FUEL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY #9 (2008) 704-714

wei at
ELSEVIER www.elsevier.com/locate/fuproc

Minimization of fines generation in size reduction of coals by

impact crusher
C. Eswaraiah®*, Anshul Gupta', R. Nagarajan', M. Rajavel®, K. Nandakumar®
"Mineral Processing Department, Institute of Minerals & Matertals Technology (IMMT), Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR),
Bhubaneswar 751 013, India
'Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036, India
"R &D, FBC & HRSG, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Tiruchirappalti, 620 014, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: In Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustors (BFBC) utilizing coal, efficient combustion requires
Received 6 February 2007 that feed size of coal particles be in the maximum size range of ? tc 6 mm. This requires that
Received in Tevised form the comminuticn process be effective. In this work, various types of coals have been
3January 2008 comminuted in an impact crusher. The size reduction process ts charactenzed by four
Accepted 4 January 2008 process parameters and relevant properties of the ccal samples. Taguchi's design cf
experiment was used to minimize the number of experiments done to obtain meaningful
Keywords: results. It was concluded from the expenments that among process parameters, RPM has a
Expenmental design mcre prominent effect on generation of fines compared to feed rate, feed size and gap
Coal setting. Among coal properties, volattle matter, ash content and fixed carbon have
Crushing significant effect, followed by moisture content. RPM has relatively less influence on
Fines generation coarse particle (>6 mm) content. An empitical correlation has been formulated based on the
data to predict the generation of fines for a given set cf process parameters and physical
properties of coals. The results cbtained using the model was within the acceptable
accuracy when compared to the expenmental data. The same correlation has also been
applied successfully to fit the cement production from a plant, indicating that it has ment
beyond the labcratory and that the specific type of crusher is immatenial, provided the
mechanism of size reduction remains the same.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All nghts reserved.

1. Introduction quality specifications, to situations such as in India, where

Coal is a conventional source of energy, the single largest fuel
source for electricity all over the world. The world coal
production has increased by almost 50% in the last twenty-
five years. Coal is mined in over 50 countries, whether
produced from underground or from surface mines, is rarely
produced in a form suitable fer use without further processing.
Coal preparation to some degree was practiced by all the major
coal-producing nations of the world. The technologies
employed range from scphisticated plants, employing
advanced equipment and process designs to meet exact
coal preparation is restricted to crushing and screening of raw
coal to a uniform size to facilitate handling or, in other words
to meet the minimum requirements for an efficient use. Coal
preparation for a bubbling bed combustion boiler involves
crushing of the mined coal and to remove finer particles
followed by another crushing process and to remove finer
particles. The percentage of fine particles (size<1 mm} in the
feed to the boiler affects the efficiency of the combustion
process to a significant extent, making the process of coal size
reduction and associated generation of fines worthy of further
study.

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 6742581635x263.
E-mail address: eswar_lutm@yahoo.co.in (C. Eswaraiah}.

6378-3820/$ see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All nights reserved.
-

