A Study on Survivors of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh: Pathways

and Experiences

Course Code: CPS 5302

Course Title: Thesis
Masters 3rd Semester

Nasif Sadik
Student ID: CP14010

June 21, 2022

Department of Criminology and Police Science

Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
Santosh, Tangail-1902
A Study on Survivors of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh: Pathways
and Experience

Submitted To

Subrata Banarjee
Associate Professor
Department of Criminology and Police Science
Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
Santosh, Tangail-1902

Submitted By
Nasif Sadik
ID: CP14010
MS 3rd Semester
Session: 2017-18
Department of Criminology and Police Science
Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
Santosh, Tangail-1902

This report is submitted as a partial requirement for the fulfillment of the course CPS
5302 (Thesis) of MS in The Department of Criminology and Police Science.
 Approval of Internal Supervisor

………………………………………………………

Subrata Banarjee
Associate Professor
Department of Criminology and Police Science
Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University
Santosh, Tangail-1902
 Approval of External Supervisor

……………………………………………………….
Professor Mohammed Bin Kashem, PhD
Acting Dean, Curriculum Development and Evaluation
National University, Gazipur
 Table of Contents

Subjects Page No
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement iii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and Background of the Study 1-3

1.2 Statement of the Problem: 4-5
1.3 Significance of the Study: 5-8
1.4 Objectives of the study: 8

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2. Literature Review 9
2.1 Definitional issues of women trafficking 9-11
2.2 Scenario of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh 11-13
13-14
2.3 Women Trafficking in South Asia
2.4 Issues of Women Trafficking in the World Context 15-16
2.5 Causes of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh 16-18
2.6 Routes of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh 18-19
2.7 Consequences of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh 19-20
2.8 Legal instrument and initiatives by Bangladesh Government combating 20-21
Trafficking
2.8.1 Constitution of Bangladesh 21-22

2.8.2 Specific law related to counter trafficking 22

2.8.3International Instrument Related to Human Trafficking 22
2.9 Role of NGOs combating trafficking in Bangladesh 23-24
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
25
3.1 Theoretical Framework:
3.1.1 Marginalization theory and its relevancy to my research 25-27
3.1.2 Routine activity theory and its relevancy to my research 27-29
3.1.3 Radical feminist theory and its relevancy to my research 29-30
30
3.2 Research Methodology
30-31
3.2.1 Research design
3.2.2 Population 31

3.2.3 Study Area 31-32

3.2.4 Sampling and Sample size determination 32-33

33
3.2.5 Questionnaire Construction
33-34
3.2.6 Data Collection Method
3.2.7 Data Processing and Analysis Technique 35

3.2.8 Ethical Consideration 35

35-36
3.2.9 Limitation of the study
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

4.Thematic Analysis 37

4.1 Lower socio-economic conditions consist more victimization 37-39

4.2 Lack of family support and attachment increases greater risk of victimization 39-41

4.3 Trafficker’s information: Organized or syndicate groups work as a team 42-43

4.4 Routes of trafficking: The middleman plays an important role 43-45

4.5 Contact with the traffickers: Social media plays a role 46-48
4.6 Fake promise of jobs ended up in sexual exploitation 48-50
4.7 Economic vulnerability makes more trafficking prone 51-53
4.8 Use of digital platforms and social media to recruit victims 53-56
4.9 Physical torture, gang rape and inhaling drugs forcefully 56-61
4.10 Broken down mentally by seizing passports, fear of abuse and threat 61-62
4.11 Suspicious role of law enforcement agencies in border area 62-64
 4.12 Repatriation of victims from the destination country 64-66
4.13 Societal reaction: Trafficked women are bad women 66-67
4.14 Victim blaming also occurs in family 67-68
4.15 Pathway of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh 68-69
4.15.1 Traffickers take the opportunity of vulnerabilities of the victims: 69
4.15.2 Enticed by false promise 70
4.15.3 Communication and rapport building 70-71
4.15.4 Transferring near border area 71
4.15.5 Presence of middlemen in the border area 71-72
4.15.6 Frequent transferring of the victims 72-73
4.15.7 Traffickers-Security Forces-Politician nexus 73-74
4.15.8 Exploitation of the victims 74-75
4.15.9 Rescue of victims 75
4.15.10 Repatriation of the victim 75-76
4.16 Role of BNWLA supporting victim 76-77
4.16.1 Rescue and repatriation of victims 77-78
4.16.2 Rehabilitation 78-79
4.16.3 Assistance during trafficking prosecution 79-81
4.16.4 Reintegration in community 81-82
4.16.5 Awareness raising at community level and communication 82-83

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.Conclusion 84-86
References 87-90
Apendix-1 91-93
Apendix-2 94-95
Apendix-3 96-99
 List of Figure

Topic Page

Figure-1: Pathways of women trafficking in Bangladesh 76

Figure-2: Role of BNWLA in reintegration process. 83

 Abstract
Trafficking in persons, especially women, is one of the worst forms of human rights
violation, and its generosity is going upward daily worldwide. Considering the
geopolitical location of the country, poor socio-economic status of women and the
insecure border with neighboring countries make Bangladesh one of the source countries
and transit points for human trafficking.The study's main objective is to find out the
pathways of women trafficking in Bangladesh. Besides, this study also tried to figure out
how human rights organizations assisting the survivors of women trafficking through
rehabilitation, reintegration, legal support and ensuring access to justice. The study
employed exploratory qualitative research design, and data are collected from 12
respondents through in-depth interviews in Dhaka Metropolitan Area. Finally, thematic
analysis is used to analyze the data. The study's findings demonstrate that most of the
victims of women trafficking belong to a young age group and have poor socio-economic
background. In most cases, traffickers used the vulnerabilities of women and enticed
them through the false promise of a job and better lifestyle, which finally ended up in
sexual exploitation. The study also explores that victims of the study also experienced
extreme physical and psychological abuse in the destination country. Moreover,
traffickers also used social media and digital platforms to recruit the victims. Human
rights organizations support victims through legal assistance and rehabilitative
programs.
Keywords: Women trafficking, marginalization, sexual exploitation, repatriation,

reintegration.

ii
 Acknowledgement

First, I would like to express my heartiest gratitude to my internal supervisor Subrata

Banarjee, Associate Professor of the Department of Criminology and Police Science,
Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, who encouraged and inspired me
for conducting a research on women trafficking in Bangladesh. His close and constant
guidance helped me to conduct such a research. It was impossible to complete the study
without his guidance and supervision.

I am also grateful to my external supervisor Professor Mohammad Bin Kashem, PhD;

Acting Dean Curriculum Development and Evaluation, National University for his
constructive guidance to conduct this study.
I would like to thank Mohammed Jahirul Islam, Associate Professor of the Department of
Criminology and Police Science, for his constructive comments on my study. I am also
grateful to Md. Abdul Kader Miah, Associate Professor of the Department of
Criminology and Police Science, for his valuable suggestions on my study. Special
thanks to Md. Aurongojeb Akond, Assistant Professor of the Department of Criminology
and Police Science, for his valuable suggestions and inspiration in conducting the study.
I owe my deepest gratitude to Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’ Association
(BNWLA) for their enormous cooperation in conducting the study. Especially grateful to
Advocate Salma Ali, President of BNWLA for permitting me to access victim’s list of
Women trafficking from BNWLA. I am thankful to Nafiz Imtiaz Hassan, Director of
BNWLA for his valuable suggestions for conducting the study. My gratitude goes to all
the members of the Legal Cell Department of BNWLA for their active cooperation and
inspiration.
At last, I express my deepest gratitude to all of my respondents and their families who
highly helped and showed a positive attitude to me when I collected the information.
Special thanks to my family members and friends who always inspired me to accomplish
my study successfully.

Nasif Sadik
June 21, 2022

iii
 List of Abbrebiation

BGB= Border Guard Bangladesh

BSF= Border Security Force
BNWLA= Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’ Association
CEDAW= Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination AgainsWomen
CWCS= Centre for Women and Children Studies
CV= Curriculum Vitae
GO= Government Organization
HIV= Human Immunodeficiency Virus
ILO= International Labor Organization
INGO= International Non-Government Organization
KII= Key Informant Interview
MoU= Memorandum of Understanding
NGO= Non-Government Organization
SAARC= South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
TIP= Trafficking in Persons
TVPA= Trafficking Victim Protection Act
UN= United Nation
UNFPA= United Nations Population Fund
UNODC= United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNICEF= United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
USAID= United States Agency for International Development
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and Background of the Study

Human trafficking in Bangladesh has become a significant issue of

concern in recent years. Human trafficking, especially the trafficking of women

and girls, is a national and international issue. Considering the geopolitical

location and as a developing country of South Asia, where a significant portion of

the country is enclosed with India, Bangladesh can be treated as one of the source

countries as well as a transit point for human trafficking (Ashraf, 2018).

Trafficking by any means can be explained as a gross violation of human rights and

a serious crime against dignity and humanity (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013). In

Bangladesh, human trafficking is the most profitable illegitimate endeavor. In

Bangladesh and globally, the second-largest criminal enterprise is human

trafficking and the arms business. It is estimated that the global profit of human

trafficking is roughly 150$ billion for traffickers and 99$ billion is earned from

commercial sexual exploitation (Sarkar & Panday, 2006). International

communities around the earth treat trafficking in persons as a modern form of

slavery or slavery-like practices and a gross violation of human rights and

practice. Among the trafficking victims, women and children are in the most

vulnerable position (Ashraf, 2018).

The definition of the term trafficking is still ambiguous.

International actors have no agreed definition of trafficking, which varies

frequently. The term "trafficking" parameter is changing continuously in response

1
to the change in political, economic, and social conditions. The mode and way of

trafficking change from time to time, place to place, and environment to

environment, but the basic elements remain constant (BISWAS, 2015).

International organizations use several definitions to explain trafficking. The

definitions mainly focus on gender, age, reasons for trafficking, issue of force, and

violence involved with trafficking. Though sex work or prostitution is an important

component of trafficking, trafficking is carried out not only for prostitution but

also for other purposes (Gazi, et al., 2001).

Trafficking is a gender and age-specific phenomenon which

especially affects women and children (Skrobanek, 2000). Several studies have

found that among the victims of trafficking, women and girls' children are more

vulnerable. Estimating the number of women and children trafficked from

Bangladesh to other countries is difficult. However, it has been found that over 1

million women and children have been trafficked from Bangladesh in the last 30

years. Besides, UNICEF reports indicate that approximately 400 women and

children in Bangladesh are subject to trafficking every month. Another study

demonstrates that approximately 300000 Bangladeshi women and girls aged

between 12 to 30 were trafficked to India in the last ten years (Hoq, Asa, &

Rahman, 2013). Moreover, several human rights organizations estimate that

around 200-400 women and children are smuggled from Bangladesh to Pakistan

every month. Most of them end up in prostitution. A large number of Bangladeshi

women and girls work in brothels in India mostly in Kolkata, Delhi, and Mumbai

(Gazi, et al., 2001)

2
 Human trafficking is not treated as a traditional security issue; rather than a

combination of broader approaches in the form of transnational crime, corruption,

violation of human rights, threatening individuals' survival, dignity, and livelihood

(Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies, 2011). Most victims are

trafficked either for bonded labor or commercial sexual exploitation. Women

make up a significant portion of total trafficking victims around the globe. Two-

thirds of the world's victims of human trafficking are women, especially young

women and girls aged 11 to 25 (UNODC, 2015). Besides, it's estimated that 71%

of enslaved people are women and girls globally, while 29% account for men and

boys. (Trafficking and Slavery Factsheet, 2019) Most of the time, such women

and girls are attracted with a false promise of a well-paid job. Finally, they are

abused sexually, tortured harshly, drugged, confiscated passports and at the last

moment, blackmailed as well (BISWAS, 2015).

To determine the total number of human trafficking is quite impossible. It is

difficult figuring out the exact data as most of the victim's families never willingly

provide exact information. However, estimates suggest that globally only about

.04% of trafficking cases are identified, by all means, the majority of the cases

remained undetected. Within the last thirty years, one million women and children

are trafficked from Bangladesh. In the last decade, approximately 3 lac women

and children aged between 20 to 30 years were trafficked to India alone from

Bangladesh (Sarkar & Panday, 2006). Some non-government organizations

claimed that the number of trafficking victims is even higher.

3
1.2 Statement of the Problem

The constitution of Bangladesh, which is the state's supreme law,

has ensured equal protection of laws to all the citizens and ensured their right to

life and liberty, freedom and movement. Article 34(1) states that, all forms of

forced labor are prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an

offence punishable in accordance with law. Again Article 36 bestows that: Subject

to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the public interest, ever citizen

shall have the right to move freely throughout Bangladesh, to reside and settle in any

place therein and to leave and re-enter Bangladesh (Constitution of Bangladesh,

1973). But all these constitutional promises are becoming vague due to organized

human trafficking in Bangladesh. Human trafficking is an illegal trade of human

beings for continuous and reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation,

forced- labor or a modern- day form of slavery.

Trafficking is a profitable business and linked with other criminal

enterprises and corruption. It is a hidden crime, and addressing such crime is quite

tricky (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013). Trafficking is also a global issue. As the most

densely populated region on earth, South Asia is one of the most vulnerable

regions for trafficking because of its massive population, large-scale rural-urban

migration, a large population living under extreme poverty, and recurrent natural

disaster. Here women and girls are sold, traded, and exchanged for prostitution,

slavery, or even bonded labor across borders (Gazi, et al., 2001). In Bangladesh,

human trafficking has reached an intense condition. The root causes of trafficking are

extreme disparities of wealth, inequality due to class, gender biases throughout the regions,

4
 erosion of traditional family system and values, lack of transparency, poor enforcement of

international agreed upon human rights standard, enormous profits by traffickers. Besides,

unemployment, domestic violence, lack of employment opportunities are also responsible

for women trafficking (Ashraf, 2018). The government failed to control human

trafficking in Bangladesh with its endless effort. Besides activities of NGOs and

multilateral agencies' advocacy and awareness programs are also very limited

(Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies, 2011). The US Department of

state already included Bangladesh in its trafficking in the 2-tier ranking. There are

both internal and external trafficking exits in Bangladesh, but a large portion of

trafficking in Bangladesh is cross-bordered. Such illegal transaction rate is high

among persons of Bangladesh and India (Thomas, 2011).

1.3 Significance of the Study

The migration of human beings started at the beginning of human

civilization for a variety of reasons. Modern technology and rapid development in

communication sectors have made the world a global village, and no one is bound

to a particular geographic boundary. As an overpopulated country and considering

its geo-political location, Bangladeshi women and girls are more vulnerable to

human trafficking. Women and girls who are trafficked are mainly used for sexual

exploitation, bonded labor, or domestic servitude. Victims of such trafficking

experience physical and psychological abuse hamper their socio-economic well-

being and destroy their self-esteem, confidence level, and potential. Besides, when

they are repatriated to their family, they are not appreciated but have to face stigma

by mainstream society, community members, and family (Sarowar, 2014).

5
 Human trafficking, especially women and girls trafficking, is a

profitable illegal enterprise worldwide. It's a global issue. Such a problem is

spreading at an alarming rate. Trafficking in women is one of the fastest growing

criminal enterprises in the globe with an estimated one to two million young

women and girls being trafficked annually for sexual exploitation, domestic

servitude, and forced labor (Rukhsana Gazi, 2001). According to the United States

State Department an estimated 6,00,000 to 8,20,000 men, women, and children

have trafficked across international borders annually, approximately 80 percent are

women and girls and up to 50 percent are minors. (Bangladesh Institute of Peace

and Security Studies, 2011)

Several studies on human trafficking have identified issues like

poverty, gender discrimination, illiteracy, lack of awareness, social exclusion, poor

governance system all responsible for women trafficking in Bangladesh.

