of t h e b o r e h o l e .
P r i n c i p l e o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : If v o i d s a r e assumed f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r or h y d r o c a r b o n s ,
p o r o s i t y may be d e r i v e d from hydrogen d e n s i t y .
Logging R a t e : 530 f t / m i n

57
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : T o o l s a v a i l a b l e f o r c a s e d or uncased h o l e s , any f l u i d o r d r y . Tools
available f o r 2 inch tubing.
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Roughly s p h e r i c a l e x t e n d i n g one t o two f e e t i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n .
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature: 26OOC (50O0F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i
Minimum Tool Diameter: 1 inch

Cost: ( C N L ) $1,220

Comments: Wide v a r i e t y of t o o l s a l l measuring hydrogen d e n s i t y w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of

success.

TOOL: RADIOACTIVE TRACER LOGS

Used With: Alone
Parameters: F l u i d movement, s o u r c e and s i n k i n f o r m a t i o n
P r i n c i p l e s of O p e r a t i o n : A d e n s i t y matched r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e
w e l l f l u i d where i t s movement can b e t r a c e d by one o r more gamma r a y d e t e c t o r s
mounted above o r below t h e s u r f a c e c o n t r o l l e d e j e c t o r or " s q u i r t gun." Capable o f
measuring v e r y low f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s .
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : B u i l d u p s o f t r a c e r m a t e r i a l i n d i c a t e a s i n k zone w h i l e
t h i n n i n g t a k e s p l a c e o p p o s i t e a s o u r c e area. Leakage p a t h s b e h i n d c a s i n g a r e
i n d i c a t e d by s p a c e between s o u r c e and s i n k a r e a s . Flow p r o f i l e s may be d e t e r m i n e d
by measuring f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s above and below i n v e s t i g a t i o n zone.
Logging R a t e : 60 ft/min
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Cased o r u n c a s e d , f l u i d f i l l e d , 2 i n c h d i a m e t e r
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Core h o l e f l u i d s
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 15OOC (300'F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 6,000 p s i
Minimum T o o l Diameter: 1 3/8 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,700

58
 A c o u s t i c a l Tools

TOOL: BOREHOLE TELEVIEWER

Used With: Alone
Parameters: Wall d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , f o r m a t i o n d i p , b o r e w a l l f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n s
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : A downhole s c a n n e r - t r a n s d u c e r and a f l u x g a t e magnetometer a r e
r o t a t e d a t 180 rpm a b o u t a common v e r t i c a l a x i s . A narrow beam a c o u s t i c s i g n a l
is emitted as a pulsed signal. T h i s s i g n a l i s r e f l e c t e d from t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l
b e f o r e d e t e c t i o n by t h e r e c e i v i n g t r a n s d u c e r . The a t t e n u a t i o n c a u s e d by
I P r e g U l a r i t i e S i n t h e W a l l v a r i e s t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e o u t p u t d i s p l a y e d on t h e f a c e
of r e c o r d i n g o s c i l l o s c o p e s . The magnetometer g e n e r a t e s a t r i g g e r i n g p u l s e f o r t h e
sweep s i g n a l t o o r i e n t t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e d i s p l a y f o r r e c o r d i n g on p h o t o g r a p h i c
m a t e r i a l s u c h t h a t t h e d i s p l a y always s t a r t s a t t h e same azimuth p o i n t s i n t h e
b o r e h o l e . T h i s p r o v i d e s a d i r e c t and d e s c r i p t i v e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e
w a l l s p l i t a l o n g a known l i n e .
P r i n c i p l e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : F r a c t u r e s a p p e a r as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i n e s , and b e d d i n g
p l a n e s a p p e a r as s i n u s o i d a l c u r v e s w i t h a s i n g l e maximum and minimum p o i n t
providing dip information.
Logging Rate: 1 0 ft/min

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Fluid f i l l e d 4 inches t o 2 2 i n c h e s d i a m e t e r , c a s e d or u n c a s e d

Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Borehole s u r f a c e - 360" a z i m u t h s c a n

Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 150°C ( 300°F)
Maximum Pressure : 20,000 p s i

Minimum Tool Diameter: 3 3/8 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,600 f o r 500 l i n e a r f e e t ( c o u r t e s y o f B i r d w e l l , Div. SSC)

TOOL: CEMENT BOND LOG

Used With: S o n i c l o g s made w i t h s t a n d a r d t o o l s i n c l u d e bond i n f o r m a t i o n .
Parameters: Q u a l i t y o f cement bond t o p i p e and b o r e h o l e w a l l
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : The a m p l i t u d e ( o r signal s t r e n g t h ) o f a n a c o u s t i c s i g n a l
t r a v e l i n g a l o n g t h e c a s i n g is g r e a t l y r e d u c e d where t h e cement i s w e l l bonded t o
t h e pipe. A constant s t r e n g t h s i g n a l is transmitted t o an a c o u s t i c a l l y i s o l a t e d
r e c e i v e r f o r a m p l i t u d e d e t e c t i o n and r e . c o r d i n g .
P r i n c i p l e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : An a c o u s t i c s i g n a l i s a t t e n u a t e d more by a bonded t h a n
a n unbonded p i p e . T o o l c e n t e r i n g i s i m p o r t a n t and i s c h e c k e d on t h e 3 3/8 i n c h
t o o l by o b s e r v i n g l a p s e t i m e between t r i g g e r i n g and s i g n a l d e t e c t i o n which s h o u l d
be a b o u t t h r e e t i m e s t h e p i p e t r a n s i t t i m e p l u s t h e t r a v e l t i m e i n t h e f l u i d a c r o s s