doi: 10.1016/). fuproc.2008.01.001

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 FUFL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
The literature shows that the substantial effort has been
expended in understanding the impact crusher performance
in relation tao machine configuration and the operational con-
ditions through experimental work and mathematical model-
img [1-5]. However, due to lack of detailed knowledge on
velocity and energy distributions of collision inside a milling
chamber, the mechanisms are still not clear.
Whiten developed a mode! [6] for simulating cone crusher
performance, and discussed the use of this information in
computer aided process design for sizing of equipment and the
prediction of overall circuit performance. In their crusher
simulation, four aspects were studied. They calculated the
breakage function and classification function, and developed
the relationship between model parameters and process
variables. They determined choke fed capacity as the limit for
crusher throughput and estimated the power draw of the
crusher. The breakage distribution function [7-9] was estimated
from the plant crusher feed and product distributions using
nonlinear regression techniques. The breakage distribution
function was represented as the sum of two log-log (power} or
Rosin-Rammiler type curves, one describing the coarse particle
size range and other describing the fine particle size range.
A study was conducted on a small Hazemag rotary im-
pact crusher for the assessment of the repeated impact-
abrasion properties of alloy white cast irons. The test specimens
were cast as blow bars for use in the crusher, and each test
imvealved the communution of 2000 kg of quarry stone. A series of
six alloy white cast irons has been tested in the crusher in order
to assess the influences of chemical composition, hardness,
eutectic carbide volume fraction and retained austenite content
on combined repeated impact-abrasion performance. The
results showed that hardening by heat treatment, and hence
Variations in retained austenite content, had no influence on
weight loss, but that weight loss increased significantly with
increasing eutectic carbide volume fraction [10].
The effect of process parameters on any process is
comprehensively studied through full factorial design of
experiments. In these experiments, the parameter of interest
was varied in the desired range keeping all other parameters
constant. The process was followed for every relevant para-
meter and effect of ali the parameters was incorporated. A
large number of experiments have to be performed to consider
all parameters in such an experimental design. In this study,
fractionai-factorial orthogonal experiments have been used to
study the effect of process parameters on crushing of different
coals. The fractional-factorial orthogonal experiments were
also called Taguchi's designed experiments. The total number
of experiments incorporates the combined effect of para-
meters on the dependent variable. Of all the possible combi-
nations for a set of process parameters, only a few were
selected according to the design. The Taguch's design of ex-
periments reduces the total number of experiments to be done
to extract the impact effect but simulating results of such a
designed experiment is quite complex [11]. To study the
kinematics of the particle motion within the impact crushers
the discrete element method (DEM) was emplcyed in their
work. The DEM was first proposed [12] to model the behavior
of soil particles subject to dynamic loading conditions.
The DEM has also been appled te studies of impact
induced particle breakage. In one study [13] found that ratio
89 (2008) 704-714 705
of the impact velocity to propagation velocity of the long-
itudinal (sound) waves in the material (Vo=C) was a useful
parameter that descnbed the rate at which the kinetic energy
of the collision was transferred to the strain energy of the
particle. When the value of Vo=C was high, the produced
fragments tended to have an elongated shape. This was in
agreement with experimental results. The 7D DEM of agglom-
erates impacting the ngid walls was reported. Depending on
the impact velocity and adhesive strength between particles,
three regimes were observed: shattering, serni-brittle fracture
and elastic rebound One research group was studied the
impact breakage of particle agglomerates. They found a dis-
tinct fracture pattern for dense agglomerates above a thresh-
ald impact velocity. The produced fragment size distributions
shawed a clear bi-modal distribution [15]. However, applica-
tion of the DEM to the impact crushers was rare in the
hterature. Over years the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research
Centre (IKMRC)} has successfully modeled two types of impact
crushers: the vertical shaft impact crusher [16] and the
horizontal shaft swing hammer mill (4,5]-
The impact crushers usually operate at very high retational
speed (1000 rpm for the vertical shaft crusher and 3000 rpm for
the horizontal shaft hammer mill in this study). Dynamic
motion of particles inside the crushing chamber and the in-
teraction between the crushing element and the particles
exerts a dominant influence on the product size distribution.
However, such knowledge is rare in the literature. Although
high-speed cine camera study on the motion of coal particles
inside the hammer mill was attempted by researchers [1], it
was difficult te determine the impact energy quantitatively.
DEM simulations provide a suitable tool to establish the par-
ticle kinematics and the energy distributicn patterns.
Several authors [17,18] have shown experimentally that the
probability of impact breakage of single particles is well described
by the Weibull distribution first proposed [19]. This study
adapted the distribution as a classification function for impact
crushers [20]. The particle breakage theory proposed that the
larger particles should break more easily because they contain
larger micro-cracks compared with the smaller ones [71].
The comminution medels that charactenze the size reduc-
tion process were mostly semi-empirical, based on ex-
periments done by varying one parameter at a time and
focused on a few process parameters. In this study, equal focus
has been placed on all relevant parameters. The resuits include
not only single parameter effect, but also the effect due to
interaction between the parameters. Hazemag power generat-
ing technology was used for processing wood waste. Hazemag
is also being used in power generating industries for fuel
preparation purposes. The use of impact crushing of concrete
for liberation and recycling [22]. The standard model for cone
and jaw crushers developed [23]. In a recent work [24] used the
classification function together with the breakage distribution
function to simulate the performance of hammer crushers.
The results of the simulations suggest that the assumption ofa
constant fine product fraction may be too restrictive to
correctly describe the changes in the product size distribution
obtained from impact crushing with different rotor velocities
and feed rates. The performance model for impact crushers
was developed [25] and could able to predict the product size
distribution at steady-state operating conditions and contains
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706 FUEL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY #9 (2008) 704-714

100
a reasonable number of parameters. The specific behaviour of
impact crushers is modelled through classification and break-
age functions that both depend on the roter radius and angular 2
80
velocity as well as on the feed rate. In this work, it is recom-
mended that only particles of size larger than 1mmbe present 60
in the final feed to the boiler because of this requirement, the
study was focused on the minimization of <1 mm fraction
using an impact crusher. -@-
feed size level d80=8 mm
| ,

20 @
- -
feed size tevel 7, = 14 mm
a
feed sive level 3, d80 = 15 mm
2. Experimental
0
0 5 10 24) 25
2.1. Description of experimental set-up Particle size, mm