Nevertheless, most of the studies are backdated and particular secondary data

based. Very few studies are conducted based on primary data to figure out the

actual scenario of women trafficking in Bangladesh. As modern technology has

emerged, the rapid growth of social media and digitization in ICT sectors, vital

networking of organized crime groups beyond national boundaries, globalization,

development in tourism sectors, etc. all the changes that have taken place; also

impacted human trafficking issues. Women trafficking issues should be studied

more concisely, considering all the circumstances. Several reports indicate that

human traffickers frequently use online social media platforms to recruit and

advertise the targets of human trafficking. (US State Department, 2019). Besides,

6
 commercialization in the sex trade, its openness and availability, and short time

profit expanding the issue of women trafficking around the globe.

Due to their complicated legal status and language barriers, the arrest

or fear of arrest creates stress and other emotional trauma for trafficking victims.

Victims may also experience physical violence from law enforcement during

raids. Trafficking victims are also exposed to different psychological stressors.

They suffer social alienation in the host and home countries. Stigmatization, social

exclusion, and intolerance make reintegration into local communities difficult.

The governments offer little assistance and social services to trafficked victims

upon their return. As the victims are also pushed into drug trafficking, many face

criminal sanction legal status and their language barriers, the arrest or fear of

arrest creates stress and other emotional trauma for trafficking victims. Victims

may also experience physical violence from law enforcement during raids.

Trafficking victims are also exposed to different psychological stressors. They

suffer social alienation in the host and home countries, besides Stigmatization,

social exclusion, and intolerance make reintegration into local communities

difficult. The governments offer little assistance and social services to trafficked

victims upon their return. As the victims are also pushed into drug trafficking,

many face criminal sanctions. If any woman or girl is trafficked to work in a

brothel or sexual exploitation, the possibility of infection in sexually transmitted

disease or HIV will undoubtedly be high. Besides, it will be difficult for her to

reintegrateinto a larger community (Rosy, 2016).

This study can be helpful to policymakers, practitioners, academicians, and general

7
people to give them insight into the women trafficking issue from an entirely new

angle. Besides, they will also be able to identify the lacking and barriers to combat

such crime by adjusting newly emerged technology. The issue of trafficking has

gotten paramount interest among policymakers, academicians and practitioners

internationally, regionally, and nationally.

1.4 Research Question

The proposed research will address the following research questions:

1) What are the pathways of women trafficking in Bangladesh?

2) How the human rights organization supports victims after being rescued?

1.4 Objectives of the study

The main aim of the proposed research is to know in-depth the nature and extent of

women trafficking in Dhaka city, contributing factors behind such acts, its

consequence on women's social and personal life, and how human rights

organizations support the victim of women trafficking. Concerning the research

problem, key objectives of the proposed research include:

i. To examine to what extent the existing socio-economic background

affects women trafficking in Bangladesh.

ii. To find out the process of women trafficking in the present context.

iii. To find out contributing factors behind women trafficking in the Dhaka
Metropolitan area.

iv. To figure out the consequence of women trafficking on the personal

and social life ofwomen.

v. To evaluate the role of human rights organization in supporting

victims.

8
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2. Literature Review

This chapter discusses some of the literature I have studied and reviewed about the

issue of women trafficking from a worldwide perspective, South Asian country

context and lastly, in our country basis. As my study is about understanding the

pathways and reasons of women trafficking, I have studied and reviewed literature

relevant to such an issue. My study has been inspired, outlined and thus helped by

several studies and kinds of literature by prominent scholars who have written

extensively on the issues of women trafficking, its mode and routes and in

Bangladesh and the consequence of such trafficking in our society

2.1 Definitional issues of women trafficking

International organizations use various definitions for describing trafficking. The

definitions tend to focus on gender, age, reason for trafficking, and the issues of

coercion and violence which are often associated with South Asian Association

for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) adopted a definition in the trafficking.

Countries of the Convention for Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women

and Children.

“Trafficking in women consists of all acts involved in the procurement,

transportation, forced movement, and/or selling and buying of women

within and/or across border by fraudulent means, deception, coercion, direct

and/or indirect threats, abuse of authority, for the purpose of placing a

woman against her will without her consent in exploitative and abusive

9
 situations such as forced prostitution, forced marriage, bonded and forced

labor, begging, organ trade, etc.” (Rahman, 2011).

The US President’s Interagency Council on Women defines trafficking as:

“All acts involved in the recruitment, transport, harboring or sale of

persons within national or across international borders through deception

or fraud, coercion or force, or debt bondage for purposes of placing

persons in situations of forced labor or services, such as forced prostitution

orsexual services, domestic servitude, or other forms of slavery-like

practices” (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013)

Article 3, paragraph (a) of the UNODC Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish

Trafficking in Persons defines Trafficking in Persons as

“The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons,

by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of

abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of

vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve

the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose

of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of

the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor

or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal

of organs” (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013).

The United Nation's definition of human trafficking is

“The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons,

10
 by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of

abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of

vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve

the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose

of exploitation"(Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013).

Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’ Association (BNWLA) defines trafficking as

“All acts involved in the recruitment and/or transport of a woman (or child)

within and across national borders for work or services (or marriage) by means of

violence or threat of violence, abuse of authority or dominant position, debt

bondage, deception or other forms of coercion” (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013)

2.2 The scenario of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a source and transit country for men, women, and children

trafficked for forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Today it has

become a major social and political concern internationally and nationally.

Bangladesh is predominantly a source country for victims of cross-border

trafficking for many reasons. Human trafficking is not a traditional security issue,

it’s a combination of national security in forms of transnational crime, corruption,

women’s rights and threatening individual dignity, survival and livelihood

(Rahman, 2011).

The illegal trafficking of Bangladeshi women started in 1976 with the

commencement of male and female labor to Middle Eastern countries (Sarkar &

Panday, 2006). There is no reliable estimate of women and children trafficked from

11
 Bangladesh to other countries. Due to the clandestine nature of trafficking and

lower prosecution, crime statistics presents low estimate of human trafficking

(Rahman, 2011). Research indicates that, over 1 million women and girls have

been trafficked from Bangladesh in last 30 years. Besides, the UNICEF report

suggests that approximately 400 women and children in Bangladesh become

victims of trafficking every month. Another study also suggests that

approximately 300,000 Bangladeshi women and children aged 12 to 30 were

trafficked to India alone in the last 10 years (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013). Further,

another report reveals that, in 2000-2010, 20,000 Bangladeshi women and

children were trafficked to India alone (Rahman, 2011).

Human rights activists estimate that 200-400 young women and children are

trafficked every month from Bangladesh into Pakistan, where most of them end up

in prostitution. A large number of women also work in Indian brothel as well (Gazi,

et al., 2001). A total of 778 trafficking cases were recorded in 2017 and 561 cases in

2018 by the Bangladesh Government. Between May 2014 and April 2015-time

frame, Bangladesh Police had identified 2646 victims of trafficking. Between

September 2016 and February 2018, Bangladesh police recorded 1000 human

trafficking cases, arrested 2100 people and identified 1100 victims. From 2019-to

2020, the Government of Bangladesh investigated 403 trafficking cases under 2012

Trafficking Act. However, 4407 trafficking cases remained pending in December

2019 (University of Nottingham Rights Lab, 2021).

According to the US State Department TIP report 2020, Bangladesh ranked in

Tier-2, including other 44 countries. Bangladesh eld the position Tire-2 watch list

12
in for the previous three years in 2017-2019-time frame and was promoted to Tire-

2 in 2020. Bangladesh was in Tier 2 category from 2011 to 2017 and degradated to

Tier 2 watchlist according to 2018 TIP report published by US State Department

(Islam, 2020). Tier-2 ranked countries are those countries whose governments do

not fully meet the TVPA’s minimum standard but are making significant efforts to

bring themselves into compliance with those standards (US Department of State,

2020). US State Department TIP report 2020 also reveals that, in Bangladesh law

enforcement in Bangladesh has decreased investigation of trafficking cases and

continue to deny report of human trafficking. Besides, police and prosecutors did

not collaborate during the law enforcement period. TIP report suggests Bangladesh

Government increase efforts in prosecution and conviction for trafficking cases.

Considering the problem's scale, Bangladesh Government acknowledges that

investigation, prosecution and conviction remain inadequate.

The conviction rate for suspected traffickers was only 1.7% under the Prevention

and the Suppression of Human Trafficking Act, 2012. Further, NGO report

reveals that, substantial delay contributes to the death of successful investigation

and prosecution. Most suspect remained out of jail and could bribe or threaten

victims not to testify (University of Nottingham Rights Lab, 2021).

2.3 Women Trafficking in South Asia

South Asia is considered one of the most vulnerable regions for human trafficking

because of its large population, large scale rural-urban migration, a major portion

of the population living in chronic poverty and recurrent natural disaster. In South

Asia, women and children are frequently sold, traded and exchanged for sexual

13
slavery and prostitution across borders such as Bangladesh to India, Pakistan and

Middle East, Nepal to India, Myanmar to Thailand, Philippines to Japan (Gazi, et

al., 2001).

It is tough to estimate the exact number of women and children trafficked from one

country to another in the Asian region. But research indicates that trafficking in

Asia accounts for large scale of the global volume of trafficked women and

children. The Congressional Research and the US State Department estimate that

between 1 to 2 million people are trafficked each year globally with majority in

Asia (Sarkar & Panday, 2006). In the last two decades, the number of trafficked

women and children has increased alarmingly in South Asia. Recent data indicates

that, in 2017, 8759 human trafficking cases affecting 10,615 individual victims

were reported to hotlines operated by the Polaris Project. Of these, 71% were sex

trafficking cases, 15% were labor trafficking cases, 4% were sex & labor

trafficking cases, and 10% were unspecified. Of the 8,966 survivors of known age,

69% were adults and 31% were minors. Of the 10,074 survivors of known gender,

85% were female, 14% were male, and 0.6% were gender minorities. (Asian

pacific institute on gender-based violence, 2018). Besides, in South Asia, victims

of women trafficking are mostly involved in commercial sexual exploitation and

illegal sex trade. Such kind of sexual exploitation has clearly increased in

recent years. Recent statistics indicate that sexual exploitation represented half of

all the cases detected in 2016 and 36% in 2018 (University of Nottingham Rights

Lab, 2021).

14
 2.4 Issues of Women Trafficking in the World Context

Trafficking in persons is considered one of the fastest growing criminal enterprise

in the world (RUHI, 2003). Trafficking persons into commercial sexual

exploitation, forced prostitution, bonded labor, domestic servitude and other kinds

of work is a global phenomenon that occurs within countries, regions and on a

transcontinental scale. Trafficking in women is one of the fastest-growing criminal

activities in the world, and millions of women and young girls are being trafficked

annually for forced labor, domestic servitude and sexual exploitation. (Gazi, et al.,

2001). Several studies on human trafficking clearly indicates that, one of the major

victims of human trafficking is China, where 25% people are living under modern

slavery being involved in sex slavery and forced labor. According to US State

Department, annually 57,700 people are being trafficked in United States and 70%

of them are for sexual exploitation (MONIRUZZAMAN, 2021).

According to International Labor Organization, in 2016, globally, 4.8 million

people, almost exclusively female, were victims of forced commercial sexual

exploitation, where 73% of victims were estimated to be in Asia and the Pacific.

Besides, trafficking for sexual exploitation remains the most identified form of

trafficking globally. Trafficking for sexual exploitation makes up 50% of trafficking

cases globally, where females represent 92% of detected victims. In 2016, 59% of

cases of trafficking were closely involved with sex trafficking; in 2018, it was

approximately 50% (University of Nottingham Rights Lab, 2021). According to US

State Department, an estimated 6,00,000 to 8,20,000 men, women and children are

trafficked across the international border annually, approximately 80% of whom

15
are women (Rahman, 2011).

According to the US Department of State TIP report 2020, 34 countries of the

world rated in Tire-1 which had strongest response to trafficking in person

globally based on Trafficking and Violence Protection Act, 2000 (TVPA

Standard). Besides, 88 countries, including Bangladesh and India, ranked Tire-2 in

TIP report 2020. In addition, 44 countries were placed on Tire-2 watch list and 19

countries were ranked on Tire-3 based on TVPA Standard (US Department of State,

2020).

2.5 Causes of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries for women trafficking because

of large population, large scale of rural urban population living under chronic

poverty, natural disaster and gender inequality (Sarkar & Panday, 2006). The

trafficking process operates through a chain of events, actors and factors. The nexus

between supply and demand sides forms the chain (Rahman, 2011). Human

trafficking is not an asolated phenomena instead its connected to various socio-

economic factors (Biswas, 2015). The causes and factors that lead to trafficking are

multiple and complicated. In the cases of human trafficking, some driving factors

lead people in the path of human trafficking. Human trafficking is a response to

some push and pull factors. Push factors force the victim to follow the road of

vulnerabilities and create a trafficking-like environment. Pull factors offer false

promises and illusion, resulting in exploitation in the destination countries

(Rahman, 2011). Factors such as low employment opportunities, low social status

of women, economic and social vulnerabilities of women, urbanization, migration,

16
etc. Besides, pull factors support the demand of trafficking activities. Factors

including wage employment and bonded labor, labor migration, prostitution and

cultural myth (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013).

In Bangladesh, poverty, illiteracy, lack of awareness, unemployment, lack of

means of livelihood and landlessness, the status of women and girls in society,

globalization, industrialization, and lack of deterrence punishment are the main

reasons of women trafficking in Bangladesh. Besides, several research indicates

that poverty can be treated one of the most critical factors that make people

vulnerable to trafficking. In another study it is found that, poverty, lock of

economic oppourtunities, globalization, feminization of survival, vulnaribilities of

women due to lack of education, porus national boundaries are responsible for

women trafficking (AnwAry, 2007). Further, exploitative structure of patriarchal

society, women’s subordination and discriminatory practice restrict women’s

access to land and employment opportunities and often compel poor women to

migrate from one place to another. Inadequate job opportunities or safety nets

make young women vulnerable to trafficking as they lured by false alternative job

opportunities (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013). No matter how unrealistic women

living under extreme poverty, the promise of a better life creates risk for

trafficking in Bangladesh, gender discrimination and feminization of poverty are

responsible for massive women trafficking. Besides, the low status of women

excludes them from development opportunities disproportionately. They face

more severe poverty than men as they have less skills, education and resources

(Rahman, 2011). Besides, development in tourism sectors, industrialization, rural

17
 to urban migration, increasing the demand for commercial sex and expanding sex

industries increase the demand for sex workers leads to trafficking. Further,

globalization, liberalization, internal and external migration policies increased

opportunities for trafficking (RUHI, 2003).

Human trafficking is a profitable illegal enterprise. Its high profit and low penalty

system make human trafficking attractive to criminal gangs. The profits obtained

by trafficking is shared by traffickers, transporters, shelter provider, members of

the criminal gang, corrupted government security official and employers of

traffickers (Rahman, 2011).

The ineffective legal system, loopholes in existing laws and lack of execution of

penal policies motivating organized crime groups to involve in such lucrative

illegal enterprise. Judges are reluctant to impose harsh punishment prescribed by

relevant law resulting in lower conviction rate (University of Nottingham Rights

Lab, 2021).