59
 one p i p e d i a m e t e r .
Logging R a t e : 100 ft/min
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Cased and cemented h o l e s , 2 2 inches diameter

Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Cement bond l i n e

Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 190°C (375°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s l

Minimum Tool Diameter: 1 11/16

Cost: $640 - $840

TOOL: SEISCALIPER
Used W i t h : Alone
Parameters: Diameter of l a r g e b o r e h o l e s and s o l u t i o n mined c a v i t i e s
P r i n c i p l e s of Operation: The downhole motor d r i v e n r o t a t i n g u n i t h a s t h r e e a c o u s t i c
s c a n n e r - t r a n s d u c e r s p o s i t i o n e d h o r i z o n t a l l y , 45" up, and 45' down, and a
magnetic n o r t h s e n s o r . A f o c u s e d a c o u s t i c s i g n a l t r a v e l s t h r o u g h t h e b o r e h o l e
f l u i d and s t r i k e s t h e c a v i t y boundary o p p o s i t e t h e t r a n s d u c e r . The echo s i g n a l
i s used t o i n t e n s i t y modulate a r a d i a l t i m e sweep s c o p e and t h i s d i s p l a y i s
r e c o r d e d on P o l a r o i d f i l m .
P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : The p h o t o g r a p h p r o v i d e s a n o r i e n t e d d i r e c t r e a d i n g r e c o r d
of h o l e s i z e .

Logging R a t e : Stationary
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Mud, o i l o r w a t e r f i l l e d ; 6 f e e t t o 1 0 0 0 f e e t i n d i a m e t e r ; uncased
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Fluid filled cavity
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature: 80°C (175°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 4.75 i n c h e s

Cost: $2,400 f o r 50 s t a t i o n s ( c o u r t e s y of B i r d w e l l , Div. SSC)

TOOL: SONIC LOG

Used With: Dual i n d u c t i o n , f o c u s e d i n d u c t i o n , c a l i p e r
Parameters: V e l o c i t y of compression and s h e a r waves, A t t e n u a t i o n of s h e a r waves and
r e f l e c t e d compression waves. Correlation, p o r o s i t y , overpressured formations.

P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : S o n i c s i g n a l s are g e n e r a t e d by m a g n e t o s t r i c t i v e o r p i e z o e l e c t r i c
t r a n s d u c e r s a t 20 t o 30 b u r s t s p e r second. The f i r s t a r r i v a l e n e r g y i s d e t e c t e d
by one o r two similar t r a n s d u c e r s l o c a t e d a s h o r t d i s t a n c e away. Time o f t r a v e l
between r e c e i v e r and t r a n s m i t t e r ( A t ) i s r e c o r d e d as an i n v e r s e v e l o c i t y . An
a c o u s t i c a b s o r b e r material i s used between t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e r e c e i v e r t o
i n s u r e t h e f i r s t a r r i v a l s i g n a l i s t h e compression wave t h a t h a s t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h
the formation. The same t o o l i s u s e d t o measure s h e a r wave a m p l i t u d e s which, when
r e c o r d e d and used w i t h p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d s of t h e e n t i r e wave t r a i n , a r e i n t e r -
p r e t e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e a b s e n c e o r p r e s e n c e o f f r a c t u r e s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . By t h e

60
 a d d i t i o n o f s h e a r wave v e l o c i t y measurements, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e P o i s s o n ' s
r a t i o s ; w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of b u l k d e n s i t ? from a gamma d e n s i t y log, t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f Young's Modulus and o t h e r e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s i s p o s s i b l e . Bore compensated
t o o l s a r e o f t e n u s e d t o r e d u c e t h e e f f e c t s o f b o r e h o l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s and t o o l
misalignment.
P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : The i n t e r v a l of t r a v e l t i m e for a c o m p r e s s i o n wave i s
d e p e n d e n t on f o r m a t i o n l i t h o l o g y and p o r o s i t y . Both t h e r o c k m a t r i x a n d t h e l i q u i d
w i t h i n t h e p o r e s p a c e must have known s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s f o r p o r o s i t y c a l c u l a t i o n s t o
b e made ( W y l l i e T i m e Average e q u a t i o n ) . A c a l i p e r log i s r e q u i r e d f o r a c c u r a t e
v e l o c i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . I f b o r e h o l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e c a l i p e r
l o g , a b o r e h o l e compensated v e l o c i t y i s recommended t o minimize b o r e h o l e e f f e c t s .
Logging Rate: 60 ft/mln

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : F l u i d f i l l e d h o l e , c a s e d or u n c a s e d , 2 2 i n c h e s d i a m e t e r
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Few i n c h e s a r o u n d b o r e h o l e
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 2 O 5 O C (400OF)

Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l D i a m e t e r : 1 1/16 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,080 + a d d i t i o n a l charges f o r amplitude logging, t r a n s i t t i m e i n t e g r a t i o n ,

or wave t r a i n o s c i 11os cop e p i c t u r e s

61
T h i s page i n t e n t i o n a l l y l e f t blank.
 Auxiliary Tools

TOOL: CALIPER LOGS

Used With: Most l o g s
Parameters : Borehole diameters
P r i n c i p l e s of O p e r a t i o n : Two o r more d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed p a i r s of arms a r e pushed a g a i n s t
t h e bore h o l e w a l l s ; s i g n a l s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r d i a m e t r a l s e p a r a t i o n a r e recorded
a t t h e s u r f a c e . I n d i v i d u a l d i a m e t e r s , i n t e g r a t e d v a l u e s f o r b o r e h o l e volume, and
a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r a r e n o r m a l l y r e c o r d e d . E l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e measurements a r e
sometimes i n c l u d e d , and a s o n i c c a l i p e r i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r l a r g e wash-out s e c t i o n s .
P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : The measured d i a m e t e r s g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n of h o l e s h a p e ,
w h i l e c a l c u l a t e d a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r s a r e used t o f i n d b o r e h o l e volume f o r u s e i n
s e t t i n g p a c k e r s and c e m e n t i n g , a s w e l l a s f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o t h e r l o g s .
Logging R a t e : 30 f t / m i n
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Maximum d i a m e t e r 40 i n c h e s - open o r c a s e d . Any c o n d u c t i v e mud
> 0 . 3 ohms/meter i f r e s i s t a n c e measurements are made. Open h o l e .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Bore h o l e walls a n d / o r mud cake f a c e
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 150°C ( 3 0 0 ° F )
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum Tool D i a m e t e r : 1% i n c h
Minimum Hole Diameter: 2 inches cased or open h o l e

cost: $910

TOOL: DIPMETER LOG

Used With: Most l o g s
Parameters: D i r e c t i o n and a n g l e of d i p of s u b s u r f a c e s t r a t a
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : The change i n r e s i s t i v i t y between s t r a t a
i s measured w i t h t h r e e o r f o u r m i c r o l o g s or m i c r o l a t e r o l o g s e q u a l l y s p a c e d a r o u n d t h e
c i r c u m f e r e n c e , and which a r e p r e s s e d a g a i n s t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l on p a d s . Magnetic
n o r t h i s a l s o r e c o r d e d , a l o n g w i t h t h e a n g l e and d i r e c t i o n of t h e b o r e h o l e , and a
measurement of b o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r ( c a l i p e r ) . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t
r e s i s t i v i t y changes measured by t h e m i c r o l o g s w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e a n g l e , d i r e c t i o n
and d i a m e t e r , and m a g n e t i c n o r t h a l l o w t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e t r u e s u b s u r f a c e
dip.
Logging R a t e : 50 f t / m i n

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : E l e c t r i c a l l y - c o n d u c t i v e mud must be u s e d , and t h e b o r e h o l e

63
 must b e r e l a t i v e l y f r e e from c a v i n g . Minimum h o l e d i a m e t e r i s 5 4 i n c h e s .
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Q u i t e small
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature: 175°C (350°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 3 5/8 i n c h e s

Cost: $1,370

,
TOOL: DIRECTIOFIAL SURVEY
i Used With:

Parameters:
Dipmeter

D r i f t from v e r t i c a l , a z i m u t h of d r i f t

P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : Using a s t a b l e v e r t i c a l r e f e r e n c e ( i . e . , g r a v i t y o r s t a b l e
p l a t f o r m ) t h e magnitude of t h e a n g l e t h e b o r e h o l e makes w i t h v e r t i c a l i s measured
and p l o t t e d a g a i n s t d e p t h t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d r i f t a z i m u t h o r d i r e c t i o n o f d r i f t
u s i n g m a g n e t i c n o r t h o r a g y r o compass as r e f e r e n c e . \

P r i n c i p l e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Provides f i n a l bottom of h o l e l o c a t i o n w i t h
r e f e r e n c e t o s u r f a c e l o c a t i o n . I t also p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n of p o s s i b l e t r o u b l e
s p o t s i n r u n n i n g p i p e , o r wear p r o b l e m s d u r i n g pumping.

Logging Rate: Continuous o r s t a t i o n s t o p s

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n : Uncased h o l e i f m a g n e t i c r e f e r e n c e d , 23 i n c h e s diameter
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 315°C (600°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 2 0 ,0 0 0 p s i