In this work, the Hazemag crusher (Model NO. 8577/68) used for Feed size distributions of different levels of feed.
Fig. al2
-

experiments was shown in Fig. 1. The Hazemag crusher has a

0.3m circular rotor fitted with four blowbars. There are two
stationary baffle plates located at a spacing of approximately
12 cm on the left hand top side of the penphery of the outer casing
of the crusher. The material to be crushed ts fed from the top of the
crusher opening at a certain feed rate via the vibratory feeder.
When the rotor rotates, the feed matenal ts crushed in the gap
between blowbars and the two staticnary baffle plates.
The gap between first baffle plate and the blowbar is called the
open-side setting (OSS) and the other gap is called closed side-
setting (CSS). The gap settings can be adjusted by changing the
baffle position. Moving a wheel, which either tightens or slackens
the motor belt, can change the impeller speed. The two gaps
between the two stationary baffle plates and the blowbars of the
Hazemag crusher can be set at different openings, so that varicus
degrees of fineness of the crushed product can be obtained.
2.2. Preparation of feed and test procedure
Laboratory expenments were performed on five different coals
designated as Madhukarai (Aj, Rajasthan (B), Ramagundam A (C)
and Ramagundam B (D) and Indonesian (E). These coal samples
were supplied by Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Tnchy. The coal
feed size distnbution for Hazemag crusher expenments were
prepared by the primary crusher, such as roll crusher on as received
coal samples. Then, each feed size was subjected to a systematic test
procedure as follows. The representative samples were obtained
using the coning and quartering method. A vibratory sieve shaker
was used, and sieving is done for 25 min for each sample. The test
sieves are in the range of 1-25 mm. The feed size was characterized
by deo, Which was the representative of 80% of the feed matenal
passing through that size. The cumulative size distributions of feed
for different coals are given in Fig. 2. This feed size distmbution was
used for the Hazemag crusher expernments.
The expenmental setup is shown in Fig. 1. In a typical crusher
experiment, the schd feed rate was varied by using the vibratory
feeder, and the variable voltage transformer sets the crusher runs at
different speeds. The crusher product was collected through the
filter bag, weighed and particle size distnbutions were determined
using the sieve analysis. The size distibutions of the products were
Teasured thnce with three separate samples to venfy the repeat-
ability cf the expenment. The effect cf vanables such as the sclid
feed rate, feed size distributton, crusher speed, and the gap setting
were studied. The feed size distributions used at three different
levels was given in Table 1. There were four control variables studied
in the expenment. Three levels were assigned to each control
variable according to the Taguchi's expenmental design. The
detailed process vanables studied were given in Table 2.
2.3. Design of experiments: L9(3*) array

A (3°) orthogonal array is one with four factors and three levels for
Feed inlet each factor. A total of (3)*=81 runs would be mun if full factorial
approach was taken into consideration. On the other hand, only 9
designed (partial factonal) experiments would have to be mun if
Taguchi's design approach [11] was used. Orthogonal arrays were
often employed in mdustrial experiments to study the effect of
control factcrs. An orthogonal array was a type of experiment
where the cohimns for the independent vaniables were orthogonal
to one ancther. Analysis cf such an expenment is easy and the
conclusions are valid over the entire region spanned by the contrel
factcrs and their settings. Modeling of the engineering design
process through orthogonal type of expernments gives a robust

Rotor Tabie i Different levels of feed size distribution used in

the experiments
Size range Level 1 weight Level 2 weight Level 3
(mm) (gm) (gm) weight (gm)
Product -20+10 100 200 400
outlet -10+5 400 500 400
=5+3 300 150 100
-3+1 200 150 100
Fig. L
-
Schematic of the experimental set-up.

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 FUFL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY 89 (2008) 704-714 707

Table Process parameters studied

2 -
proximate analysis on air-dned basis and therefore, the use of
Parameter Level 1 Level ? Level 3
costly Hardgrove machine may be eliminated. However, further
studies are contemplated in respect of power requirement,
RPM 1500 2500 $500 capacity cf crusher, size distnbution and dust emission dunng
Feed rate, kg/min 2 4 S crushing and gmnding, etc., with SGI confirming its efficacy. In the
Feed 51z7¢, mm -5+1 -5410 +10 meantime SGI may be used to predict HG] with reasonable
Gap setting, mm 10 17 a5 accuracy where facility of HG] determination js not available [23].