2.6 Routes of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh

Traffickers use roads, waterways and air to conduct trafficking more smoothly. In

the Region of South Asia, India and Pakistan are the major two countries of

destination and are also used as a transit point to link with other regions of the

earth. Bangladesh shares a 4,222 kilometers border of 28 districts with India and

288 kilometers of two districts with Myanmar. Monitoring and policing any illegal

activities like trafficking is gigantic task in such border areas and traffickers take

advantage of it (Amin, 2011). Bangladeshi traffickers already made strong

networking in border areas and used it as safe transit point for human trafficking

18
(Rahman, 2011). Traffickers adopt strategies and tricks to allure young women

and children into the trafficking process. The procurement process for trafficking

in women in sex industry in Bangladesh involves the entrapment of women to be

sold to brothels nationally or to neighboring countries especially in India. Several

literatures showed that, 18 points of transit along the India-Bangladesh border are

used for trafficking of women and children out of the country. The border area of

Khulna, Jessore, Shatkhira, Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Rangpur, Mymenshing, Comilla,

Bhramanbaria and Sylhet are frequently used as land routes for trafficking. In the

Northern region, the district of Kurigram, Lalmonirhat, Nilphamri, Pachagarh,

Thakurgaon, Dinajpur, Chapai Nowabgonj, Naogaon and Rajshahi. In the South,

Jessore and Shatkhira are the area more susceptible to trafficking. For entering

India through Kolkata, the most common route is the Benapole borders in Jessore

through which 50% of the trafficking take places (Gazi, et al., 2001).

2.7 Consequences of Women Trafficking in Bangladesh

Trafficking is a serious violation of human rights and dignity, which has various

consequences at individual, family, community and country levels. It can be

argued that, trafficking is a part of a continuum of sexual exploitation that

perpetuates and continually reinforces the sub-ordinance status of women (Gazi, et

al., 2001). Victims of human trafficking suffer from physical and emotional abuse,

rape, threat against self and family or even death (Amin, 2011). Victims of human

trafficking completely lost their freedom and dignity under coercion (Hossain &

Nepa, 2019). Besides, trafficking victims are deprived of the opportunity to pursue

education and develop socially and mentally to achieve their full potential. It also

19
deprives a nation of vital human resources for development and contribute to

vicious circle of exploitation and poverty. Victims of human trafficking suffer

from enormous harm to their sexual, reproductive and psychological health as well

as it hampers prospect of development and their human rights (UNFPA, 2002).

All the studies related to trafficking outline the health consequences of human

trafficking and the physical emotional aspects of violence, human rights abuse and

sexual exploitation (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman, 2013). According to US State

Department, globally two million women are trafficked into sex industries

annually. Besides, victims of women trafficking suffer from lack of self-esteem,

emotional disturbance, disorientation, depression and scarred for future life. They

also undergo deep psychological disorder which may extend rest of the life

(Ashraf, 2018).

Trafficked persons usually work under such conditions which are hazardous to

their mental and physical health. Because of the link between trafficking and sex

industry, the most frequently reported health consequences was the role of

trafficking in HIV-associated epidemics (Gazi, et al., 2001).

2.8 Legal instrument and initiatives by Bangladesh Government combating

trafficking

The Government of Bangladesh produced the National Plan of Action for the

prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking 2018-2022 if adequately

implemented, would demonstrate enforcement and implementation procedures

sufficient to meet the Trafficking Victim Protection Act’s (TVPA) minimum

standards. (USAID, 2019). Both Government and NGOs are working together to

20
combat trafficking in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has ratified many international laws

and convention as well in this issue. Bangladesh has ratified the convention on the

Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women with Reservation of

Article 2, 13(a), 16.1, and 16.1 (9c) and convention of the Rights of the Child

(UNCRC). In recent year, Bangladesh Government has promulgated a number of

laws, also approved various policies and regulation combating the issue of women

trafficking (Gazi, et al., 2001).

In Bangladesh the issue of trafficking in persons is dealt with both Penal Code

1860 and the Prevention and Suppression of Human Trafficking Act, 2012. Issue

of trafficking also addressed in the Prevention of Oppression against Women and

Child Act 2000. Besides, the Government of Bangladesh and India singed MoU in

peace between them to facilitate bilateral cooperation to prevent human trafficking.

This agreement ensure rescue, recovery, repatriation, and reintegration of victims.

Also emphasize preventive measure and promote cooperation through information

sharing by police and relevant authorities. Bangladesh’s legal frameworks provide

strong standpoint for the criminalization, protection, law enforcement and victim

support. But still far away to effectively facilitate survivor’s recovery,

reintegration and appropriate repatriation (University of Nottingham Rights Lab,

2021).

2.7.1 Constitution of Bangladesh

Article 32 of the Bangladesh Constitution, through incorporating the provision for

the protection of life provides a basis for a legal to combat trafficking. Article 34

(1) prohibits all forms of forced labor and discourages prostitution, and states that

21
trafficking of a person for forced labor is a violation of fundamental rights

guaranteed in constitution. Besides, Article 28(4) creates the space for state to

make special laws for women, children and backward section of people.

2.7.2 Specific laws related to counter-trafficking

1. The Penal Code, 1860 contains provision for punishing crimes related to

abduction, kidnapping, subject to slavery keeping in confinement, buying

or disposing any person as a slave and selling for prostitution. Section, 360,

362, 363, 365, 366(A), 366(B), 367, 388,369, 370, 371, 32, 373 and 370.

2. The Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act, 1933

3. The Children Act, 2013

4. The Cruelty to Women (Deterrent Punishment) Ordinance, 1983

5. The Prevention of Repression against Women and Children (Special Provision)

Act, 1995

6. The Prevention of Repression against Women and Children Act, 2000

7. The Bangladesh Labor Code Act, 2006

2.7.3 International Instrument Related to Human Trafficking

1. Convention for the Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and

Exploitations of theProstitution of Others, 1949

2. Supplementary convention on the abolishment of Slavery, Slave Trade and

Institution andPractices similar to slavery, 1956

3. Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women,

1979

4. International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966

5. Convention on Abolishment of Forced Labor

22
 6.Convention Against Discrimination (Employment and Occupation), 1950

2.8 Role of NGOs combating trafficking in Bangladesh

Several NGOs in Bangladesh are participating in ant trafficking activities through

raising awareness, advocacy, research, networking, rescue, repatriation and

rehabilitation. The most prominent NGOs in the field of trafficking are BNWLA,

CWCS, Uttoron, and others NGOs which laying vital role addressing the issue of

trafficking (RUHI, 2003). The CWCS is mostly involved in research, training and

advocacy. (Gazi, et al., 2001). Besides, BNWLA mostly involved in rescue,

repatriation, and rehabilitation, managing shelter homes in Dhaka, Gazipur,

Jessore and Chittagong for male and female rescued victims. They also assist the

victims to get reintegrated with society by helping them find jobs and their families

and relatives (BNWLA, 2020).

Many International NGOs have incorporated women and children specific

programs related to trafficking. Among these, Save the Children Alliance, The

Asia Foundation, Plan International, Action etc. Some INGOs and donors are

CIDA, DANIDA, SIDA, OXFAM, CEPPA, Population Council, US Aid, Red

Barnet, Trafficking Watch Bangladesh are involved in anti-trafficking program

(Sarkar & Panday, 2006). NGOs face many difficulties in dealing with the issue of

trafficking. Lack of fully equipped investigating cell has been most outstanding

one. NGOs receive information about trafficking cases through media or when

they initiate research. They also get information through partner NGOs or

organizations. NGOs organize national, regional and international networks to

share information and experience through co-operation and coordination. NGOs

23
also run awareness raising programme to build public opinion and encourage

community involvement. They also work together with the government to develop

national policies and Programme. (Gazi, et al., 2001).

24
 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

This methodological approach chapter includes discussion of the study's

theoretical framework and research methodology. In the theoretical framework,

Marginalization theory, Routine Activity Theory, Radical Feminist theory are

discussed and how these theories are linked up to the study of women trafficking

and their limitations are also included. Moreover, the Research Methodology part

consists of research design, study area, population, sample selection and

determination, questionnaire construction, data collection method, data editing

and coding, data analysis and ethical consideration process.

3.1 Theoretical Framework

This part of the study presents the theoretical framework and how these theories

make sense of justification using the theory for explaining women trafficking in

Bangladesh. To explain women trafficking there are no specific theories as if less

studies have been conducted following this issue. But some criminological

theories can be partially fit to explain the issue of women trafficking in

Bangladesh. Criminological theories such as Marginalization theory, Routine

Activity theory, Rational Choice theory, Radical Feminism theory, Social Bonding

theory can be used to explain the issue of women trafficking in Bangladesh. But in

this section I use three applicable theories: Marginalization theory, Routine

Activity theory and Radical Feminist theory.

3.1.1 Marginalization theory and its relevancy to my research

Here, I discuss the Marginalization theory and how it is linked to women

25
trafficking in Bangladesh. Firstly, some basic explanation about this

marginalization theory is given and then collaborate it to women trafficking in our

country. Generally, marginalization theory analyzes the specific group of people

who are disadvantaged based on their socio-cultural, political and economic

sphere. Marginalized people are socially, economically, legally ignored, excluded

and neglected and therefore vulnerable to any form of crime. In recent times,

marginalization has been a global problem and it impacts every society around the

world (Mowat, 2015). Marriem-Webster dictionary define marginalization as the

unimportant or powerless position of any individual within the society or group.

Individuals and any group of people are marginalized due to their financial

conditions, culture, wealth, gender, ethnicity, power, status, ageand caste etc. Here,

I connect the study under the view of marginalization theory, on the aspect of life-

style, socio-economic position, gender, and age of the women. It explains why

specific women are becoming more victim of human trafficking and how socio-

economic position, gender, and age lead to women trafficking in our country.

Marginalization usually discusses the social inequality where one remains

in top position and the other is in the lowest or subordinate position. It connected

to the economic position of any individual in our society. Whoever has a better

economic position in society receives special privilege. Whereas the lower

economic conditional people are treated ignorant, underestimated and mal-treated,

crisis prone, face numerous severe social problems. In our society, young women

and girls remain in marginalized situations due to their socio-economic status.

Offenders easily target the marginalized groups because the risk of exposing the

26
offence is less and further impeding investigative success. Their dependency and

vulnerability make them attractive target for the offender. Marginalized groups

increased the risk of victimization for such reasons rather than general people in

society (Horan & Beauregard, 2017).

In this study, entire respondents belong to the marginalized group of our

society. Their socio-economic position, employment status, educational

qualification, mode of accommodation all represents marginalized group of our

society. In one study it is found that, poor women and children are the key target

of trafficking because of their marginalized position, limited income opportunities,

and predominance in informal sector (RUHI, 2003). Furthermore, many studies

support the traditional hypothesis as if there is positive association between

inequality in gender and class and crime. Marginalization theory has also

limitations in explaining the reason of victimization of the women whose familial

socio-economic condition were better, stay in high security and well off

communication area. Similarly, women who are well developed in their career and

better economic position in society also became victims of women trafficking.

Such things can’t be explained by marginalization theory.

3.1.2 Routine activity theory and its relevancy to my research

Routine Activity theory is one of the prominent theories of criminology to

explain a particular crime. Cohen and Felson’s (1979) Routine Activity Theory

explains that, offenders make choices about whether or not to commit crime based

on their access to a suitable target, lack of capable guardianship that could

potentially bring repercussions to the offender. Routine Activity theory also

27
assumes that offenders' motivation is always present. So, for a crime to occur, there

must be three elements: firstly, a motivated offender; secondly, a suitable target;

thirdly, the absence of capable guardians. The combination of these three factors

lead to crime.

The Routine Activity Theory can better understand the issue of women trafficking

in our country. Mainly, vulnerable women and girls belonging to a dysfunctional

family, depressed with their family life, seeking a new job, unaware using social

media, educationally and technologically backdated women can be treated as

suitable targets to be trafficked. Besides, traffickers operate as a syndicate and

organized crime group to accomplish their mission. Rapid growth of the

commercial sex trade and tourism sector extended demands for young women and

girls to be exploited sexually. Further increasing number of hotels, spa centers,

bars imposed strong demand for women and girls worldwide. They offer a

huge sum of money to the traffickers in exchange of young women and girls. It’s

a lucrative business with low investment but high monetary returns attract the

crime syndicates and traffickers (RUHI, 2003). Such a profitable business made

trafficker motivated to involve such heinous act. Lastly, trafficking is a latent

crime and it is impossible to determine how many women and girls are being

trafficked from the country, unless it is reported to the law enforcement agencies.

The existing laws regarding human trafficking in our country is still ambiguous

and full of loopholes. Besides, our country's existing criminal justice system never

provide strong obligations to the law enforcement agencies and border security

forces to investigate the entire process or take steps to combat. Further, Role of

28
GO, NGOs are not enough to eradicate the chain of trafficking. Such issues clearly

indicate the absence of guardianship regarding human trafficking in Bangladesh.

3.1.3 Radical feminist theory and its relevancy to my research

In this study, I explored the link between feminism and women trafficking.

Feminist theory can be used concerning women trafficking in Bangladesh.

Feminist schools of thought generate the majority of the theories of human

trafficking. Women of different regions of the world are culturally, socially,

economically, politically and legally being deprived compared to men. This

subjugation and suppression works at different level in communal, local, national

and international to facilitate women trafficking (Ashraf, 2018). The issue of

women trafficking in Bangladesh can be better understood through the lens of

Radical feminist point of view. Radical Feminist theory is based on the idea that,

the main causes of women’s oppression originates from social roles and

institutional structure being constructed from male supremacy and patriarchy

(Mackay, 2015). Several studies in the field of trafficking clearly indicate that the

existing patrilineal family system of Bangladesh makes women vulnerable to

trafficking in a great context (Sarkar and Panday 2006, Amin 2011).

In this study, most of the victims of women trafficking were oppressed and sub-

ordinated by patriarchal values either at parent’s home or their husband’s home. The

went through extreme form of torture and abuse prior to be trafficked. Besides,

they were dominated and discriminated by patriarchy as most of them held

subordinate positions in their families. In some cases, women were imposed

substantial restrictions on their movement and deprived of economic

29
 independence. One study has found that, male attitude and perception about

women, male dominated values in society, and women’s low economic status in

society maintains demand for women trafficking (RUHI, 2003). Such abusive and

subordinated position of women forced them to break the sphere of dominancy and

they wanted to be independent socially and economically. For this, most of the

victims wanted to escape from abusive environment and agreed to work in foreign

countries which might provide them self-dependency, freedom and economic

independence. Such mindset provided opportunities to traffickers and enticed

women providing false promise of job opportunities, better lifestyle and lucrative

salaries.

3.2 Research Methodology

This section describes the research design, study area, understanding the

population and designing sampling method, techniques of questionnaire construction,

finalizing appropriate techniques and tools for data collection, analyzing data and

maintaining ethics and quality control.

3.2.1 Research design

To obtain information about the issue of women trafficking, an exploratory

research design has been adopted. Exploratory research design was used as it is

conducted for a problem studied more clearly, intended to establish priorities. The

study was carried out by face-to-face in-depth interviews from the victims of

women trafficking and Key Informant Interview (KII) from the stakeholders

directly and indirectly involved with the issues of women trafficking in

Bangladesh. This is a primary study, and I employed a qualitative method here.

30
 3.2.2 Population

The population of my study were those women who had been trafficked abroad

from Bangladesh in recent years and already being repatriated from January 2020

to December 2021-time frame by Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’

Association (BNWLA). During that time frame, 55 women had been repatriated

by BNWLA. In 2021, 13 women were repatriated; in 2020, 42 women were

repatriated by BNWLA. So, total population of this study was 55.

3.2.3 Study area

Here, I selected Dhaka Metropolitan area for my study. As the capital city of

Bangladesh with more than 2.2 million populations, Dhaka is one of the most

densely populated regions of the country. Besides, the rapid growth of industries

and garments factories, unplanned urban development, mess migration from a

rural area, organized crime syndicates and gang groups, lack of proper monitoring

system and suitable communication network have made Dhaka the most

vulnerable place for women trafficking in Bangladesh. Few months ago, in a

newspaper, it was reported that 23 women and girls were rescued by Rapid Action

Battalion (RAB) from different locations of Dhaka Metropolitan area and all of

them were about to traffic in abroad. (The Daily Star, 2022). Besides,

ALJAZEERA news suggested that a few months ago 11 traffickers of a gang

group were arrested in the Dhaka Metropolitan area who were luring women and

girls into the sex industry of India using social media platforms. (ALJAZEERA,

2021). Therefore, I had chosen the Dhaka Metropolitan area for my study because

in recent years' human trafficking incidents increased significantly in Dhaka.