Minimum Tool Diameter: 1 3/4 i n c h e s

C o s t $860

TOOL: DRILLING TIME LOGS

Used W i t h : F i r s t l o g r e c o r d e d on a w e l l
Parameters: Rate of d r i l l p e n e t r a t i o n , t r i p p i n g , and o t h e r t i m e s p e n t w i t h d r i l l o f f
bottom
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : Automatic r e c o r d i n g o f e a c h f o o t of d r i l l p e n e t r a t i o n on a
t i m e a c t u a t e d c h a r t . O t h e r l o g s a r e o f t e n m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g d r i l l i n g t h a t can
p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on b o r e h o l e p a r a m e t e r s . These o f t e n i n c l u d e hook
l o a d vs. t i m e , h o l e s i z e ; t o r q u e v s . t i m e ; r o t a t i o n speed v s . t i m e ; mud l o g v s .
t i m e and a r e c o r d o f " d i t c h samples," i . e . , c u t t i n g s from t h e r e t u r n c i r c u l a t i o n
.
vs h o l e depth .
P r i n c i p l e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Rates of d r i l l p e n e t r a t i o n o v e r s h o r t i n t e r v a l s are
r a t h e r u n i f o r m ; t h i s p e r m i t s any g r o s s change i n p e n e t r a t i o n r a t e t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d
as a f o r m a t i o n b o u n d a r y .
Logging Rate: While d r i l l i n g
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : None
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Formations s e c t i o n i n t h e bore h o l e
TOOL: DRILL STEM TEST TOOLS
Used With: On t h e d r i l l s t r i n g
Parameters : F l u i d samples, p r e s s u r e , p e r m e a b i l i t y
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : S i m u l a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e completed w e l l by s e a l i n g o f f t h e
t e s t i n t e r v a l from t h e mud column above and r e d u c i n g t h e p r e s s u r e o p p o s i t e t h e forma-
t i o n t o a t m o s p h e r i c . T h i s a l l o w s t h e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s t o e n t e r t h e b o r e h o l e and
be p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h t h e d r i l l p i p e . It amounts t o a temporary c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e w e l l .
P r i n c i p l e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : By t h e a d d i t i o n of p r e s s u r e r e c o r d e r s , s h u t - i n v a l v e s , thermo-
meters, and a choke, much a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d s u c h as b o t t o m h o l e
p r e s s u r e , t r a n s i e n t p r e s s u r e s , f l o w r a t e s , b o t t o m h o l e t e m p e r a t u r e s , and p r e s s u r e
recovery rate.
Logging Rate: Stationary
B o r e h o l e R e s t r i c t i o n s : S u i t a b l e p a c k e r l o c a t i o n , mud c o n d i t i o n i n g and s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s
t o p r e v e n t blow-out
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Formation f l u i d

TOOL: FLOW METERS

Used With: T e m p e r a t u r e , c o l l a r l o c a t o r , manometer, gradiomanometer
Parameters: Flow r a t e s and s o u r c e areas o r i n j e c t i o n a r e a s . Location of t h i e f zones.
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : Flow meters c a n b e s p i n n e r t y p e , p i t o t t u b e , o r i f i c e t y p e , and
h o t - f i l m t y p e , d e p e n d i n g on f l o w r a t e s . Very low r a t e s a r e b e s t d e t e r m i n e d by Using
r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s . Two p h a s e f l o w s r e q u i r e gradiomanometer s u r v e y s .
P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : F l u i d movements are i n d i c a t e d by p r e s s u r e changes tempera-
t u r e s h i f t s , s p i n n e r r o t a t i o n and d i s s i p a t i o n , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , o r a r r i v a l t i m e s o f
tracers.
Logging Rate : Stationary
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : 2 inches diameter

Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Borehole f l u i d s

Minimum T o o l Diameter: 1 11/16 i n c h e s

Cost: Depends on t y p e

TOOL: FLUID SAMPLER

Used With: Alone
Parameters : I n s i t u f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s p e r m e a b i l i t y and f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e s and
t emp e r a t u r es
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : A c l o s e d c o n t a i n e r i s p o s i t i o n e d a t t h e d e s i r e d d e p t h and i s o l a t e d
from t h e b o r e h o l e f l u i d by p a c k e r s o r s i d e wall s e a l s . I n s i t u p r e s s u r e s and
t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e measured and c o n t a i n e r v a l v e s a r e opened t o admit f l u i d ; t h e n v a l v e s
a r e c l o s e d and t h e c o n t a i n e r i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e s u r f a c e w i t h t h e f l u i d sample.
P r i n c i p l e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : F l u i d s a r e removed f o r l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s . I n s i t u
p r o p e r t i e s a r e t h e n c a l c u l a t e d b a s e d on measured t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s .

65
 Logging R a t e : Stationary
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Cased, o r uncased w i t h s u i t a b l e s e a l i n g t o t h e s i d e w a l l ;
4 3/4 i n c h e s d i a m e t e r minimum
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : 4 g a l l o n s o f f l u i d from n e a r b o r e h o l e w a l l
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 175°C (350°F)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 p s i

Minimum T o o l D i a m e t e r : 3 13/16 i n c h e s

TOOL: FORMATION SAMPLERS (SIDEWALL CORING)

Used With: Alone
Parameters: P o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y , mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , h e a t c o n d u c t i v i t y , e l e c t r i c a l
resistivity
P r i n c i p l e s o f O p e r a t i o n : Hollow b u l l e t s a r e f i r e d i n t o t h e w a l l s and r e t r i e v e d w i t h s m a l l
f o r m a t i o n samples (1 i n c h x 2% i n c h ) i n s i d e . The m e c h a n i c a l s l i c e r c u t s a 1 i n c h
t r i a n g u l a r s e c t i o n 3 f e e t l o n g from t h e w a l l . Four 3 f o o t s l i c e s are p o s s i b l e p e r
t r i p w h i l e as many as 6 0 s i n g l e b u l l e t s a m p l e s may be t a k e n e a c h t r i p .