design principle. The four factors and three level analyses were
conducted according to Taguchi matrix called Graeco Latin Square
(GLS). Taguchi fractional-factonal design was used to replace the
full factonal experiment. The four factors with three different
levels were given in Tabie 3.
2.4. Grindability index of coal
The grndability index of coal is an important technological
parameter to understand the behavicr and assess the relative
hardness of coals cf varying ranks and grades during com-
minution. This was determined by the Hardgrove Grindability
Index (HGI), which involves requirement of costly grinding
equipment and accessones not readily available and affordable.
Due to the hetercgeneous character of coals as regards matunty,
petrological constituents, mineral impurities, etc. as well as
mechanism of comminution render such determination rather
difficult, leading to poor reproducibility and repeatability of HGI
vahie, contrary to other analyses for coal characterization. As
such, it often gives misleading results to understand and explain
properties emerging from other analyses and testing. In view of
such problems, many attempts have been done in the past to
develop correlation of HGI with simple anaiytical composition of
coal. In this perspective a fresh attempt in armving at a more
Trehabie and reproducible correlation with proximate analysis
alone was reported. Such an index termed as Statistical Gnnd-
ability Index (SGI), may be found useful in assessment of coal
behavior not only in crushing and grinding of coal but also its
friability vis-a-vis dust emission during comminution [23].
2.5. Statistical grindability index
The SGI denved from proximate analysis of coal is perhaps more
useful m the understanding and compamnson of the behavior cf all
types of coals, consisting of varicus size fractions, specific gravity
fractions, washed products, ete. towards comminution and dust
emission associated with it. It can be calculated from simple
Table 3 Taguchi design of L9 (39 Array for four parameters
and three levels
Results and discussion
3.
3.1. Repeatability of the results
Every experiment, for a particular set of process parameters
and coal characteristics, was repeated three times to check
the repeatability of the experiments. Fig. 3 displays the re-
peatability of the experiment done on tnal number five of
Ramagundam (D) coal sarmple. The standard deviation for the
fines generated (<1 mm} in the three runs, for this trial was
noted to be 4.5%. Similar trend was observed in the repeated
experiments conducted on different types of coals.
3.2. Effect of RPM on generation of fines
As RPM increases fines generation (less than 1 mm) increases,
the similar trend was observed in all the experiments done on
five different types of coals. The observations were depicted in
Fig. 4. All samples exhibit a straight-line increase, with varying
tendency to generate fines. The difference may be due to
different coal characteristics.
In an impact crusher, the energy to break particles was
transferred from the impact velocity of the blowbars on the
impeller shaft. The particles on collision with the blowbars,
rotating at a particular RPM, attain kinetic energy. This kinetic
energy was used to overcome the bond energy of the crushed
material. The lower the RPM, the lower was the impact velocity
imparted to the particles, resulting in less breakage. The RPM
appears ta be the most important parameter in term of breakage
m an impact crusher. The impact velocity effect during the
crushing is supported by the results [13-15].
100
oo
=

Trial RPM, rev./ Feedrate,ke/ Feed size, Gap setting,

Cumulative &passing

no. min. min. mm mm 70

1 1 1 1 I 60
2 1 2 2 2
3 1 3 3 3

4 2 1 2 c 40
5 2 2 3 I 30 Kun ]
2 3 1 2
i 3 1 3 2 20
- -
Run 2
3 2 1 3
10
Run 3

9 3 3 2 I
0
In Figs. 8-10, the following series has been adopted as follows 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(Three levels were assigned to each process parameter. L1, L?, L3 Particle size, mm
Tepresenis these levels, L3 having the highest value of them. r
Tepresenis the tnal no. in accordance with the Taguchi matrix fora
3 level and 4 factorial expenment).
Fig. 3 Repeatability of the three runs on trial
-
5 of Rama-
gundam B coal sample.

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708 FUEL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY #9 (2008) 704-714

35 30

28
30
26

25 24

ho
2

fines.
% fines

20

he
=
&
18

16

10 14

12
5 6 8 10 12 14 16
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Feed size, mm
RPM, rev./min.
Fig. 6 Variation of fines generation with feed size for five
-

Fig. 4 Variation in fines generation with RPM for the five

-

coal types.
coal types.

other process parameters that have been considered. The

3.3. Effect of feed rate on generation of fines
As the feed rate increases, the fraction of fines generated
(<1 mm) in the product decreases as shown in Fig. 5, shows the
variation in fines generation verses feed rate for five coal
samples. In a steady-state process, as the feed rate increases,
the particle retention time in the crusher decreases, implying
lesser collisions between the particles and blowbars and par-
ticles and the crusher walls. May be due to this reason that the
fines generation decreases as feed rate increases. It was the
factor working opposite tc RPM but the effect of feed rate on
fines generation was less prominent than RPM. The similar
trend was observed with the results in the literature on this
kind of impact crushers [25].
observations related to feed size variation was shown in Fig. 6
from the experiments done on five types of coals.
Assuming an equal number of collisions between the parti-
cles, blowbars and the crusher walls, for a same set of process
parameters but different feed size, it was obvious that there
would be lesser fines present in the product of the coarse feed.
Feed size definitely has a bearing on the product size distribution
and in term generation of fines. But different process parameters
have different intensity of impact and in presence of other
parameters, only those with high intensity show the concrete
dependence. The Taguchi design of experiment classifies the
process parameters as either dominant or ineffective. Feed size
appears to be secondary factor based on current results.