31
 Besides recent traffickers in this area work as a gang group and use diversified

techniques that are more complex and not explored previously.

3.2.4 Sampling and sample size determination

Firstly, I went to several police stations in both East and West of Dhaka

Metropolitan area for the list of women trafficking victims. As a sensitive issue and

there was a security concern regarding victim, they did not access the list of women

trafficking victims. As a result, I had to go to the Dhaka Judge Court for the data of

women trafficking. But no definite statistics of that kind of women trafficking were

found. A huge number of cases of human trafficking and smuggling were found.

So, it was impossible to conquer the women trafficking list from such mixed cases

in this short period. Due to the sensitivity of this issue they disagreed to give me the

list of victims of women trafficking. Then I went to Bangladesh National Women

Lawyers’ Association (BNWLA), one of the leading organization regarding human

trafficking issue and also run shelter homes in Dhaka, Gazipur, Jessore and

Chittagong for the betterment of repatriated women and girls of human trafficking.

They agreed to provide the list of victims of women trafficking who were

repatriated with the help of BNWLA. Sample were drawn purposively from the

population trafficked from different locations of Dhaka Metropolitan area and

repatriated from January 2020 to December 2021 by BNWLA. For the purpose of

the study two years had been selected as time frame. There was restriction from

BNWLA revealing the list of previous years considering the sensitivity of the issue

and due to COVID-19 pandemic issues, it was not possible to reach more victims in

short period of time. Here, 14 respondents were trafficked from Dhaka

32
Metropolitan area and repatriated by BNWLA among the 55 respondents. So, I

included all the 14 respondents through census sampling to determine the sample

size in my study. Of the 14 respondents, 2 were unavailable in their following

address. Finally, the total number of respondents were 12 in this study.

3.2.5 Questionnaire construction

As this study was qualitative, semi-structured questionnaires were structured to

conduct the data collection. This semi-structured questionnaire includes socio-

demographic information related question, nature and causes of this incident related

questions. In the open-ended questionnaire several issues of trafficking like how

they fall into the trap of traffickers, family condition at that time, how they were

trafficked, what type of lucrative offers were provided to them, how they crossed

borderline, what kind of work they had to involve after being trafficked, whether

they tortured or not, how they became rescued, any recommendation combating

human trafficking, etc. were included.

3.2.6 Data collection method

Data was collected through face-to-face in-depth interviews. Address of the

women trafficking victims was collected from the Bangladesh National Women

Lawyer’s Association (BNWLA). In BNWLA, cases of repatriated women and

girls or any complaint regarding human trafficking against the women were

accumulated in a list. From such a list of BNWLA, victims of women trafficking

were taken considering the location and time frame. Then I went to the residence

of such victims. Firstly, after reaching the victims' residence I talked with the

guardians of the victims. Without creating a panic situation or making any crowd

33
into the victims' house, I explained the reason for coming to their house. The

purpose of my study was explained to them and ensures that no harm was

occurred to them due to this study. Permission was taken from the guardians and

also from the victims. Time was taken at their convenient time. For such data

collection notebook or approval letter was also taken. When the interview was

conducted, details information which provided by the victims were written on the

notebook for data analysis.

During such data collection procedure, I had to consider the reputation of the

victim’s family strongly. Therefore, strong secrecy was maintained during the data

collection. Among the respondents of BNWLA list, 12 respondents agreed for

interview. During the interview, I spent 40-50 minutes talking with the victims

and the interview process continued from 15 March 2022 to 25 March 2022. After

that, the Key Informant Interviews (KII) were taken through in-depth interview

method from four persons who keep deep knowledge about the issue of women

trafficking. Data was collected from the President and Director of Bangladesh

National Women Lawyers’ Association (BNWLA), Senior Advocate of Dhaka

Judge Court, and a senior official of Proshanti-2 shelter home who keeps deep

knowledge following this issue. The Key Informant Interview was taken from 7th

May 2022 to 15th May 2022.

3.2.7 Data Processing and Analysis Technique

Collected data were edited and then errors were corrected. Data collected from the

in-depth interview, coded in excel and from that subtheme theme were developed.

From the statement of the victim, codes were formulated then such information

34
 codes were developed in a sub-theme. For the analysis of this research, such

subthemes were included under the theme. Such code, sub-theme, and the theme

were developed from the victims’ in-depth interview.

3.2.8 Ethical Consideration

As women trafficking is a sensitive issue, ethics were strictly maintained for this

study. For studying this issue, permissions were taken from the departmental.

After getting such permission, I approached the Bangladesh National Women

Lawyers’ Association (BNWLA). They had permitted to access their information

and provided the address of the women trafficking cases reported to them.

Permission of the guardian was also taken before starting the conversation with

the victim, and whether victims were able to talk or not, their privacy issue was

also considered when interviewed the victim. Compassionate behavior was shown

during the time of asking questions and such questions were also avoided, making

them upset or feel embarrassed. It was also ensured that, address and name of the

victim were not asked, and their identities remain hidden to everyone. Data were

not collected forcefully and taken at their convenient time.

3.2.9 Limitation of the study

The study has few limitations. First of all, as a clandestine nature of trafficking, it

was not possible for me to find out the actual number of trafficking victims.

Besides, based on the sensitivity of the study, collecting address of the survivors

was also challenging. In few cases, victims were not found to their corresponding

address. I faced difficulties getting permission to conduct face to face interview. In

few cases, it was difficult to build rapport with the respondents. Further, obtaining

35
some confidential information were challenging and I had to convince them. Due to

COVID-19 pandemic it was not permitted to conduct the study involving more

trafficking victims. Time duration to conduct such kind of study was not sufficient

for me and more efforts and dedication was needed to complete the study.

36
 CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

4. Thematic Analysis

This section demonstrates the findings of the study. I have divided the findings into

various themes as socio-demographic information of the victims, family condition

and attachment level at the time of trafficking, incidents of trafficking, trafficker’s

information, victim’s expectation towards destination country, struggling

condition of the victim at the time of trafficking, use of the digital platform and

social media recruiting victims, physical torture and sufferings of the victims,

psychological stress and suffering of the victims, the role of law enforcement

agencies in the border area, societal response towards victim after repatriation and

response from family members after repatriation. However, the findings chapter

focuses separately the pathways of women’s trafficking in different stages. The

findings of the study are supported by relevant literature and theoretical

assumptions.

4.1 Women of lower socio-economic conditions consist greater victimization

Socio-demographic information about the victim is most important, because it

consists the characteristics of the victims. Among the entire victims, four victims

were 21 years old, three victims were 23 years old, two victims were 22 years old,

two were 19 years old, and one was 22 years old. So, all the victims of this study

belong to the 19-23-year age range, and 19 years was the youngest among them.

The study of Sarkar and Pandey ( 2006) clearly suggest the most vulnerable age

for women trafficking. According to the study, women who have been sold for

37
sexual exploitation belong to twelve to twenty five and are from very poor family

(Sarkar & Panday, 2006).

Among the entire victims, six studied up to class 8, two studied up to SSC level,

another two studied up to primary level, one studied up to class 9 and another

victim studied up to class 7. Most of the victims of women trafficking studied up

to class 8. Among the twelve victims expect Noyona (pseudo name) all victim’s

religion was Islam. Only one victim’s religion was Hindu. Among the twelve

victims all lived in Dhaka metropolitan area while being trafficked. Most of the

victims of the study belonged to nuclear family and one of them was from broken

family. Besides, all the victims if the study belonged to lower-class family. Socio-

economic status of the victim’s family was measured based on annual income of

the family. This study indicates a close relationship between women trafficking

and the social-economic status of the victim’s family. Women with poor economic

backgrounds or poverty-stricken families are most likely to be victimized.

Besides, low educational level or illiteracy increases women's vulnerabilities to be

victims of human trafficking. Among the victims of women trafficking, four were

married and eight were unmarried. Three victim’s husbands were unemployed

during the time of trafficking, and one of them was irregular in his work.

Three of the victim’s father worked as a day laborer, two of them worked as CNG

driver, two of the respondent’s father was no more, one of the respondent’s father

worked as a mason, one of the respondent’s father’s occupation was farming, one

worked as a mechanic, one of them was small business owner and another one

was unemployed. Most of the victim’s mothers were housewives; two worked as

38
housemakers, and one was no more. No one of the entire victim’s family members

graduated or from higher educational background. All of them were from the

lower economic background and less educated or even illiterate families. Due to

their poor economic condition, age and gender, women were more likely to be

victimized and easy target of human trafficking.

This situation can be explained through marginalization theory and statistics also

support this. Marginalization theory analyzes why specific groups of

disadvantaged people are based on their socio-cultural, political and economic

sphere. Marginalized people are socially, economically, legally ignored, excluded

and neglected and therefore vulnerable to any form of crime. In our society, young

women and girls remain in marginalized situations due to their socio-economic

status. Offenders easily target the marginalized groups because the risk of

exposing the offence is less and further impeding investigative success. Their

dependency and vulnerability make them attractive target for the offender.

Marginalized groups increased the risk of victimization for such reasons rather

than general people in society.

4.2 Lack of family support and attachment increases the greater risk of

victimization

Family condition and attachment level of victims with family members is an

essential issue in this study. Most of them belonged to nuclear families and one of

them was from a broken family. For example, in the case of Sheuly (pseudo name)

and Marzia (pseudo name), their parents were separated from each other and

resided with their stepfather. In case of Shafali (pseudo name), her parents

39
separated few years back and when her mother got married, her stepfather didn’t

allow her to reside with them. In both cases, the stepfather misbehaved with them,

tortured them mentally, and forced them to contribute to the family. So, the

presence of a stepfather and stepmother increases the vulnerability of being

victimized of trafficking. One study clearly indicates that, gender discrimination,

dysfunctional family and presence of step-parents force people to be vulnerable to

human trafficking (Rahman, 2011). In this study, all the respondent’s financial

condition of their family was very poor.

In most cases, there was only an earning member for the families except two

cases. Family support and cooperation is vital for the well-being of the family

members. The conflicting situation, abusive mentality of family members, strict

parenting, torture and discrimination can increase the vulnerabilities of women to

be trafficked. In the case of Monika (pseudo name), she faced extreme torture and

discrimination by her parents and she was imposed substantial restriction as well.

Even though she worked as a garment worker, she went through extreme

economic crisis. While asking about the family condition during the time of

trafficking she said,

"My family imposed strict restrictions on my movement. I had to hand over

my entire salary to my father and I also went through an economic crisis. I

desired new clothes, good food, hang out with friends, but was strongly

deprived of them. They never care about me, my ambition, or my wishes. I

doubted whether they love me or not. They used to beat me several times

and I was hopeless."

40
This situation has similarities with the radical feminist point of view. Radical

Feminist theory is based on the idea that, the main causes of women’s oppression

originates from social roles and institutional structure being constructed from male

supremacy and patriarchy (Mackay, 2015). Here Monika’s (pseudo name) father

imposed movement restriction and expressed oppression using his dominance and

supreme position their families. Besides, several studies in the field of trafficking

clearly indicates that, existing patrilineal family system of Bangladesh making

women vulnerable to trafficking to a great context (Sarkar and Panday 2006,

Amin 2011). In the case of Tanu (pseudo name) and Mariyam (pseudo name),

their husband was jobless and frequently tortured them for money. In the case of

Sristy (pseudo name) and Tanu (pseudo name) their husband was drug addict and

frequently tortured them for drug money. The findings of the observation have

similarities with the theory of radical criminology where existing patriarchal social

system is responsible for the oppression and struggling of women.

In the case of Rita (pseudo name), her father’s health condition wasn’t good

enough and she had to contribute to her family by any means. She also tried her

best to support her family. Her father was the only earning member on that period.

In this study, except the case of Sumi (pseudo name), all the victim’s family were

dysfunctional, less supportive, and abusive and attachment level was very poor.

So, it can be predicted that, dysfunctional families, lack of cooperation from

family members, and abusive and conflicting environment inside families

increases the chance of being victimized.

41
4.3 Trafficker’s information: Organized or syndicate groups work as a team

Trafficker’s information is important for this study, which age group and

professional people are involved in such offence, are they known or unknown to

the victims, and which way they choose their target that’s important. This study

explores the information about some specific characteristics of offender. The

respondents indicated that different cohorts of people trafficked them. Trafficking

is not a crime conducted by a single individual, rather trafficking is a process where

several groups of individuals are included to accomplish the task. In this process,

organized or syndicate groups work as a team where some members work at filed

level to target the vulnerable victims, some members build rapport and entice them

with lucrative offers, other members work in transferring process. One study

reveals that, the network relation of traffickers are very strong in South Asian

countries (Sarkar & Panday, 2006).

Some members supported in border areas, and finally, some handed over the

victims to the destination country for exploitation. In this entire process, all the

trafficking members played active role and they were found dedicated to their

works. Such situation can be linked with a component of routine activity theory

that is for committing any crime, offenders must be motivated in their works

aiming particular goals. In this study, among the twelve victim’s no one was

trafficked by a single individual. Most of the victims are trafficked by those

organized groups where both male and female played equal contribution in the

entire trafficking process except the case of Monika (pseudo name) and Rita.

(pseudo name). In the case of Monika and Rita all the members of the traffickers

42
were male. When we consider the age group of all the traffickers, we can see all the

traffickers were between 22-35.

4.4 Routes of trafficking: The middleman plays an important role

In this study, all the respondents were trafficked to India for sexual exploitation.

They were recruited from different locations of Dhaka Metropolitan area. Among

this study's twelve victims, four were recruited from Jatrabari, two were recruited

from Tejgaon, and one from Mirpur-1, Uttara, Mohammadpur, Agargaon,

Shajahanpur and Maghbazar. They were enticed by lucrative job offers and

willingly wanted to go India, except in the case of Sumi (pseudo name). In the

case of Sumi, she became senseless when her boyfriend offered her soft drinks.

Traffickers used Benapole and Shatkhira border as a route of trafficking. Among

the twelve victims, eight were trafficked to India using the Benapole border of

Jessore, and three were trafficked to India using the Shatkhira border. In one study

it is found that, the most common routes for traffickers are the Benapol borders in

Jessore where 50 percent of trafficking take place; and Shatkhira where 35 percent

of trafficking take place (Sarowar, 2014). In the case of Sumi (pseudo name)

trafficking route was not possible to detect. Besides, all the study respondents

mentioned that traffickers used the bus as a means of transformation.

In the case of Sumi (pseudo name), traffickers use microbus as she was senseless.

In four cases, traffickers started their journey from the Gabtoli bus stand; in other

four cases, traffickers started their journey from the Kallanpur bus stand, in two

cases Rajarbagh bus stand and in one case, the Shamoli bus stand was used where

they started their journey. The study finds that, in most cases traffickers choose

43
 night journey to make the process easier and avoid any inconvenience from law

enforcement agencies. Only in the case of Monika (pseudo name), they started for

Jessore in the morning. In Jessore and Shatkhira, victims were not immediately

moved to Indian border immediately. When they reached both in Jessore and

Shatkhira, they were kept in middleman house, either relatives or known person of

those traffickers. Victims were kept in middleman house, until they got a green

signal from the border area. Even victims are kept up to 6/7 days and are being

prepared when the border line remains strict.

The above findings could be linked with the routine activity theory of

criminology. The basic idea of routine activity theory is for committing a crime

there should be three basic elements, that are suitable target, motivated offender

and lack of proper guardianship. Here, victims who were transferred near border

area were all imposed strong restrictions and none protested over trafficker’s

comments, such condition making them suitable target to trafficking. Middleman

and traffickers can be treated as motivated offender who are dedicated to achieve

their monetary gains. Entire trafficking groups waited near the border for the

suitable time and crossed the border without border security forces. Here security

forces can be treated as capable guardian.