P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Samples a r e t a k e n t o a c o r e l a b o r a t o r y f o r a n a l y s e s . B u l l e t
samples a r e n o t r e a d i l y t a k e n from h a r d f o r m a t i o n and a r e u s u a l l y f r a c t u r e d . The
m e c h a n i c a l s l i c e r p r o d u c e s l e s s a l t e r e d samples a t a much s l o w e r r a t e b u t w i l l
o p e r a t e i n h a r d f o r m a t i o n s . Core s a m p l e s from t h e h o l e b o t t o m c a n be t a k e n d u r i n g
drilling.
Logging R a t e : Stationary
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Gun ( s o f t ) , 4 i n c h e s d i a m e t e r
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : S h a l l o w w a l l r o c k sample 1 i n c h t o 2% i n c h e s
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d T e m p e r a t u r e : 220'C (430'F) f o r gun
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 20,000 psi
Minimum T o o l D i a m e t e r : 4 3/4 i n c h gun
Cost: $600 t $ 2 8 p e r c o r e ( b u l l e t s a m p l e r )

TOOL : GRAD1 OMANOMETER

Used With: C o l l a r l o c a t o r , manometer, t h e r m o m e t e r , c a l i p e r , flow m e t e r
P a r a m e t e r s : Two p h a s e f l u i d f l o w , s l i p p a g e ( d i f f e r e n c e i n v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s o f l i g h t
and heavy p h a s e s ) v o l u m e t r i c f l o w r a t e from e a c h zone f o r two p h a s e f l o w s .
P r i n c i p l e s of O p e r a t i o n : Measures t h e a v e r a g e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t o v e r a two f o o t i n t e r v a l
u s i n g two h i g h r e s o l u t i o n P r e s s u r e s e n s i n g e l e m e n t s ( e . g . , b e l l o w s 1. Dynamic r a n g e
o f 0 t o 1 . 6 gr/cm 2 p e r cm w i t h a r e p e a t a b i l i t y of .005 gr/cm 2 p e r cm and s e n s i t i v i t y
a c c u r a c y o f . 0 3 gr/cm 2 .
P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : S l i p p a g e v e l o c i t y must be e v a l u a t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n t r i -
b u t i o n of e a c h f l o w zone from p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t and f l o w d a t a . S l i p p a g e v e l o c i t y
c a n n o t b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g w e l l p r o d u c t i o n and p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t d a t a ; i t s h o u l d b e
based on m i x t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n and d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e assuming b u b b l e flow. E r r o r s c a u s e d

66
 by t h i s a s s u m p t i o n w i l l be low i f t h e f l o w r a t e i s n o t s m a l l .
Logging R a t e : 5 0 f t / m i n maximum; s t a t i o n a r y r e a d i n g s d e s i r a b l e

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : 2 f o o t i n t e r v a l of bore h o l e f l u i d , 2 i n c h diameter

Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature : 175°C (350°F)

Maximum P r e s s u r e : 15,000 p s i
Minimum Tool Diameter: 1 11/16 inches

Cost: $860

TOOL: GRAVITY METER, DOWNHOLE

Used W i t h : Alone
Parameters : D e n s i t y , p o r o s i t y , presence o f hydrocarbons behind c a s i n g
P r i n c i p l e s of O p e r a t i o n : The d i f f e r e n c e i n g r a v i t a t i o n a l a t t r a c t i o n between any two
s t a t i o n s i n a b o r e h o l e i s measured u s i n g a s e n s i t i v e mass b a l a n c e and r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m .
P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : T h e g r a v i t y g r a d i e n t between two p o i n t s below t h e e a r t h ’ s sur-
f a c e i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f r e e a i r g r a d i e n t and t h e mass of m a t e r i a l between t h e p o i n t s .
G r a d i e n t and d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t s c a n be used t o d e r i v e a v e r a g e b u l k d e n s i t y .

Logging R a t e : 1 2 t o 2 4 h o u r s for complete s u r v e y

Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : 54 i n c h e s d i a m e t e r
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Very l a r g e c y l i n d r i c a l volume
30 f o o t s p a c i n g 300 f o o t d i a m e t e r x 30 f e e t
50 f o o t s p a c i n g 500 f o o t d i a m e t e r x 50 f e e t
100 f o o t spacing 1000 f o o t diameter x 100 feet

TOOL: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY LOG

Parameter: Lithology, c o r r e l a t i o n
P r i n c i p l e o f O p e r a t i o n : The m a g n e t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of a m a g n e t i c flux p a t h between a
t r a n s m i t t e r c o i l and one o r more r e c e i v e r c o i l s i s changed by t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e
m a t e r i a l s i n t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l s . Changes i n t h i s m a g n e t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y i n t h e f l u x
p a t h change t h e s i g n a l a t t h e r e c e i v e r c o i l .
P r i n c i p l e of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : Rocks v a r y w i d e l y i n m a g n e t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , s o t h a t a
c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e measured downhole m a g n e t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y w i t h l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s
a l l o w s t h e d e t e c t i o n of d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of s u b s u r f a c e r o c k s .
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : Uncased h o l e
Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Small
Comments: The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n u s i n g t h i s l o g are s u c h t h a t i t i s seldom u s e d . I t s use i s
primarily confined t o mineral exploration.