3.5. Effect of gap setting on fines generation

3.4. Effect of feed size on generation of fines

The fraction of fines (<1 mm) in the product should decrease
as the particle feed size and gap setting were increased. But in
the presence of tmpact due to variation in other parameters,
the final product size distribution, in view of varying degree of
effect of these parameters was dependent on ail of them. It
was concluded, from the experiments conducted on five
different coals that the effect of feed size and the gap setting
on fines generation was minimized by the greater effect cf the
The expenments that form the basis of this study are designed
to identify and classify dominant process parameters from the
lesser ones, effect of which was minimized by the simultaneous
vanation in other parameters. The effect of the feed size and gap
setting on the fines generation appears to be minimized by the
other process parameters has an unexpected but, consistent,
trend with a maxima. Fig. 7, shows the variation in fines
generated with gap setting.

28
2}
26
25

24
23
22 21
"o fines

20 19

18 l?
16 15

14 13

12 I1
] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 13 18 23 28
Feed rate, ke/min. Gap sctling, mm

Fig. 5 -
Variation of fines generation with feed rate. Fig. 7 -
Variation of fines generation with gap setting.

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 FUFL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY 89 (2008) 704-714 709

40 40

35 ®Licl, L2 rd, Lor? 35

LI r?, L2 rd, L3 ré
30 30
3. L2 rh, L3
25 25

fines
20

A 15

10

5
5

0
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 35) ] 3 5 7 9
RPM, rey./min. Feed rate, kg/min.

Fig. §
-
Variation of fines generation with RPM (Coal A).
Fig. 10 -
Variation of fines generation with feed rate (Coal A).

As the gap setting increased, the minimum distance

parameters, which tend to a scatter in the value af dependent
between the blowbars and the stationary baffles. The greater
variable for a constant value of the process parameter and
the minimum distance between the two, more particles will
were shown in Fig. 9. Scatterin the value of dependent variable
pass through without collision resulting in lesser fines for a particular value of the process parameter suggests that, it
generation. This would suggest that, for a larger gap setting contains the effect of cther dominating process parameters.
there would be lesser fines generation. But due to high
In Fig. 10, the scatter in the value of fines at low feed rate
turbulence inside the crusher chamber since RPM and feed
seems to suggest that it was not the dominant parameter
rate involved are high, this parameter which ts to have a non
compared te RPM. it was also observed that at high RPM, feed
monotonic effect on fines generation.
rate has a noticeable effect on fines generation; as feed rate
increases fines generation decreases. The effect of feed rate on
3.6. Classification of the process parameters fines generation was pronounced at higher values, as inferred
from the congested data points at higher feed rate. Also, at
The size distribution of the product from 7 crusher is a func-
lower RPM, due to change in the load on the motor resulting
tion of a number of process parameters, and these parameters
from a variation in feed rate, the RPM decreases and thus the
have a varying effect on the fines generation in the product.
true effect of feed rate was suppressed. This was observed at
Through design of experiments the total number cf experi- low RPM and higher feed rates. The fines generation (<1 mm)
ments can be reduced as these experiments incorporate
was given in Table 4 with respect to the types of coals tested.
vanation in the values of ali the process parameters simulta-
neously. Some of these parameters influence the product size
distribution more than others.
RPM has a dominating effect on fines generation. The result
4, impact of coal characteristics on
fines generation
was shown in Fig. 8.Ata particular RPM, especially lower ones,
the percentage of fines in the product was not affected by other
The effect of the chosen process parameters on generation of
parameters or RPM was the dominant parameter in determin- fines was same for the five different coal types analyzed. The
ing fines generation. However, there are other non-dominant
important coal properties influencing fines generation shail
also be identified. The iisted in Table 5 are the properties of
40

35

30 Table 4- Percentage of fines (<1 mm) with respect to trial

number for different coals studied
25
Tnal %Fines Fines %Fines % Fines Fines
% fines

%
20 no. coal(A) coal (B} coal(C) coal (D} coal (E)
15 1 11.6 9.4 217 10.3 10.4
2 12.9 11.3 15.3 8.5 14.1
10
3 14.2 14.3 13.9 8.1 11.5
5 4 263 31.8 26.4 22.8 28.9
5 25.4 16.1 17.9 20.2 34.1
0 6 23.5 15.7 30.2 17.1 25.6
li 13 15 17
7 37.2 25.7 26.2 28.4 36.9
Gap setting, mm
g 277 34.9 16.5 22.1 30.2
9 22,3 16.6 21.7 19.1 30.4
Fig.9 -
Variation of fines generation with gap setting (Coal A).