Here, middlemen play a crucial role in the entire trafficking process. Moreover,

when traffickers work as an organized or syndicate group, they set persons near the

border area at the initial stage and cover the border area. Besides, in isolated cases,

such a middleman provides shelter for the victim in exchange for money. In the

case of Noyona (pseudo name), she was kept in a relative’s home of the trafficker

44
and kept here for three days. While asking about the incident she said,

“When we reached Jessore, that lady immediately took me to her relative’s

house. She told me we might wait for 2/3 days until she got a green signal

from the border area. They also suggest that I tell the BGB and BSF that we

were travelling to India for family purposes and that lady was a close

relative of myself. We stayed there for 3 days, and there was no storage of

hospitality. No one misbehaved with me for a single time.”

In this study, in both the border areas, such middleman influenced the entire

process of trafficking. They received the victim from bus stand, provided shelter,

transferred them to the border area getting signal from the border area and even

went India to hand over the victims. Trafficking is a process where several groups

of individuals are included to accomplish the task.

In this process, organized or syndicate groups work as a team where some

members work at filed level to target the vulnerable victims, some members build

rapport and entice them with lucrative offers, other members work in transferring

process. Some members support in border areas, and finally, some hand over the

victim to the destination country for exploitation. In this study, among the twelve

victim’s no one was trafficked by a single individual. In this study, most of the

victims are trafficked by those organized groups where both male and female

played equal contribution in the entire trafficking process except the case of

Monika (pseudo name) and Rita. (pseudo name). In the case of Monika and Rita

all the members of the traffickers were male. When we consider the age group of

all the traffickers, we can see all the traffickers were between 22-35.

45
 4.5 Contact with the traffickers: Social media plays a role

Among the twelve victims, eight were introduced with the traffickers physically,

and four were introduced with traffickers through social media. In the case of

Sristy (pseudo name) and Sheuly (pseudo name) they were in a crisis period and

was searching for job in social media. While asking Sheuly how she introduced

with traffickers, she said

“I was looking for a job and wanted to contribute to my family as we

passing through crisis period. I had submitted CV to a different

organization but no one responded. One day I posted in my Facebook

profile for job and one of my Facebook friend named Nodi responded. She

introduced herself as she worked in a parlor in India and she could help

her. She used her fake identity to me and was a member of an organized

trafficking group.”

In the case of Noyona (pseudo name) she was offered a job in India and she was

looking for better lifestyle. In the cases where victims were introduced with the

trafficker in social media, they all used their fake identity and profession to entice

the victim.

In the initial stage of trafficking, victims were introduced with one or two

members of trafficking groups either physically or by using social media. They

made a strong rapport with the victims and convinced to go the destination

country. During the time of transportation, they took help from other traffickers.

Especially, when they went near Jessore and Shatkhira, another 3/4 persons of

46
trafficking group were seen and they played their active role. It happened in every

cases of the study. So it can be said that, in all the cases, traffickers were

previously known to the victims.

In the case of Sristy (pseudo name) she was trafficked by her husband. Her

husband was drug addicted and sold her to the traffickers in exchange for forty

thousand Taka. He worked as a bus helper but was irregular in his duties. While

asking about her husband Sristy said,

“I loved him a lot. I never thought in dreams that he could sell me for

money. I was agreed in his offer to work in India but it was his plan. I

wanted to contribute to my family and I was ready to do everything for our

family. He had a strong drug addiction and continuously tortured me for

money.”

In the case of Rita (pseudo name), she was trafficked by an organized trafficking

group which was headed by Hridoy Babu. He is also involved with other cases as

well of this study. Usually, Hridoy and friends were famous countrywide for

making Tiktok videos and he targeted women and girls to make them celebrity

overnight and offered lucrative job offers using social media. While asking Rita

about Hridoy she said

"Hridoy was famous to all for his Tiktok videos. He had millions of

followers in Tiktok. I had an interest in Tiktok videos and wanted to be more

famous in a short period. As Hridoy frequently made videos, he became

more famous on that platform. Hridoy also enticed me that, I could earn

47
 enough money participating in Tiktok videos.’’

In this study, it was not possible to detect the occupation of all traffickers. But

most of them are closely involved in organized trafficking groups

4.6 Fake promises of jobs ended up in sexual exploitation

In this part of the study, it is important to explore why traffickers easily enticed victims,

what they were thinking about the destination country, and their expectations. The study

identifies that all the respondents were trafficked to India for sexual exploitation. Among

the study's twelve respondents, eight were enticed by lucrative salaries or better lifestyles.

In one study it is clearly demonstrated that, trafficking is closely confined with false

promise of employment, marriage without dowry or better quality of life in and across the

countries (Sarkar & Panday, 2006).

In another study, it is found that, traffickers throughout South Asia, lure their victims by

means of attractive promise like high paying jobs, glamorous employment opportunities,

prosperity and marriage (Amin, 2011). This situation can be better understood through

the routine activity theory of criminology. According to routine activity theory, for the

commission of any crime there should be presence of three elements: suitable target,

motivated offender, and lack of proper guardianship. Here, such vulnerable women who

are deprived of opportunities and looking for job can be well treated as suitable target for

the traffickers. Traffickers are easily enticing them through the false promise of better job

opportunities and relevant facilities. Besides high demands of young girls in Indian

commercial sex industries makes traffickers motivated as it’s providing huge sum of

money in a short period of time. Besides, existing legal system and law enforcers can’t

act as guardian’s role to interrupt the process.

48
There were some exceptions as well. In the case of Sumi (pseudo name), she was

abducted by traffickers making her senseless. One study demonstrates that, kidnaping is

also proceeds for the procurement of human trafficking (Amin, 2011) .In the case of Rita,

(pseudo name) she was trafficked to India technically while they were making Tiktok

videos.

In the case of Marzia (pseudo name) and Faria (pseudo name), they were told about the

illness of Marzia’s elder sister Sheuly by the traffickers and they would take care of her.

In most of the cases, they were well convinced by the traffickers. Traffickers offered

them well paid stable job and in most cases, they mentioned a parlor job or work in

supper shop, which never require high skill or previous experience. Besides, workload is

comparatively low in such kind of job. In the case of Sristy (pseudo name), her husband

offered her an old home as a nanny, which was also a comfortable job. Victims of the

study had no previous experience living in India and believed everything that was told to

them about India. In the case of Monika (pseudo name), when she was asked about her

expectation about India, she said

“The first think which was attracted me was freedom and I wanted to live a life

without restriction. In Bangladesh I grew up with bindings and restriction and

just wanted to enjoy every moment of my life. Besides, they told me if I worked six

hours per day, I could earn fifty thousand Taka per month. The amount was much

high based on work. Besides, the truth is I wanted to escape from my family”

Traffickers convinced victims about the job market in India. They told them in India

there were no scarcity in job field. In the case of Tanu (pseudo name), she was convinced

49
by the traffickers and she communicated her aunt who used to live in Mumbai. She said,

“I trusted each and everything said to me by the traffickers. I communicated with

my aunt who used to live in Mumbai, to know about the job field, and she forbade

me to go India and also mentioned about the scarcity of jobs in India. But I did

not trust her and agreed to go there, which was a great mistake and I fallen into

the trap of traffickers.”

In the case of Sristy (pseudo name) her husband enticed her to work in an old home as a

nanny, and she would get thirty thousand Taka per month. Besides, she thought if she

worked for 3/4 months, her husband could start his own business with those moneys.

Besides, she agreed considering the fast communication system between Bangladesh and

India. She said,

“I only agreed with my husband's proposal because of the fast communication

system. I thought when I feel discomfort or any kind of pressure, I could return

home within few hours. Besides, I was enticed by better life style in India”

In the case of Marzia, (pseudo name) traffickers told about the illness of her elder sister

Sheuly and Marzia and her aunt Faria were fallen into the trap of traffickers. While

asking about the expectation about India she said,

“We trusted them and thought my elder sister was seriously ill and she needed

care. I thought when my elder sister would recover from illness, I would start

working with my sister as well. I thought working environment would improve

and we would earn a lot in short time. So, it can be said from the following study that,

victims were well convince and their expectations were high enough. So, they agreed to

go India for lucrative job offers, handsome salaries, a sense of freedom and a better

lifestyle.”

50
4.7 Economic vulnerability makes more trafficking prone

This section outlines the vulnerabilities of victims. Further, what kind of problems they

were facing inside and outside the home also need to be addressed. Whether or not a

victim's personal and socio-economic life influenced them is discussed in this section.

In this study, all the victims of women trafficking faced several difficulties regarding

their personal and socioeconomic life. Among twelve respondents, all were facing an

economic crisis during trafficking. In the case of Monika (pseudo name), she worked as a

garment worker but she faced economic crisis during that period. She said,

“Which I earned was enough for my survival, but I had to hand over my entire

salary to my father. Besides, when I needed that money, they misbehaved with me.

So I was unable to fulfill my desire and wishes. So I struggled a lot for the

money.”

Similarly, one study reveals that, economic hardship and abusive home environment push

people to be trafficked either willingly or forcefully (Rahman, 2011)

Among this study's twelve respondents, seven were jobless during that period and were

looking for stable jobs at any cost. Sheuly (pseudo name) said,

“My family went through an extreme crisis. As an elder daughter of my family, I

wanted to contribute to my family. So I did everything to obtain a job but failed

every time.”

To connect the above findings, the literature from several studies finds that inadequate

job opportunities and insufficient safety net making young women vulnerable to

trafficking as they lured by false promise of job opportunities (Hoq, Asa, & Rahman,

2013).

51
In the case of Tanu (pseudo name), her husband was jobless, and he was also drug addict.

He continuously tortured her for drug money. Tanu said,

“My husband tortured me for money both physically and mentally. He had a

strong addiction to drugs, and he was jobless. Day by day situation became

complex, and I was tired of everything.”

In the case of Rita (pseudo name), she worked in a super shop and suddenly lost her job.

On that period her father's health wasn’t good at all, and she needed money at any cost

within a short period. She said,

“My father was very ill, and he was the only earner of my family. I also already

lost my job few months earlier. We were in an extreme crisis situation. I needed a

huge sum of money within a short period, so I wanted to make Tiktok videos to

earn extra money for my family.”

In the case of Nitu (pseudo name), her husband started new business but did not make

any profit. He was jobless and he gave nothing to Nitu. Even he tortured her for dowry

money. Nitu said,

“My husband handed over me nothing. Sometimes I had to starve. I went through

extreme economic crisis on that period. Besides he willingly tortured me

physically for dowry money. He had an extra-marital relationship also.”

The above findings of the study has similarities with marginalization theory of

criminology. Marginalization theory argues that, people holding better economic position

in society receives special privilege. Whereas the lower economic conditional people are

treated ignorant, underestimated and mal-treated, crisis prone, face numerous severe social

problems. Inour society, young women and girls remain in marginalized situations due to

52
their socio-economic status. Offenders easily target the marginalized groups because the

risk of exposing the offence is less and further impeding investigative success. Their

dependency and vulnerability make them attractive target for the offender. Marginalized

groups increased the risk of victimization for such reasons rather than general people in

society.

In the case of Shafali (pseudo name, she had no residence of her own. She worked as a

homemaker but they tortured her. Besides, her stepfather didn’t allow her to stay with

them. She said,

“I was helpless during that period. I had no communication with my parents and

relatives. Where I worked, they also tortured me. That’s how I escaped and was

looking for a job and shelter”.

In case of Monika (pseudo name), her parents and family members quarreled with each

other on silly matter and they also imposed restriction over her movement. So family

bonding was weak and not supportive as well.

“I was not happy with my happy life. They never supported my wishes, desire and

ambition. They pressurized me in every situation and imposed strong restriction

as well.”

This study clearly indicates every victim's struggling situation, which forced them to be

victimized whether directly or indirectly.

4.8 Use of digital platforms and social media to recruit victims

In the present context traffickers are not confined to the traditional mode of human

trafficking. Day by day modus operandi of trafficking has changed, and they frequently

use digital platforms and social media recruiting victims. Besides, ALJAZEERA news

53
suggested that a few months ago 11 traffickers of a gang group were arrested in the

Dhaka Metropolitan area who were luring women and girls into the sex industry of India

using social media platforms. (ALJAZEERA, 2021). In this part of the study, such

changing mode of recruitment are analyzed.

To figure out the actual scenario. Among the twelve victims of the study, four of them

were targeted using social media platform. Besides, using the Facebook profile of

victims, traffickers made a clear perception about the personal and social life of the

victims. Traffickers also made strong rapport with the victims through social media. All

the victims recruited through social media were looking for a stable job during that

period.

Here I have found similarities of the findings with the routine activity theory of

criminology. The theory demonstrates that, offenders make choices about whether or not

to commit crime based on their access to a suitable target, lack of capable guardianship

that could potentially bring repercussions to the offender. Routine Activity Theory also

assumes that offenders' motivation is always present. Here, while using social media, victims

unconsciously revealed her all personal information to the traffickers. Besides, victims

were also looking for jobs on that particular period. All these things placed victims as a

position of suitable target for the traffickers. Besides, traffickers were also motived aiming

huge sum of monetary profits and maintained frequent communication with the victims.

As traffickers and victims were communicating through social media, there were no

capable guardian to interrupt the process.

In the case of Tanu (pseudo name), she was badly in need of a stable job for her survival.

She tried her best to manage a suitable job for her but failed. She used social media and

54
expressed interest in several Facebook pages and groups. She was targeted by one of the

trafficking groups and fell into a trap. She said,

“In the present context Facebook and social media is a reliable platform for

searching a job. I thought it would be easier if I posted on those groups. Many of

them responded immediately and offered me jobs as well. Among them a middle

aged man named Hridoy offered me to work in a super shop or in a beauty parlor.

He also mentioned that, he also helped several girls from Bangladesh and they

also working in India. He frequently called me through Facebook messenger and

kept updates of my every steps.”

In the case of Sheuly (pseudo name), she was also looking for a job on that period. When

she expressed it on her Facebook profile, one of her Facebook friends, Nodi, responded.

Sheuly said,

“I didn’t know Nodi personally but when I asked for a job, she frequently knocked

me on Facebook messenger and mentioned the facilities where she worked. She

also enticed me for better salaries and other facilities. She called me frequently

and asked about my personal life. Everything that happened to me was

preplanned, and I fell into a trap.

In the case of Rita (pseudo name), she was introduced with Hridoy at Hatirjeel but

Hridoy made good friends with her through social media. Hridoy continuously called her

and at one stage he offered her for relationship. Rita was interested in Tiktok videos and

Hridoy promised to make her Tiktok celebrity. Rita said,

“Hridoy communicated with me frequently and used to call through Facebook

messenger. Firstly, I ignored him but when he was enticed to make Tiktok videos

55
 with him, I felt interested in him. He frequently sent me new Tiktok videos and

also shared how much he earned uploading those videos. Day by day our

understanding level increased and we agreed to meet face to face.”

In the case of Noyona (pseudo name) she was communicated by a middle-aged girl

named Zara, and they made a good friendship. At one stage, Noyona showed her interest

in a better and more ambitious lifestyle and Zara took the opportunity. Noyona said,

“Zara willingly asked me whether I was interested to go India or not. She could

arrange a job for me. I shared all of my sorrows with her, and she frequently

asked about my employment, family condition and other personal issues.”

This study indicates that social media can be vital for traffickers targeting vulnerable

women in Bangladesh.