TOOL: TEMPERATURE LOG

Used With: T e m p e r a t u r e modules can be r u n a l o n e o r combined w i t h o t h e r t o o l s .
Parameters : A b s o l u t e and d i f f e r e n t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e s , cement t o p l o c a t i o n

67
P r i n c i p l e s of O p e r a t i o n : A t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i t i v e element s u c h as a thermocouple, r e s i s t a n c e
w i r e , t h e r m i s t o r , o r a c o n f i n e d f l u i d o r metal i s c a l i b r a t e d and used t o g e n e r a t e s i g n a l s
t h a t a r e r e c o r d e d a t t h e s u r f a c e o r downhole as t e m p e r a t u r e v s . d e p t h .

P r i n c i p l e s of I n t e r p r e t a t i o n : A t e m p e r a t u r e anomaly from t h e normal g r a d i e n t e s t a b l i s h e d

uphole i n d i c a t e s f l u i d movement w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e . It i n d i c a t e s a p r o d u c i n g zone o r
an i n j e c t i o n zone, o r t h e f l o w o f f l u i d s between two z o n e s . It p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n
i n i n j e c t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n p r o f i l e s and may i n d i c a t e a s o u r c e of gas due t o e x p a n s i o n
cooling.
Logging Rate: 65 f t / m i n maximum
Borehole R e s t r i c t i o n s : 2 inches diameter

Volume I n v e s t i g a t e d : Bore h o l e and immediately b e h i n d c a s i n g , o r i n t h e cement bond behind

t h e casing.
Maximum A d v e r t i s e d Temperature: 315°C (600OF)
Maximum P r e s s u r e : 30,000 p s i

Minimum Tool Diameter: Probe d i a m e t e r 7/8 i n c h

Cost: $780

68
 Appendix B
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Armstead, H . C h r i s t o p h e r H . , "What i s Geothermal Energy?" Unesco, 1973, Geothermal

Energy ( E a r t h S c i e n c e s , 1 2 ) , p p . 15-18, 1973.
2. Axtmann, R o b e r t C . , " E n v i r o n m e n t a l Impact o f a Geothermal Power P l a n t , I t S c i e n c e ,
Vol. 1 8 7 , Number 4179, p p . 795-803, March 1975.

3. Banwell, C . J . , " G e o p h y s i c a l Methods i n Geothermal E x p l o r a t i o n , " Unesco, 1973,

Geothermal Energy ( E a r t h S c i e n c e s , 12), p p . 41-48, 1 9 7 3 .
4. Banwell, John a n d T s v i Meidav, "Geothermal Energy f o r t h e F u t u r e ," Geothermal Energy_,
pp. 53-58, December 1 9 7 4 .

5. B a r b i e r , E n r i c o and Mario F a n e l l i , "The Role o f Novel Power S o u r c e s -- Geothermal,"

Geothermal Energy, pp. 8-22, August 1 9 7 4 .
6. B i r d w e l l D i v i s i o n o f Seismograph S e r v i c e C o r p o r a t i o n , Logging C a p a b i l i t i e s and
Services.
Brown, R. J . S. and B . W . Gamson, " N u c l e a r Magnetism Logging," P e t r o l e u m T r a n s a c t i o n s ,
-, Vol. 219, p p . 199-207, 1960.
B u l l a r d , S i r Edward, " B a s i c T h e o r i e s , I t Unesco , 1973, Geothermal Energy ( E a r t h
S c i e n c e s , 1 2 ) , 1973.

9. Cromling, J o h n , "How Geothermal Wells are D r i l l e d and Completed," World O i l , V o l . 1 7 7 ,

No. 7 , pp. 42-45, December 1973.
10. C u l v e r , R . B . , E . C . Hopkinson and A . H . Youmans, "Carbon Oxygen (C/O) Logging
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , " 48th Annual Meeting of t h e SPE o f AIME, S e p t . 3 0 - O c t . 3, 1 9 7 3 ,
P a p e r 4640.
11. Dakhnov, V. N . , G e o p h y s i c a l Well Logging, Golden, C o l o r a d o , Q u a r t e r l y o f t h e Colorado
S c h o o l o f Mines, V o l . 57, N o . 2 , A p r i l 1962.
12. Dench, N . D. , "Well Measurements," Unesco, 1973, Geothermal Energy ( E a r t h S c i e n c e s , 1 2 ) ,
1973.
13- Dewan. J . T . . C . W . J o h n s t o n e , L. A . J a c o b s o n , W . B. Wall, and R . P. A l g e r , "Thermal
Neutron Decay T i m e Logging Using Dual D e t e c t i o n , " SPWLA 1 4 t h Annual Logging Symposium,
May 6-9, 1973, P a p e r P .
14. Dorfman, Myron, " D r i l l i n g i n t h e G e y s e r s F i e l d , " The D r i l l i n g C o n t r a c t o r , Nov.-Dec. 1973.
15. E n g e l k e , C . P . and D. W. H i l c h i e , "A N e w Q u a l i t a t i v e P e r m e a b i l i t y I n d i c a t o r , " SPWLA 1 2 t h
Annual Logging Symposium, May 2-5, 1971, P a p e r M.
16. F a c c a , G i a n c a r l o , "The S t r u c t u r e and B e h a v i o r o f Geothermal F i e l d s , 1 1 Unesco, 1973,
Geothermal Energy ( E a r t h S c i e n c e s , 12), 1973.

17. F e d e r a l Energy A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , P r o j e c t Independence R e p o r t , November 1974.