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710 FUEL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY #9 (2008) 704-714

Table Coal properties and the overall fines generation

5 -
for Indonesian (E) coai with volatile matter content of 38%
Coal Carbon Moisture Volatile Ash HG] Overall SGl and lowest for Rajasthan (B) coal with volatile matter content
type (%} (%) matter content fines at 24%.
(Yo) (%}
4.5. HGI and fines generation
B 41.7 3.2 23.8 422 34.0 16.9 61.8
42.0 6 Eo? 36.2 67.0 17.4 64.5
D 49.6 oo 25.6 30.9 46.0 20.9 54.3 The grindability index of coal is important to understand
A 54 25.1 372 50.5 22.3 61 the size reduction behavior and assess the relative hardness
E 57.8 13.6 38.4 8.8 48.0 24,7 65.3 of coals of varying ranks and grades during comminution,
"Estimated value, based on correlation developed from known data though the results concerning fines generation and HGI
of coal samples. imply a second order dependence as in the case of process
parameters such as feed size and gap setting. The corre-
sponding fines generation was given for all types of coals
in Table 5. From this table it was observed that the maxi-
different types of coals that have been considered for the mum fines generation for Indonesian (E) coal with HGI value
analysis. To characterize the effect of coal properties on the af 48.
generation of fines, the cverall fines generation for a par-
ticular coal type was defined. It was the average of fines 4.6. SGI and fines generation
generated from the design experiments conducted on the
type of the coal. The Statistical Grindiability index, SGI was calculated using
the elements of proximate analysis ofa particular coal sample.
4.1. Fimes generation and carbon content Due to the repeated citation of SGI, in literature, as a better
replacement for HGI, the SGI for each coal sample was deter-
The effect of all the above mentioned properties of coal on mined. But, the results suggest no systematic relation between
fines generation during impact crushing was studied, and fines generation and SGI From the table it was evident that
their effect on the fines generation has been evaluated. The the trend observed for SGI. Coal types for Ramagundum (C and
corresponding vanation of fines generation with respect to the D) and Indonesian (E) were a high variation in fines generation
carbon content was given in Table 5. As the carbon content for SGI value close te 65. Similar trend was observed fer coals.
increases, particle hardness presumably decreases, implying
an increase in ease of breakage. Fines generation for 4 coal 4.7. HGI versus SGI
with high carbon content would be high as observed from the
table. HGI for a coai sample was calculated, where as SGI was derived
from the proximate analysis of the coal samples. HGI value for
4.2. Ash content and fines generation the coal samples have been compared with the SGI values
calculated and was given in Table 5. The coal samples from
Ash is tron oxide, alumina and other incombustibles that are Rajasthan (B) with HGI and SGI values at 34 and 6? respectively,
contained in coal. Ash content has a prominent effect on fines have highest difference in the values. For coal samples from
generation, ash being harder is tough to break, implying de- Ramagundam (B) and Madhukarai (A) and Indonesian (E},
crease in fines generation as ash content increases. From the varlaticn in HGI from 44 to 48 sees variation in SGI values from
Table 5, it was concluded that the variation of fines generation 54 to 65. Coal sample from Ramagundam (C and D) was an
decreases with ash content of the coal. exception to the fact that all the coal samples have SGI values
higher than HGI values. Ramagundam (C and D) coai sample
4.3. Motsture content and fines generation has SGI value of 64 and HGI value was reparted to be 67.

The percentage of fines generation with the change in the 4.8. Correlation for fines generation
moisture content for all the coal types was given tn Table 5.
From the table it has been observed that the Rajasthan (B) coal Percentage of fines generation was determined from the
with lowest moisture content of 3.2% shows that the lowest present experimental data obtained from the four different
fines generation at 17% and it was increased to 25% highest, coals. The data generated were used to develop a correlation
for Indonesian (E) coal with moisture content at 14%. in terms of process parameters, such as RPM, feed rate, feed
size, gap setting and aiso the important physical properties
4.4. Volatile matter and fines generation of the coals such as percentage of carbon, volatile matter,
moisture content and ash content. It was found that the data
In this study, reduction in non volatile fraction implies that from different coals could be combined using regression anal-
increase in the ease of breakage and hence, for the coal types ysis. The regression analysis of the present data consisting of
with high percentage of volatile matter, generation of fines 36 data points resulted in the following correlation:
was high. The variation in fines generation for coal types with
different volatile content was given in Table 5. Valatile matter
%fines - 2.2 x 10 (deo)
of the coal samples, like carbon content, shows a strong
0.13 072 0.4 08
bearing on fines generation. Fines generation was highest (G) (Cp) *(M) (V)