4.9 Physical torture, gang rape and inhaling drugs forcefully

Trafficked women face extreme exploitation and physical abuse in the destination

country. In this part of the study it is crucial to figure out what types of physical injuries

they went through in the entire process, what types of basic human rights were violated,

what type of forced or restriction imposed to them, whether they were threatened or not

and many other issues. In this study, all the respondents were trafficked to India for sexual

exploitation. Among twelve respondents of the study except the case of Shafali (pseudo name),

all of them were successfully trafficked to different parts of India either in an apartment building

or in brothel. In the case of Shafali, when she was moved to Kolkata, Indian police suspected

them and rescued Shafali. Victims who were trafficked successfully underwent extreme forms of

physical torture and suffering. They were raped, gang raped, beaten brutally and even they were

not provided any food or water until the accepted their proposal.

In the case of Monika (pseudo name), she was kept in an apartment building in Chennai

56
and tortured brutally. At the beginning, Monika was injected drugs and 4/5 persons raped

her. They also took undressed photograph of her and threated her to show those pictures

to her family members. She said,

“I was clear about Shiraj’s intention and I was prepared mentally. That night

Shiraj came with 4/5 unknown persons in my room and forced me to involve with

sexual activities. I refused him strongly and they tortured me physically, forcefully

put off my clothes, and took my undressed photograph. They also injected me with

drugs and they raped the whole night. They told me that if I disagreed with them,

they would kill me or handed over me to the police. I was scared as I had no legal

documents or even money. They tortured me every day physically and mentally. I

was deprived of adequate food, health care, medicine, and recreation. I got

frustrated and had to deal with 8-10 clients every day"

One study has similarities with the above findings indicates that, victims of trafficking

are frequently subjected to substance abuse by being forced to take drugs (Ashraf, 2018).

In the case of Sumi (pseudo name), she was trafficked to Gujrat and was kept in an

apartment building. She demanded to go back home but they started torturing her

brutally. Even she was not provided any kind of medicine and treatment while she was

injured grievously. She was helpless and no one helped her. She said,

“I was taken to the 10th floor of the building. The entire environment of that floor

wasn’t comfortable for me. All the rooms were smoky and the bundle of bottles of

alcohol was on the table. There were around 10/12 boys and 2/3 girls on that

floor. Most of them were drunken and they misbehaved with me. I was taken to a

dark room at night and forced to involve in sexual activities. I denied it by all

57
 means and they started beating me cruelly. That night they gave me nothing to eat

and the next day took me to another flat. On that day, I was beaten with iron bars

and I became senseless. Finally, I agreed with their proposal and they offered me

water and food. I was badly injured, hopeless, and also frustrated. I just wanted

to survive from that hell."

This findings of the study has similarities with the WHO report on the victims of sex

trafficking. According to WHO, the most commonly reported health problems for the

victim of sex trafficking are fatigue, headaches, sexual and reproductive health problems,

back pain and significant weight loss (World Health Organization, 2012).

In the case of Tanu (pseudo name) and Mariyam (pseudo name), both Tanu and Mariyam

faced extreme physical torture and suffering. They were kept in an apartment building in

Bangalore and gang-raped brutally by Hridoy and his friends. Tanu said,

"While I told Hridoy to send me to Mumbai, they started laughing. At one stage,

when I said I would inform the police, they tortured us physically. They forcefully

injected drugs into our bodies and took nude videos and photographs of our own.

They also raped us brutally. Hriday threatened us that, if we refuse to follow their

instructions, he would send such nude videos and photographs to our family

members and social media. We were afraid and had no second option."

In the case of Sristy (pseudo name), she was kept under surveillance and she was sent to

several hotels, spa centers and other residential areas to engage in sexual activities. She

was having hard time. While asking about the torture, she said,

I was brutally gang raped several times and was kept locked under surveillance. I

was not provided with necessary food, cloths, medical and treatment. Further I

58
 was sent to hotels, spa centers, and other residents for sexual intercourse. I had to

deal 8-10 clients each day. While I became sick, never provided with proper

treatment.”

In case of Sheuly (pseudo name), Marzia (pseudo name) and Faria (pseudo name), all of

them went through extreme sexual abuse and physical torture. Sheuly was kept in an

apartment building of Bangalore and tortured brutally. Further her younger sister also

trafficked to Bangalore and Faria was trafficked to Karalla. 5/6 trafficking members

physically beat Sheuly and Faria and at one stage, they became senseless. They were not

provided with food, water and medicine.

One study about trafficking suggest that, improper supply of meals causes maltreatment

to the victims of trafficking and poor living conditions contribute to develop many

infectious diseases (Ashraf, 2018). Faria faced extreme torture in Karalla. They were

deprived of all human rights and sexually abused in hotels, bars and spa centers. Marzia

was pregnant at one stage, but they did not stop abusing her. Finally, she had a

miscarriage.

In the case of Rita (pseudo name), At the initial stage, Rita was taken to Bangalore and

kept in an apartment building near Andapura circle. She was sexually abused and gang

raped several times by Hridoy and his friends. While she refused sexual intercourse, she

was brutally beaten and no food was provided. Further, she was sent to OYO hotel and

Chennai for 10 days and she had to deal 19 clients on the first day. She said,

"In OYO hotel I went through extreme sexual abuse and torture. On the first day,

I had to deal with 19 clients who raped me brutally. Hotel authority forced me to

deal with at least 30 clients daily, which was a deadly task. I became very sick,

59
 and I was sent back to Bangalore. Further, I was sent to several spa centers and

hotels to involve in sexual activities. Day by day my health condition was

deteriorating. I was unable to continue my work. They started torturing me

brutally and decided to escape by any means, waiting for the slightest

opportunity.”

One study demonstrates that, 80% victims of women trafficking are sexually exploited,

abused and forced into prostitution and victims might deal 8-15 clients in a day. Besides,

the use of sexual protection is highly neglect able for victims of women trafficking and

increase the vulnerabilities to be infected in sexually transmitted disease (Ashraf, 2018).

In the case of Nitu (pseudo name), she was kept in an apartment building in Hyderabad

and after few days while she was asking about her job, the lady misbehaved with her and

offered to engage in prostitution. While she refused, they started beating her and stopped

proving all kinds of food, water and other facilities. She was kept under movement

restriction and she was sent to several hotels and residents for sexual activities. She had

to deal with 5/6 clients every day and wants to provide any sort of treatment and

medicine during her illness. As the day progress, level of torture increased.

In the case of Noyona (pseudo name) Noyona faced extreme physical torture and

suffering when she was trafficked to India. In Hyderabad she was beaten brutally and

traffickers injected drugs on her. Her movement were restricted and she was not provided

nutritious food, adequate cloths, necessary medicine and so on. She was further moved to

Chennai, Karalla and Bangalore. She was forced to be involved in sexual activities and

most of the time, she had to deal with 8-10 clients each day, making her sicker. She said,

“There was no one to help me. I had to follow their all instruction to avoid their

60
 brutal torture. They kept me locked all the time and I was strongly monitored

while I was sent to hotels or spa centers. They used to beat me with an iron bar

and broke my hand at one stage. They never provided me good food, necessary

clothing, or even any treatment. I was about to die and tried to escape"

This study clearly indicates all the victims underwent extreme form of physical torture

and sufferings and were deprived of all sorts of human life in India.

4.10 Broken down mentally by seizing passports, fear of abuse and threat

When victims were trafficked to India, traffickers immediately transferred them to their

destinations and started exploiting them sexually and physically. On that particular

period, they were well realized that, they were trafficked and there was no one to support

them. Besides, they were frequently threatened to be killed by the traffickers. None of the

victims had no legal documents like passports, Indian visa and other relevant papers,

which made them more frustrated. There was no legal way to file complaint against the

traffickers. One study indicates that, thousands of women and children are being victims

of trafficking in the destination country and become vulnerable to exploitation due to

their illegal status (Sarkar & Panday, 2006).

Further traffickers threated them to handed over to police. Most of the study's

victims faced anger, stress, depression and other psychological imbalance. They were

frequently send to hotels, spa centers, and other residential building for sexual

exploitation. They had to deal with 5-10 clients daily, decreasing their confidence and

self-esteem. Such abusive situation hampered their daily life and some psychological

disorders like insomnia, PTSD, hyperactivity, frequent headache, vomiting, skipping

meal faced by most of the respondents. Nine of the twelve victims blamed themselves for

61
their victimization. In one study it is found that, the victims of women trafficking suffer

from lack of self-esteem, emotional disturbance, disorientation, depression, and scarred

for life. They also undergo deep psychological disorder which extends even though they

rescued (Ashraf, 2018).

In the case of Sumi (pseudo name), she was trafficked to Gujrat and kept in an apartment

building. She went through extreme psychological stress during the entire period and

even tried to commit suicide. She said,

“I was broken, upset and also tensed about my situation. They frequently

threatened me to kill if I disagreed with their proposal. I was always in a fearful

situation. I couldn’t eat, sleep or even couldn’t behave normally with anyone. I

couldn’t share my situation with anyone and my confidence became very low.”

In the case of Sheuly (pseudo name), she also faced psychological pressure and other

difficulties during the entire period in India. She said,

“It was really hard time for me. All my time in India was full of panic, fear and

uncertainty. Traffickers forced me to deal many more clients and I was

psychologically down on that period. I started blaming myself in one stage and I

can’t sleep at night. I was aggressive to everyone and couldn’t trust anyone. Day

by day situation became worse for me and I wanted to escape at any cost.”

All the respondents of the victims faced psychological stress and experienced such a

traumatic situation.

4.11 Suspicious role of law enforcement agencies in the border area

In this study, all the victims were trafficked to a neighboring country India, and

traffickers used both Benapole and Shatkhira border as a route of trafficking. In the

62
Bangladesh-India border both BGB and BSF are responsible for the protection of border

area. nine of Among the twelve victims crossed the border without facing any restriction

from both BGB and BSF. Besides when victims were kept in residences near border

areas, traffickers frequently communicated with BGB for green signal. As a result, most

of the time they crossed the border at midnight and smoothly crossed the border area.

In the case of Sristy (pseudo name), she was taken in an apartment building near

Shatkhira border and another 4/5 women and girls were kept there. Traffickers

maintained strong communication with border security force both BGB and BSF. Sristy

said,

“It was the most tensed moment. While all were prepared to cross border area,

traffickers frequently called security forces for the perfect period. We waited

around 4 hours near borderline and border security forces willingly provided

space to cross the border. All the incidents were preplanned, and traffickers

offered a minimum amount of money for each person.”

In the case of Marzia (pseudo name) and Faria (pseudo name), they were apprehended by

BGB near Benapole border area and traffickers somehow managed to escape. But a local

political leader of Bangladesh convinced BGB that both of them were his close relatives

and rescued them. Further, he handed them over to the traffickers. While asking about the

role of BSF Marzia said,

“Traffickers maintain a strong bonding and communication with political leaders

and local members or councilors of border areas. Even they maintain a strong

affiliation with low enforcement agencies. Most of the time, they easily cross the

border without difficulties. When a problem arises, they take help from local

63
 members or powerful political persons. The way the local councilor convinced the

BGB, all of us became surprised and without any doubt, BGB handed over us to

the councilor. Before we started our journey to the border area, traffickers told us

that, if BGB apprehended us, we would tell that we were close relative to a local

councilor."

In the case of Shafali (pseudo name), she along with the trafficker were apprehended by

BSF. But at the end they took no legal steps against them and released them in exchange

of seventy thousand Bangladeshi Taka. Shafali said,

“Role of BSF was suspicious to me. After apprehension, they misbehaved with us

and demanded money. When the trafficker agreed on their proposal they

permitted him to call arranging money and finally they released us in exchange of

seventy thousand Taka.’’

4.12 Repatriation of victims from the destination country

In the case of human trafficking, repatriation is always a complex process. It requires

serious efforts from law enforcement agencies and effective cooperation from legal

support service providers. So besides role of NGOs and GOs are also vital. In this study,

all twelve victims were repatriated by Bangladesh National Women Lawyer’s

Association (BNWLA). In some of the cases of this study, victim somehow escaped from

trafficker’s custody either from residence or hotels. Further they somehow managed to

communicate with human rights organization of India and they communicated BNWLA

for their legal support needed for repatriation.

In the case of Sristy (Pseudo name), she was sent to a spa center for 10 days in Chennai

and she managed to escape. She said,

64
 “I was sent to a spa center for 10 days and imposed strong restriction over my

movement. I was being monitored by 24 hours. But the window system of that spa

center wasn’t well secured and I anyhow escaped from that spa center. I went to

Kolkata from Chennai by train and communicated with an NGO immediately.

Further, they communicated with BNWLA and finally returned to Bangladesh.”

In other cases, victims of this study somehow managed to inform local police or human

rights organization about their abusive situation and police rescued them.

In the case of Sumi (pseudo name), she took help from one of her clients, and he helped

her provide an Indian sim card. Sumi said,

“I saved some money getting tips from the clients. I shared my entire story with a

particular client and he helped me providing an Indian sim card and new handset.

I called my family immediately and they took legal help from BNWLA. Further

BNWLA informed Gujrat police about my present location and rescued me. Then

I was taken to a shelter home for basic legal and mental support. Finally, I was

repatriated to Bangladesh.”

In the case of Monika (pseudo name), she took help from one of the Human Rights

organization who mainly worked for the betterment of women and girls. In the case of

Shafali (pseudo name), she and the traffickers apprehended my Kolkata police and was

sent to a shelter home for legal and mental support. Further, they communicated with

BNWLA for legal support and successfully repatriated to Bangladesh. In the case of

Noyona (pseudo name), police arrested her, while conducting raid in the hotel. Hearing

all the stories she was sent to a shelter home and they took help from BNWLA for her

successful repatriation. NGOs like BNWLA and others shelter homes in India provided

65
legal support to the victims. Further they provided primary treatment, psychological

counselling, motivation, basic education, and vocational training for the victims.

4. 13 Societal reactions: Trafficked women are bad women

The study finds negative attitude of the community towards victims. While respondents

of this study were integrated to their community, initially, their experiences were not

satisfactory. They were subjected to victim blaming, community people arose question

about their character, they were treated as like as prostitute. They imposed invisible

restrictions on their movements and isolated them from larger society. In one study it is

found that, when survivors of women trafficking returns to their community, it is not

appreciated by the community members and stigmatization exclude them from wider

society (Shamim and Kabir, 1997).

In the case of Monika (pseudo name), when she was reintegrated to her society,

community people reacted with her negatively. She also lost her job. She said,

“When I went outside from home, they saw me as if I was an alien. Besides, my

friends and neighbor stopped talking with me and they often misbehaved with me.

All of them blamed me for such a condition. None of them showed any sort of

sympathy or support to me.”

In the case of Tanu, (pseudo name) community people misbehaved with her and also

blamed her. She said,

“I lost my societal position due to those incidents. People talked with me rarely

and some of them arose question about my character. Going outside was

embarrassing, and no one invited me to community gatherings. Family reputation

in society was totally destroyed.”

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In the case of Sumi (pseudo name), even though she was abducted to India against her

will, societal response towards Sumi wasn’t satisfactory to her. She said,

“When I returned home, initially everything seemed changed to me. My friends

and neighbors started ignoring me and they hold negative attitude towards me.

Besides, community people also blamed me and doubted my character. None of

them felt sorry for me and no one supported me reintegrating into society.

4.14 Victim blaming also occurs in the family

Regarding the family response, most of the study's respondents were dissatisfied with

their family response at the initial reintegration stage, except the case of Sumi (pseudo

name). Though, family members of the victims were happy during the repatriation

process, they blamed the victims for those incidents. Family members and relatives

misbehaved with them and started ignoring them in family related issues. They also believed

that, family reputation had decreased due to such incidents. Further, in most cases, the victims'

family members didn’t trust them anymore and had not any expectations from the victim. Except

the case of Sumi (pseudo name), no one of other victim’s family showed any sympathy or support

towards victim.