18. F r i c k , Thomas C . and R. William T a y l o r , P e t r o l e u m P r o d u c t i o n Handbook, Vol. 2 ,

R e s e r v o i r E n g i n e e r i n g , N e w York, McGraw-Hill, 1 9 6 2 .
Fuchs, Robert L . and G e r a l d W . H u t t r e r , "Geothermal Energy: Slow-Growing I n d u s t r y
.
F i n a l l y H e a t s Up , E n g i n e e r i n g and Mining J o u r n a l , pp 89-9 3 , J a n u a r y 1 9 7 5 .

69
20. Fuchs, Robert L. a n d G e r a l d W . H u t t r e r , "Geothermal Energy: The C h a l l e n g e s t h a t L i e
Ahead," E n g i n e e r i n g a n d Mining J o u r n a l , pp. 78-82, F e b r u a r y 1975.
21. J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y , S t a t u s R e p o r t , Geothermal Program D e f i n i t i o n P r o j e c t ,
1200-205, P a s a d e n a , C A , A p r i l 4 , 1975.

22. J a c o b y , C. H. and D. K . P a u l , " S a l t Domes as a S o u r c e o f Geothermal Energy," S o c i e t y

of Mining E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 26, No. 5, pp. 34-39, May 1974.

23. J o n e s , B i l l R . , "The Use o f Downhole G r a v i t y Data i n F o r m a t i o n E v a l u a t i o n , I 1 SPWLA 1 3 t h

Annual Logping Symposium, May 7-10, 1972, p p . 1-13.

24. K e l l e r , George V. and Frank C . F r i s c h k n e c h t , E l e c t r i c a l Methods i n G e o p h y s i c a l

P r o s p e c t i n g , N e w York, Pergamon P r e s s , 1966.

25 - K e l l e r , George V . , J o h n C . Murray, and Guy H. Towle, " G e o p h y s i c a l Logs f r o m t h e

K i l a u e a G e o t h e r m a l R e s e a r c h D r i l l Hole ,I1 SPWLA 1 5 t h Annual Logging Symposium, J u n e 2-5,
1974, PP. 1-17, 1974.
26. Kiefer, I r e n e , " E a r t h B o i l s Below While We S c r a t c h t h e S u r f a c e f o r F u e l , " S m i t h s o n i a n ,
pp. 36-42, November 1974.

27 * K r u g e r , P a u l a n d Carel O t t e , E d i t o r s , Geothermal Energy: Resources, Production,

S t i m u l a t i o n , S t a n f o r d : S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973.

28. Lock, G. A . a n d W. A . Hoyer, " N a t u r a l Gamma S p e c t r a l Logging," SPWLA 1 2 t h Annual

Logging Symposium, May 2-5, 1971, P a p e r AA.

29 Lock, G. A . and W . A. Hoyer, "Carbon-Oxygen (C/O) Logs: U s e and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 1 1

4 8 t h Annual Meeting o f t h e SPE o f A I M E , September 30-October 3, 1973, P a p e r 4639.

30 Lynch, Edward J . , F o r m a t i o n E v a l u a t i o n , H a r p e r s G e o s c i e n c e S e r i e s , New York,

H a r p e r a n d Rowe, 1962.

31 - Matsuo, K e i j i , " D r i l l i n g for Geothermal Steam and Hot Water," Unesco, 1973, Geothermal
Energy ( E a r t h S c i e n c e s , 1 2 ) , 1973.

32 O t t e , Carel, "Geothermal Energy Developments i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,I1 P a p e r p r e s e n t e d

t o t h e I n d o n e s i a n P e t r o l e u m A s s o c i a t i o n i n J a p a n , J u n e 2-3, 1 9 7 4 .

33. P o r t e r , Lloyd R. , "Geothermal R e s o u r c e I n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,I1 J o u r n a l o f , t h e H y d r a u l i c s

D i v i s i o n , Vol. 9 9 , No. H Y 1 1 , November 1973.

34. Ramey, J r . , H. J . , "Short-Time Well T e s t Data I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e P r e s e n c e o f S k i n

E f f e c t and W e l l b o r e S t o r a g e , " J o u r n a l o f P e t r o l e u m Technology, pp. 97-104, J a n u a r y 1970.

35. S c h l u m b e r g e r L i m i t e d , Log I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , V o l s . I a n d 11, 1972.

36. S c h l u m b e r g e r Well S e r v i c e s , P r i c e S c h e d u l e , C a l i f o r n i a Land, August 1 9 7 4 .
37. Sembodo, " N o t e s on F o r m a t i o n E v a l u a t i o n i n t h e J a t i b a r a n g V o l c a n i c R e s e r v o i r , I t
n 2nd Annual, C o n v e n t i o n , p p . 131-147,
J u n e 1973.

38. S m i t h , Morton C . , "The Los Alamos Geothermal Dry Hot Rock S o u r c e D e m o n s t r a t i o n P r o j e c t ,It
Geothermal E n e r g y , pp. 8-14, O c t o b e r 1974.

39. S o c i e t y of P e t r o l e u m E n g i n e e r s of A I M E , Well Logging, SPE R e p r i n t S e r i e s No. 1, 1971.

40. S t o n e , R. T. a n d R. G . Wayland, "Geothermal R e s o u r c e O p e r a t i o n a l (GRO) O r d e r s 1, 2 , 3,"
F e d e r a l R e g i s t e r , V o l . 40, No. 32, p p . 6792-6797, F e b r u a r y 1 4 , 1975.