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 FUFL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY 89 (2008) 704-714 711

where, %fines means less than 1 mm fraction, N is RPM (rpm) p

of the shaft, F is feed rate (kg/min), dep is the 80% passing size
H,
{mm}, G is the crusher gap setting (mm), C, is the percentage
of carbon, M is the moisture content, Vis volatile matter in
percent and A, 1s the ash content of coal. A comparison be-
tween the predicted and the experimental values was shown
in Fig. 11. It can be seen that a reasonably good agreement was
obtained with a root mean square error of 17% and correlation
coefficient of 0.8.
When a particle callides with blowbar of the crusher im-
peller, rotating at particular RPM, it was acted upon by an
impact as shown in Fig. 12. A part of this impulse was used to
break the particle into pieces and the remaining part mani-
fests itself in form of particle kinetic energy. This energy was
lost by collision with the crusher walis. Once again the col-
hsion results in size reduction. Qualitatively, the particle size Fig. 12 Schematic representation of collision between a
-

reduction can said to be proportional to kinetic energy of the
rotor. That would mean that the square of rotar speed was
proportionai to fines generation.
If the kinetic energy transferred to the particle was com-
pletely used to break the particle, 1.e., a particle collides with
the impeller and breaks down into pteces and gains no mo-
mentum, there would be a square relation ship between fines
generation and RPM. But the correlation suggests a linear
relationship between fines generation and RPM.
Size reduction depends not only on the number of col-
hsions but also depends on the intensity of coilision; a particle
breaks if the coilision-impact force is higher than a certain
thresheld impuise, which varies with coal to coal. Size re-
duction in an impact crusher can not be modeled by single
particle breakage phenomena, because it accounts only for
particle and the impeller collisions. A particle, in an impact
crusher, collides not only with the impeller and the crusher
walls but also with other particles. These particle-to-particle
collisions are very weak in nature. The intensity of collision
between them was most of the times not enough to cause size
reduction. This explains the linear relatonship that was
suggested by the correlation. On the other hand in a drop-
shatter test, a particle is hit by a heavy mass and movement
particle and impeller.
arrangement. So, only in such a test the kinetic energy trans-
ferred to the particle by the weight is completely utilized in
size reduction.
4.9. Coarse particle (>6 mm) content
While the focus in the report up to this point has been on fines
generation (<1 mm size), there was also a practical need to set
the operating conditions such that the coarse fraction, Le.,
+6 mm was minimized. Sometimes, these are conflicting re-
quirements. In Table 6, both the fine and the coarse fractions for
different coals were presented. In case of the +6 mm fraction,
only a minor variation was observed as the RPM increased. The
same trend was observed for ail the cases on five different coal
types studied in this work. As the feed rate increased, the effect
on the fraction +6 mm was minor. These results were shown in
Fig. 13 and given in Table 6. There was a slight decrease in the
coarse fraction as RPM increased and a slight increase as feed
rate increased both trends were qualitatively opposite of fines
-

of the particle after the collision was restricted by the test
generation. Similarly, it was shown in Fig. 14 and also given in
Table 6. From this, as the feed size increased there was a sight
increase in the coarse fraction, but gap setting has negligible
influence. Some coals de show exceptional behavior e.g., the
-

Indonesian (£) coal shows increased coarse particles as RPM

35 + increases; Rajasthan (B) ccal shows a significant rise in the
30 + ¢ coarse fraction as feed rate increases, and a flat trend as feed
3 size increases.
25
2
20 4.10. Crushing of natural coal feed

15 ¢ In the previous sectians, the coal fed into the crusher was

10 pre-sieved to separate it into different size fractions. An

additional experiment was conducted to feed one coal
5 Ramagundam (D} directly into the crusher without pre-
0
sieving to study its size-reduction characteristics in its
0 10 20} 30 40
natural feed state. There was no such difference found in
fines, cxpenmecntal their feed size distributions but to confirm the results of
natural feed, the above experiments were conducted and
Fig. 11 Comparison of predicted values estimated from
- conformed that there was no variation in results. The net
Eq. {1) and experimental values. results of these experiments were confirmed that the results

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712 FUEL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY #9 (2008) 704-714

Table 6 -

Typical comparison of percentage of coarse particles (>6 mm) with respect to the trial numbers for different types of
coals
Trial no. A B EB D E