In the case of Tanu (pseudo name), her family members blamed her for everything. Her

husband wanted a separation and also misbehaved with her. In the case of Mariyam

(pseudo name), her husband started torturing her frequently. In the case of Sristy (pseudo

name), he lost her family forever and she started residing with her parents. However, her

parent’s attitude was changed at the initial reintegration stage. In the case of Monika

(pseudo name), her relatives blamed her and they expressed doubt about her character.

Monika said,

“My relatives expressed negative attitude towards me and no longer trust me.

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 They also questioned about my character indirectly. As a result, most of the time I

have to spend time in my room and family members talk to me rarely.”

In the case of Sumi (pseudo name), her parents and family member supported her and

never blamed her for anything. They believed Sumi would come back strongly forgetting

the past and she would be self-dependent as well. Sumi said,

“After repatriating at home my confidence level was very low and I was

struggling to back in my normal life. I am grateful to my parents and family who

supported me in every situation and inspired me to return strongly. They provided

with extra care, love and affection ever before and currently, I have joined a new

job”

This study clearly reveals that, trafficking victims are humiliated and also neglected

inside their family, even though they are not responsible for their own fortune.

4.15 Pathway of women trafficking in Bangladesh

In this part of the study after thematic analysis of every case, the pathway of trafficking is

analyzed which started from struggling and sufferings of the victims can be treated as

vulnerabilities. Further victims were enticed by the false promise of stable job

opportunities and better life style in the destination countries. In the meantime, traffickers

built up strong rapport with victims and their families through physical interaction or

social media. In the process of transportation, traffickers were preplanned and worked as

an organized crime group and took help from the counterparts in the border areas, which

can be treated as middleman and security forces both from BGB and BSF in the border

area. Victims were transferred frequently to avoid detection by law enforcement

agencies. In the destination country, victims were engaged with severe form of sexual

68
exploitation and extreme physical and psychological abuse. One study reveals that,

trafficking itself a complex process and it involves a series of episodes which might start

with desire or need to leave the community, followed by an encounter with traffickers

leading to deception or coercion to a harmful or exploitative situations (Amin, 2011).

When they escaped by any means or rescued by police or human rights groups, they were

provided basic legal aid and support by different NGOs and shelter homes. Finally, when

they were repatriated to their own society, they were victim of negligence and blaming

either by community members or even by their families.

4.15.1 Traffickers take the opportunity of vulnerabilities of the victims

The pathway of trafficking begins with the vulnerabilities of the victims. In this study, all

the victims of were female and one study demonstrate that, trafficking is a gender and

age specific phenomena which mostly affects women and young age group (Sarkar &

Panday, 2006). In this study, victim faced extreme economic hardship as well as scarcity

of employment during and before the time of trafficking. One study clearly revealed that

economic hardship and abusive home environment push people to be trafficked either

willingly or forcefully (Rahman, 2011).

Besides, family attachment level was relatively low and was unsupportive in most cases.

They went through conflicting situation at home and in few cases of the study, victims

faced domestic violence by their husbands at home. Further, in one case of the study, the

presence of a stepfather made the situation worse and forced the victim to search for any

employment. Considering the educational status of the victims in this study clearly

denotes that low educational background and lack of awareness made the victims

vulnerable for trafficking.

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 4.15.2 Enticed by false promise

In this study, when victims went through economic and mental hard times, they were

enticed by false promise by the traffickers either by face to face interaction or by using

social media. In the cases of enticement through social media, traffickers were initially

unknown to the victims. When they expressed their interest for jobs, traffickers

responded immediately and offered them lucrative job offer. In the cases of face to face

interaction, traffickers used the vulnerable situation of the victim and showed sympathy

to them. In most cases, traffickers enticed them to work in India either in beauty parlor or

a super shop. Besides, they also mentioned about better lifestyle in India and all kinds of

facilities available there like better accommodation, nutritious meal, freedom of life and

fast communication system. Several studies of human trafficking clearly indicate that

fake promise of jobs or marriage by the traffickers, illusion of better life in the cities and

safe work opportunities are pull factors attracting victims into modern slavery (Rahman,

2011). One study estimates that, 35% of total number of women and girls had been

trafficked to India under the pretext of false marriage and good jobs (Amin, 2011).

Another study reveals that, trafficker give assurance to the guardians to victims that, they

would be provided with well-paid salaries, food, accommodation, and transportation

facilities free of cost (Sarkar & Panday, 2006).

4.15.3 Communication and rapport building

Communication and rapport building is crucial in the pathway of women trafficking.

Initially, traffickers targeted the vulnerable woman considering the socioeconomic

position of the victim in the community. In the cases of face to face interaction,

traffickers meet with victims through the way of mutual friend or being a neighbor of the

70
victims and anyhow convinced them to share all kinds of personal information to them.

One study indicates that, agents of traffickers monitor the movement of trafficked women

and pass on information to the other syndicate members of trafficking groups (Sarkar &

Panday, 2006). Traffickers always expressed sympathy to them and continued visiting

the victims on a frequent basis. In the cases of social media interaction, traffickers

collected all kinds of personal information from the victims' Facebook accounts and

followed the activities shared on Facebook profile. Besides, they continued

communicating with the victims through Facebook messenger and other forms of social

media like WhatsApp, IMO account. At one stage they convinced the victims to meet

face to face. In both type of communication systems, traffickers made strong rapport with

the victims and victims willingly shared all kinds of personal information. While they

shared their struggling condition and abusive lifestyle, traffickers showed enormous

sympathy to them and ensured all kinds of support needed to them.

4.15.4 Transferring near border area

In this study, all the victims were trafficked to India. Traffickers used either Benapole or

Shatkhira border as a route of trafficking. In all the cases, traffickers started their journey

from different locations of Dhaka and was aiming to reach either Jessore or Shatkhira

initially. In all cases, traffickers used the bus as a fast transportation. In most cases,

except case-1, traffickers preferred night journeys to avoid any kind of trouble initiated

by law enforcement agencies. In transportation, traffickers imposed strong restrictions on

victims and were forbidden to talk with anybody throughout the journey.

4.15.5 Presence of middlemen in the border area

In transportation, traffickers didn’t carry the victims to the border directly. Instead, they

71
took help from the middleman near border area. Middleman are those persons who could

be the members of an organized trafficking groups, any known persons or relatives of any

trafficker, even a member of local community of the border area; who usually assist in

trafficking process by providing shelter, all basic facilities and communicate with border

security official for the perfect timing of crossing borders. By doing this, such middleman

demands money from the traffickers. In this study, in most cases, traffickers took help

from the middleman in the border area. In one study it is found that, in the border area

women are kept in those particular houses which are prearranged and then transferred to

the border at a convenient time (Paul and Hasnath, 2000). Organized trafficking group

members, known person of traffickers and local people all played crucial role as

middleman in separate cases. They provided accommodation facilities and all basic

support in border areas of Bangladesh and India. In fact, they sometimes arranged fake

passport and Aadhar cards for the victims. Moreover, they frequently communicated with

the border security personnel to fix the perfect timing to cross the border area. The

presence of middlemen in the border area made the trafficking process safer and

smoother.

4.15.6 Frequent transferring of the victims

Crossing the borderline is the most challenging part of the entire trafficking process. In

this study, when the victims were moved near the border, traffickers maintained the

highest security. In this regard, traffickers waited for the perfect timing. Traffickers along

with other counterparts of the trafficking groups got the victims ready and waited for the

green signal from the border line. In this study, in most of the cases, when traffickers

tried to cross the borderlines; they went there as a group. Another groups trafficked

72
another 5-10 women and girls also awaited crossing the border. Mainly such incidents

occurred at midnight, and traffickers frequently handed over victims to new persons. The

location of the victims was also changed in short period to avoid any kind of detection by

the law enforcement agencies. All the victims were kept under strong surveillance and

were imposed strict restrictions on their movement and talking during that particular

period.

4.15.7 Traffickers-Security Forces-Politician nexus

Nexus among the traffickers, security forces and politician has made the trafficking

process smoother for the traffickers. Such nexus among the three components creates a

win-win situation for all and maximizes their profits. Traffickers maintain strong

relationships with border security forces to avoid arrest and detection while crossing the

border. Besides, border security forces receive huge sum of money from the traffickers

for their task and they ensure the safety of the traffickers. One study reveals that,

traffickers keep alliance with corrupted law enforcement groups and due to monetary

gain and individual sex favors, a number of dishonest BGB and BSF members assist in

carrying trafficked women across Bangladesh border (Sarkar & Panday, 2006). Besides,

traffickers also maintain a good relationship with local political leaders to avoid any kind

of disturbance from the local community of the border areas.

Political leaders ensure the protection of middleman, traffickers and also victims. Such

political leaders also receive huge sum of money from traffickers for their crucial role.

One study reveals the similarity with the findings of study, indicating that different types

of violent political actions are funded by human traffickers (ESHITA, 2017).

Further, political leaders and security force remain silent about these issues and their

73
mutual communication made the process risk-free. In this study, in most cases traffickers

crossed the border with victims without any restriction from BGB and BSF. Border

security system remained ineffective and inactive in most of the cases. While, in those

cases traffickers were apprehended by the BGB or BSF, they released them through the

negotiation of the border area's political leaders in exchange for money. Study of Rahman

(2011), clearly reveals that, in Bangladesh trafficking is conducted by well-organized

trafficking gangs that have link with various law enforcement agencies. Besides, a close

nexus is found among traffickers, border security personnel and local politicians. Such

corruption, illegal bondage facilitates trafficking process.

4.15.8 Exploitation of the victims

In this study, all the respondents were trafficked to India for sexual exploitation. When

they were trafficked to India, immediately they were sent to apartment building or brothel

for sexual exploitation by the traffickers. They were forcefully raped, gang raped,

injected drugs and tortured brutally. They were frequently sent to hotels, spa centers, or

residential areas and most of the time they had to deal 5-10 clients daily. Victims were

often deprived of all forms of human rights and weren’t provided with nutritious food,

proper clothing, or necessary medicine and treatment. In one study it is found that,

trafficked women go through severe forms of physical and psychological violence that

hamper socio-economic well-being and also destroy self-esteem, confidence level and

potentiality (Sarowar, 2014). Besides, they were frequently threatened to be killed or to

be handed over to law enforcement agencies. Such forms of exploitation and abusive

environment affected the victims both physically and psychologically. One study reveals

that, victims of trafficking suffer from physical and emotional abuse, rape, threat against

74
self and family or even death (Amin, 2011).

4.15.9 Rescue of victims

In most cases of human trafficking, victims are confined in the destination country for

their entire life and never rescued. But in few cases, fortunately, victims get free from the

traffickers by means of own efforts, tricks or even by the efforts of law enforcement

agencies or human rights organizations. In this study, most victims were rescued by their

effort and intelligence. While they were sent to hotels or spa centers they escaped luckily.

Besides, in some cases, victims took help from the client sharing their own stories and

communicated with their family at home. Further, in one case of the study, police raid in

the hotel and arrested the victim. When the victim shared her entire stories with the

police, they handed over her to a shelter home for further support.

4.15.10 Repatriation of the victim

Successful repatriation of the victims of human trafficking ends up all forms of

exploitation in the destination country and provides new opportunities for the victims in

the host country. Repatriation is a complex process requiring willingness of both host and

destination countries. Role of law enforcement agencies and NGOs, GOs are also vital.

Besides, victims are required legal, financial and basic physical and psychological

support for any successful repatriation. In this study, in most cases, victims were

provided basic essential legal and mental support by several shelter homes of India. They

also provided extra facilities for the well-being of the victims like psychological

counselling, motivation, vocational training and other support. From the Bangladesh side,

BNWLA communicated with the family members of the victims and provided all forms

of legal support needed for successful repatriation. They also accommodated victims in

75
their shelter home and provided all kinds of basic facilities before handing victims to

their families.

Struggle and Expolitation

vulnerabilities in destination Rescue of
of victims country victim

Enticement by Tridimentional
nexus in Repatriation
false promise border

Frequent
Rapport
handdleing of
Building
victims

Presence of
Transfering middleman
near border

Figure-1: Pathways of women trafficking in Bangladesh

4.16 Role of BNWLA in supporting victims

Protection for the victims of trafficking is provided through number of legal, medical,

psychological and economic support by state as well as by NGOs (Thomas, 2011).

Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’ Association (BNWLA) has been working to

combat human trafficking in Bangladesh for the last three decades as a pioneer human

rights organization in Bangladesh (BNWLA, 2020). BNWLA has implemented several

anti-trafficking projects throughout Bangladesh with the assistance of several donors. The

organization also provides legal assistance to ensure the rights of trafficked victims

through delivering legal aid, psychological support, shelter support, rescue, repatriation

and other issues related to trafficking. In this study, all the victims were repatriated

through BNWLA and as a human rights organization BNWLA supported them mentally,

economically, rehabilitating and reuniting to family and access to justice. BNWLA

76
supported the victims of women trafficking through different pathways.

4.16.1 Rescue and repatriation of victims

BNWLA has repatriated trafficked victims from different countries and rehabilitated

them with access to standard care and services. Over the past decade BNWLA has

assisted or repatriated more than 1500 victims of human trafficking. In 2015-2018

BNWLA repatriated 536 women and children from abroad (BNWLA, 2019). Besides,

from 2010 to 2013 July, BNWLA repatriated 796 survivors of trafficking from India and

Middle East (BNWLA 2014). In this study, all the victims were repatriated by BNWLA.

When the victim’s family complained about trafficking, BNWLA immediately responded

and communicated with the shelter homes in India. In some cases, authority of the shelter

homes or local police directly communicated with BNWLA and they assisted in the

repatriation process. As a Key Informant of the study, President of the BNWLA

Advocate Salma Ali said,

“BNWLA has played a significant role within numerous Government committees

including Government-NGO National Coordinating Committee to combat human

trafficking, a steering committee and implementation committee to formulate

effective anti-trafficking law. BNWLA also partnered with the Rescue

Repatriation Integration (RRRI) taskforce to strengthen the process of rescue,

repatriation, rehabilitation and reintegration of trafficking victims.”

Besides, the Director of BNWLA Nafiz Imtiaz Hassan added,

“BNWLA has been providing technical support to the Ministry of Home Affairs

for repatriation, rehabilitation and reintegration of survivors of trafficking.

BNWLA also providing technical support to the alliance that has been set up by

77
 the Director General of the Department of the Women Affairs for combating

trafficking in women and children”.

4.16.2 Rehabilitation

BNWLA aims to provide safe rehabilitation to survivors of human trafficking through its

Shelter Homes named “Proshanti” based in Dhaka, Gazipur, Jessore, and Chittagong. In

this study, after successful repatriation from India, most of the victims weren’t handed

over to their family directly. In this study all the victims were transferred to “Proshanti-2”

a shelter home situated in Gazipur for a period of time based on needs. They were

provided comprehensive psycho-social support service like counseling, motivation,

formal and non-formal education, and vocational and skill training for livelihood for

survivors.

A Senior Official of shelter home Proshanti-2 Nazmunnahar said,

“Psycho-social counselling is an integral component of the rehabilitation

program which is more effective for traumatized victims. Every survivor is

encouraged to actively participate in designing a plan to ensure their livelihood

skills. Victims are trained up to become peer educators who are then able to

develop communication, decision making, problem solving and capacity building

skills”.

The President of BNWLA Advocate Salma Ali said,

“In our shelter homes, we always try to provide comprehensive services

maintaining the best quality to the victims of human trafficking for their recovery.

Besides, we strictly follow the National Policy for Providing Appropriate and

Comprehensive Services to Victims of Human Trafficking. Basic human rights,

78
 care, protection, and best interest of the victims are also ensured in our shelter

homes.”

Director of BNWLA Nafiz Imtiaz Hassan said,

“In our shelter homes, besides mental and physical health support, we also

provide basic education, vocational training and self-development programs so

that, victims can successfully reintegrate to their community with self-sufficiency

and high self-esteem. We also try our best to provide employment opportunities as

well based on the quality of the victims.”