4 1 . Thomas, H a r o l d E. and Thomas E. S t e r n e r , "Hot-Film Flow Logging as A p p l i e d t o I n S i t u

O i l S h a l e a n d Mining E x p e r i m e n t s , " SPWLA 1 3 t h Annual Logging Symposium, May 7-10, 1972,
pp. 1 - 1 4 , 1972.

42. Tompkins, D. C . , "Power from t h e E a r t h : Geothermal E n e r g y , P u b l i c P o l i c y

Bibliographies : 3," I n s t i t u t e of Governmental S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
B e r k e l e y , 1972.

70
43. U n i v e r s i t y of Texas a t A u s t i n , D i v i s i o n o f E x t e n s i o n , "We11 Logging Methods ," L e s s o n s
i n Well S e r v i c i n g and Workover, F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 1 .
44. Wichmann, P . A . , "Neutron A c t i v a t i o n f o r E l e m e n t a l D e t e r m i n a t i o n i n B o r e h o l e s , "
SPWLA 1 2 t h Annual Logging Symposium, May 2-5, 1 9 7 1 , P a p e r G .
 This page intentionally left blank.

72
 Appendix C
PERSONS CONTACTED AND THEIR AFFILIATIONS

Amargraph, D i v i s i o n of U. S . S t e e l J e t P r o p u l s i o n Laboratory , Pasadena, California

Houston, Texas
E. Bahm
J . Luby E. Christensen
D. V i c k e r s W. Edmistin
P. Gordon
Amax C o r p o r a t i o n , Denver, Colorado J. Graf
D. Griffin
A. Lang L. Jaffe
L. Leibowitz
B i r d w e l l , D i v i s i o n of Seismograph S e r v i c e R. McKay
C o r p o r a t i o n , T u l s a , Oklahoma Y. Nakamura
L. Stimpson
J. M. Caldwell G. Wiker
G. J. Crawford
J. E. Hawkins Lawrence Livermore L a b o r a t o r y , Livermore ,
W. F. Norris Cali f o r n i a
R. L. Tucker
S. R. Bishop
Colorado S c h o o l o f Mines, Golden, Colorado J. H. Howard
L. B. Owen
G. V. Keller D. F. Towse

Chevron O i l , San F r a n c i s c o , C a l i f o r n i a Los Alamos S c i e n t i f i c L a b o r a t o r y ,

Los Alamos, New Mexico
A. Cooper
M. Smith
Dresser A t l a s , Denver, Colorado F. West

W. Hamilton Maurer E n g i n e e r i n g , Houston, Texas

Dresser A t l a s , Houston, Texas W. C . Maurer
W. T. McDonald
A. H. Youmans C . E. Ward

G e a r h a r t Owen I n d u s t r i e s , I n c . , Fort R o c h e s t e r C o r p o r a t i o n , Culpepper, V i r g i n i a

Worth, Texas
E. Garne
M. Gearhart K. Proud
E . Johns
Schlumberger, B a k e r s f i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a
Geosystems C o r p o r a t i o n , N e w York C i t y ,
New York H. Trumps
R. Fuchs Schlumberger, Farmington, N e w Mexico
Geothermal K i n e t i c s , I n c o r p o r a t e d , H. B. H o l l i n g s w o r t h
Phoenix, Arizona D. P e a r s o n

W. Austin, Jr. S c h l u m b e r g e r , Houston, Texas

H a l i b u r t o n S e r v i c e s , Duncan , Oklahoma J . O'Brien

M. C r a m
M. F. Anderson M. Dumanoir
B. Blackman G. Pardue
J. M. Montgomery M. T i x i e r
C. Zimmerman L. Wells

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 Schlumberger, V e n t u r a , C a l i f o r n i a Westinghouse Ocean R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y ,
A n n a p o l i s , Maryland
W. Donald
F. W. McCamus R . Kehrman
D. P e r c y f i e l d
Welex, D i v i s i o n o f H a l i b u r t o n S e r v i c e s ,
Schlumberger D o l l R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , Houston, Texas
Ridge fi e Id, C o n n e c t i c u t
T. Walker
G. Coates
G. Feather
E. Finklea

S p e r r y F l i g h t Systems, P h o e n i x , Arizona
D. Few
S p e r r y R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r i e s , Concord,
Massachusetts
W. McBee
H. Cronson
D. Lamensdorf
H. Matthews
G. Ross
Stanford University, Stanford, California
W. Brigham, J r .
H. Ramey
Texaco R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r i e s , B e l A i r , Texas
K. D . Savage
Union Oil, Los Angeles, C a l i f o r n i a
C. O t t e
N. S t e f a n i d e s

Union O i l R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Brea, C a l i f o r n i a
R. Ransom

U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , Denver, Colorado

R. Chicko
A. Clebsch
G. Eaton
A. Hess
S. Keys
L. M. MacCary
J. Sena
J. Sullivan
T. Taylor
P . W i 1li ams

U. S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , Menlo P a r k ,
California
B. Boudreau
L. Dutcher
V e c t o r Cable Company, S u g a r l a n d , Texas
W. Savage
F. Sawin

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Morris B. S k a l k a ( 2 0 )
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