In this study, all the respondents of the women trafficking were provided all kinds of

basic support from shelter homes based on their needs and also ensured proper

rehabilitation facilities.

4.16.3 Assistance during trafficking prosecution

When victims are successfully repatriated to the host country and after providing

immediate support needed for the victims, the major challenge is to ensure justice to the

victims and their families. It is important of establish before court that, it was a case of

trafficking based on the Act of Trafficking and traffickers must be punished for the

struggling of the victims. In Bangladesh, in most of the cases of human trafficking;

traffickers remain undetected only because victims are not provided necessary legal and

economic support during the court proceeding. Even they remain afraid of filing cases

against the traffickers fearing about re-victimization by the traffickers and victims hold

very little knowledge about the court proceedings. Besides, victims face economic crisis

as well dealing the court proceedings.

Due to the its clandestine nature, investigating and collecting testimony its difficult by the

79
law enforcement agencies alone. One study has found that, many trafficked persons lack

confidence in the police and judicial system. Besides, without financial and strong

support system, it becomes difficult to secure conviction against the traffickers. Further,

intimidation and threats are often used by the traffickers to prevent a person from taking

legal action (The Bangladesh Thematic Group on Trafficking, 2004). For the prosecution

of traffickers to be effective, legal and other assistance must be provided to trafficked

person for the duration of any criminal action against suspected traffickers. The victims

and witness must be protected during legal proceeding.

In this study, BNWLA effectively assisted all the victims of women trafficking in the

prosecution of traffickers by conducting following activities: collecting information from

alleged victim and others, assisting in investigation, filing cases, victim and witness

mobilization for testimony, assisting Public Prosecutors in conducting cases, and

ensuring justice to the victims. As a Key Informant of the study, Head of the Legal Cell

Department of BNWLA, Advocate Ferdous Nigar said,

“We provide all types of legal assistance to the victims of women and child

trafficking. Most of the times, victims become afraid to file any cases against the

traffickers fearing about re-victimization. Further, victims and their families are

unaware about the court proceedings. Besides, most of the times victims are from

low economic background lacking financial support to carry on trafficking cases.

We ensure legal support to them free of cost and motivate victims to follow the

legal proceeding ensuring justice.”

A Senior Official of shelter home “Proshanti-2”, Nazmunnahar said,

“In our shelter homes, we provide psychological counselling to the victims so that they

80
can overcome the traumatic situation initiated through the incident of trafficking. Further,

we motivate them mentally to fight against the traffickers through the legal proceedings.

When they feel they are not alone ensuring the justice, the receive all the legal assistance

and cooperate in the entire proceedings.

4.16.4 Reintegration in community

After ensuring proper rehabilitation in the shelter home and legal support during court

proceedings needed by the victims, it is important to ensure proper reintegration of

victims in the community. But reintegration of victims is not an easy endeavor. One study

reveals that, reintegration of rescued trafficking victim is complex and long-term process.

Efforts should be made considering the age, education, skills of the survivors. The

process of reintegration starts with the activities in shelter home that includes medical,

psycho-social and economic service to the survivors (Sarowar, 2014).

In Bangladesh, patriarchal social structure and subordinate position of women in society

has made this process more complex. Besides, as trafficking is closely linked with rape

and prostitution, traditional society holds a negative attitude towards the victims of

women trafficking. In this study, all the victims of women trafficking were treated

negatively by the community members and they blamed the victims for their sufferings at

the initial stage of reintegration in the community. In fact, family members of the victims

showed no support or sympathy to the victims. Victims were being isolated and their

movement were also being restricted. Such situation can create additional pressure on

victims and make them vulnerable to re-trafficking. This reintegration type can be treated

as a primary step of reintegration and an incomplete process. One study demonstrates

that, an effective rehabilitative and integrative framework must ensure the safety and

81
well-being of the victims and must be safeguarding against the re-victimization, reprisal

or retaliation (Loong, 2010).

Director of BNWLA Nafiz Imtiaz Hassan said,

“It’s not easy to ensure successful reintegration of victims of women trafficking.

Yes, we provide all kinds of rehabilitative programs, basic and skill development

training for the betterment of victims for ensuring her successful reintegration.

But it’s not guaranteed successful reintegration. How society and community

members treating the victims, it’s always a vital issue. Victim blaming and stigma

always limits the success of proper integration. You have to change the mindset,

negative attitude and negligence towards the victims of trafficking. BNWLA is

always aware of this and working on this issue.”

4.16.5 Awareness raising at community level and maintaining communication

with victim’s family

Different NGOs and government are working are working to change the people’s

perception about the reintegration of survivor’s of women trafficking and providing

facilities to the survivors to get empowered (Rosy, 2016). In this study, BNWLA played

a crucial role in repatriation and reintegration by providing victims' legal, mental, and

financial support as well as capacity building and skill development program. But such

initiatives and programs are not enough to ensure successful repatriation of victims in the

society. There is a significant lack of awareness about the extent of human trafficking in

Bangladesh and its effect on its victims' health, mind and quality. In this study, BNWLA

tried to raise awareness at community level creating social acceptance of survivors of

trafficking in community based rehabilitation and reintegration programs and preventing

82
vulnerable people from being victimized. Besides, BNWLA frequently communicated

with the victims, family members and community people of the surrounding areas to

evaluate the present situation of the victim and raised awareness among people to create a

sympathetic and positive attitude. The President of BNWLA said,

“BNWLA strives to raise awareness among community people, related service

providers from Government and Non-Government bodies and civil society

members. Activities include imparting knowledge on human trafficking and good

practices to strengthen local efforts to combat human trafficking through capacity

building, raising awareness, training and workshop programs with law

enforcement agencies, public prosecutors, judges and community people.”

Repatriation of victims

Rehabilitation of victims

Successful
reintegration of
victims in Support during legal proceedings
community

Reintegration in society

Awareness building in community and

communicate with victim’s family

Figure-2: Role of BNWLA in reintegration process.

83
 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5. Conclusion

Women trafficking is an issue of concern worldwide, including in Bangladesh and other

South Asian countries. Trafficking of persons, especially of women and girls have thus

reached endemic proportions around the globe. Large number of people trafficked each

year just into sexual subjugation, coerced prostitution, domestic servitude, bonded

sweatshop labor and other slavery like conditions, almost no country in the world has

been left unaffected. South Asia alone is the source of nearly 1/3 of the global trafficking

occurring, and the average age of those being trafficked is falling. Trafficking now

believed to be the third largest source of income for organized crime behind narcotics and

firearms. This study revealed the pathways of women trafficking which initiated through

women's vulnerabilities and struggling conditions, resulting in extreme physical violence

and psychological abuse in the destination country. Besides, poverty, lack of employment

opportunities, discrimination, domestic violence fueled to their vulnerabilities to be

trafficked.

Further, expansion of commercial sex industries and tourism sectors, illegal sex trade and

growth in pornography sites, created high demand for young women and girls to be

exploited and motivated organized criminal groups to be involved in such illegal trade.

This study also reveals that, to recruit such women and girl’s traffickers enticed them by

false promise of lucrative job opportunities, better lifestyle or even marriage in the

destination countries. Moreover, use of social media and digital platform recruiting the

victims, corruption by the border security forces, lack of proper monitoring and

supervision system, keeps the traffickers undetected.

84
The Bangladesh Government, non-government organizations and civil society have been

working together in partnership to combat this issue. In 2012, Parliament enacted new

anti-trafficking law that is extremely comprehensive and consistent with the international

standards presented in the UN protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in

persons. Such law provides a very clear and comprehensive definition for the offence of

human trafficking, provides for stern punishment of trafficking offenses, authorizes the

establishment of special tribunal to handle human trafficking cases, provides a number of

protecting measure for victims including the establishment of additional safe homes,

protection for witness, victims and many other issues.

However, despite this new anti-trafficking law and several policies implemented by

Bangladesh Government, several implementation challenges are identified which can

limit the full effectiveness of the new laws and current policies. Issues like corruption by

law enforcement agencies and judicial officials, poor investigation mechanism, lack of

awareness among the victims and general people, inadequate services for rehabilitation

and reintegration of trafficking survivors, lack of victim cooperation, lack of legal and

financial support service for victims have made the process more complex.

Recommendations

1. In order to combat this global phenomenon, international policies and practices

that encourage government cooperation and foster civil assistance for trafficking

victims in prosecuting traffickers have to be developed.

2. Technical cooperation among countries and international law enforcement

agencies is essential in investigating the extent and forms of trafficking and

documenting such activities in order to be able to act efficiently and swiftly in the

85
 future.

3. Source, transit and destination countries of trafficking should provide support

mechanism for judicial activities in related countries, including witness protection

services. Destination countries should have social support system for victims and

consider residency grants on humanitarian grounds for trafficking victims who

can’t return home for whatever reasons or cannot obtain adequate and timely help

from prosecutors.

4. In addition, provisions should also be made to ensure that an intensive

investigation and prosecution process further traumatized trafficking victims,

safeguarding their rights to privacy, dignity and safety.

5. Continuation of implementing the 2018-2022 Anti-Trafficking National Action

Plan.

6. Establishment adequate tribunal for counter trafficking ensuring speedy and

proper disposal of cases.

7. Support rescue operations, ensure access to safe shelter and facilitate reintegration

of victims of trafficking.

8. Ensure legal aid and substance allowance to the survivors of trafficking.

9. Ensure community participation reintegration process of survivors of the human

trafficking. Community people can play multidimensional roles in preventing

human trafficking. From rescue to reintegration of a victim and even in pre and

post crisis situation, they can serve as a major actor in the whole process.

10. Shelter homes for trafficking victims should be maintained following the

guidelines of National Policy on Minimum Standards in Shelter Homes.

86
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Appendix: 1

Semi-Structured Questionnaire for Victim

Women Trafficking in Bangladesh

Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh,
TangailDepartment of Criminology and Police Science
(All the information will be used for the purpose of conducting research.
Identity of the victims will be kept secret)

A. Socio-demographic information of the victim

1. Age of the respondent:

2. Religion:

3. Marital status:

4. Occupation:

5. Educational qualification:

6. Family type:

7. Family member’s information:

8. Family income source:

9. Annual income of the family:

B. Information about the incident of trafficking

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 1. How did you become a victim of human trafficking? Please explain.

2. Please, tell us what you know about the traffickers.

3. How traffickers first started communicating with you? Please, tell us.

4. What was your family condition at the time of trafficking?

5. During that period, what types of difficulties you went through? Please, explain.

6. Why did you agree to leave the country? What were your expectations then? Please,
mention.

7. Which routes did the traffickers use during the trafficking? Please, tell us.

8. How did you cross the border of Bangladesh?

C. Information about exploitation in the destination country

1. What types of work you were engaged in destination country?

2. Whether traffickers provided any sort of facilities needed by you? Please, mention.

3 What type of physical violence and psychological abuse you went through by

traffickers?Please, tell us.

D. Information about rescue and repatriation

1. How did you rescue from the traffickers? Please, tell us.

2. Please, share you experience how law enforcement agencies and human

right organizations helped you repatriating in Bangladesh?

3. What types of facilities were provided you in shelter homes of BNWLA? Please
mention.

92
4. What was the initial response from your family and community members after

reintegrating in your society? Please, share it.

93
Appendix-2:

Semi-Structured Questionnaire for KII

Women Trafficking in Bangladesh

Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh,
TangailDepartment of Criminology and Police Science

Name of the Correspondent:

……………………………………………………………………

Designation and Address:

……………………………………………………………………

A. Information about the nature and extend of women trafficking in Bangladesh

1. Please, share your experience about the issue of women trafficking in Bangladesh.

2. What types of women and girls are more vulnerable of human

trafficking in the present context of Bangladesh? Please, explain.

3. What are the reasons and contributing factors behind women trafficking in
Bangladesh?

4. Do you noticed any changes in the patterns of women trafficking in

recent year? Please, tellus.

B. Information about the support services provided by NGO

1. What types of support are usually provided to the victims of women trafficking by

BNWLA or others NGOs in Bangladesh? Please explain.

94
2. What kind of legal support are provided to the victims? Please share.

3. What types of rehabilitative programs are undertaken by for the victims of women

trafficking.

4. What the role of shelter homes to ensure proper reintegration in their community?

Please explain.

5. What the key challenges faced the NGOs or human rights organization combating

human trafficking in Bangladesh?

C. Recommendations

1. What should be the possible solution eradicating such hyenas act? Please share your
opinion?

2. Please, mention about the role of Government, NGOs, INGOs, law

enforcement agencies andrelevant stakeholders to combat women trafficking

in Bangladesh.

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Appendix-3:
Code, Theme and Sub-theme

Code Sub-themes Themes

Age Age of the victims

Education Educational qualification Socio-demographic
Employment Employment status characteristics of the victims
Residence Residence of the victim
Marital status Number of family member
Marital status

Family type
Family type Economic condition of the
Economic solvency family Family conditions and
Earning source Earning members of the family attachment at the time of
Attachment level Attachment with family trafficking
Support members
Discrimination Family support for well being
Torture and discrimination

Time of departure Time and date of the incidents

Destination Location of departure Incidents of Trafficking
Country Destination countries
Route used for trafficking
Border Border used for trafficking
Route
Use of force

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 Worked as organized
groups/gangs
Operational method Number of traffickers
Gender Gender of traffickers Trafficker’s information
Age Age group of traffickers
Occupation Occupation of traffickers
Familiarity Familiarity with victims
Mode of communication Communication method

Hoping for a change

Better life style Lucrative job offer Victim’s expectation toward
Secured job Better life style Destination counties
Freedom Handsome salaries
Salary Freedom of life
Self-dependency Self-dependency
Fast and easy communication

Poverty Extreme poverty

Job opportunities Lack scope for employment Struggling condition of
Depression Depression victims at the time of
Conflict Family conflict trafficking
Support for family Supportive mentality of victim

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 Preplanned targeting Targeted based on social media
information
Lucrative job offer Lucrative job offered through Use of digital platform and
Facebook page or group social media recruiting
Fake identity Using fake identity victims.
Victim’s tendency to become
Tendency to be famous famous over night
Smooth communication
Smooth communication

Involvement in prostitution
Prostitution Physical torture and abuse
Gang rape Internal injuries
Physical torture External injuries
Threat of killing Gang rape at the initial stage Physical torture and suffering
Deprivation Threat of killing of the victims
24/7 Surveillance Injecting drugs and medicines
Medical support Deprivation of all basic needs
Threat of handing over to police
No treatment while injuries

Fear
Stress
Anger
Anxiety Problem in behavior
Depression Problem in sleeping Psychological stress and
Self-blaming Self-blame suffering of the victims.
Insomnia Lack of trust
Poor self-esteem Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Restlessness
Nightmare
Skip meal
Self-harming behavior

Inactive role Strong affiliation with

Affiliation traffickers Role of law enforcement
Less restriction Exchange of bribes agencies in the border area
Bribes Protection for traffickers
Nexus Less restriction
Victim harassment Politician, law enforcement
agencies and trafficker’s nexus

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 Escape
Escape from brothel/hotels
Aid from local police Communication with local law
enforcement agencies
Rescue Rescued by police Repatriation of victims from
Send to victim support centers the destination country
Victim support center Legal and mental support
Communication with
Legal aid and service GOs/NGOs
Back to family
GOs, NGOs initiatives

Victim blaming
Negative attitude Blaming the victim
Restricted life style Negative attitude towards Societal response towards
Disrespect victim victims after repatriation.
Aggressive mentality and Lack of sympathy
Dishonor

Victim blaming
Mistrust
Non-supportive Negative response from family Response from family and
Un-empathetic attitudes and relatives. relatives after repatriation.
Unaccepted
Lack of affection

99