<1 mm >6 <T mm >6 mm <lmm >6mm <1 mm >6 mm <] mm >6 mm

1 11.6 29 94 1.8 fli? 10.3 3.7 10.4 5.0

2 12.9 45 1i.3 45 15.3 40 me 5.9 14.1 3.0
3 14.2 92 14.3 10.7 13.9 67 8.1 12.9 1145 8.3
4 26.4 1.4 31.8 1.3 26.4 0.8 22.8 28.9 0.9
5 25.4 3.9 16.1 1.0 17.9 2,3 20.2 2.2 34.1 8.5
5 235 1.6 15.7 13.3 30.2 0.9 17.1 13 25.6 05
7 37.2 1.4 25.7 1.5 26.2 0.9 28.4 36.9 1.4
15 34.9 0.6 16.5 0,3 221 Of 30.2 th.4
9 22.3 1.7 16.6 21? 2,9 19.1 1.6 30.4 0h?

obtained for size-segregated coals were applicable to the

natural feed coals as well.
4.11. Crushing of lignite coal
Another question to be answered in this investigation was
crushing characteristics of lignite coals, a very different type of
coal from the ones used in this study earlier. Results for a
typical igmite coal supplied by BHEL Trichy. It was observed
that the lignite coal tbehaves similar to other coals in terms ofa
sharp rise in fines generation with increasing RPM and the %
fines value appears to be distinctly higher (by 5-10%) for
the lignite compared to other coals tested. Feed rate appears
to have a non-monctonic effect on fines generation from a
lignite coal in an impact crusher. While there was an initial
decrease but consistent with the other coals tested; this could
follow by an increase in fines with further increases in the feed
rate beyond about 4 kg/min.

35
30
30 A
B

C
20
P
3
15
re A
B
10
€

D
5 5

0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
5 10 15 20
RPM, rev./min Feed size, mm
30
a 1mm
< mm|

254 A 25 +
AA
B
C
i aR
D
A
A
aC
> #D
E +
= 15 +E
A 15
a BA
B
ae
10 10 ac
mm D #D
>& Mun
E +E
5
5

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 12 13 15 16 i? is
Feed rate, ke/min. Gap setting, mm

Fig. 13 Variation of fines generation and coarse particle

-
Fig. 14 Variation of fines generation and coarse fraction
-

content with RPM and feed rate setting for all coals. with feed size and gap setting for all coals.

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 FUFL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY 89 (2008) 704-714 713

Table 7Effect of coal properties on fines generation at the plant during the year 2006 data
-

% Total moisture % Free moisture % Inherent moisture % Volatile matter % Ashcontent % Fix carbon % Fines
10.2 3.2 2.0 24,3 441 29.6 37.1
10.1 7.8 2.2 22.8 432 35.1 34.4
10.2 8.1 2.1 23,3 43.9 80.7 38.9
11.0 7.5 3.4 23,2 447 287 36.4
3.4 27 0.7 7.3 13.8 729 10.3

4.12. Analysis of plant data

In order to assess whether parametric effects determined by
laboratory analyses have any bearing on plant operation, a
visit was made to cement plant and data were collected per-
taining to proximate analysis of coal and observed fines gen-
eration associated with that type of coal. The correlation
results between monthly-averaged data for the year 2006 were
given in Table 7. From this table, it may be concluded that
the fines generation increases with the increase in volatile
matter, total moisture, free moisture and inherent moisture;
these observations were consistent with the laboratory-de-
rived correlations.
It was also observed that the fixed carbon has no sys-
tematic influence on fines generation. The only anomalous
result was that the fines appear to increase with increase in
ash content; however, it may be recalled that ash content was
a second-order effect compared to more-dominant variables
such as volatile matter and moisture content. thus its effect
may be overwhelmed.
Correlation has also been performed using the year 2005-
2006 data and given corresponding results were given
in Table 8 From the table it was reconfirmed the above
observations. Similarly, the fines generation data at the
plant from the year 7004-7006 was collected, and compared
with the predictions of the correlation developed in our
laboratory.
While the match was not perfect, there was surprisingly
good qualitative agreement between production data and labo-
ratary predictions. Given that the impact crusher at the plant
was different from the Hazemag crusher used for the study in
the laboratory, this lends credence to the hypothesis that the
correlation developed in this work may be applicable to the
impact crushers of this kind.
5. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be made from this work to
identify the process parameters and properties of coal that
have bearing on the fines generation and to predict the fines
generation for a set of process parameters and some of the coal
properties. Based on the laboratory data by incorporating
possible parameters, a regression model was developed to
predict the fines generation with acceptable accuracy. The
laboratory model developed has been validated with the plant
data and it was found that the model could able to predict the
plant performance. The coarse fraction (>6 mm} has only a
weak dependence on process parameters such as RPM and feed
rate, whereas coal properties have significant effect. Analysis
of the fines data over several years from the cement plant
shows good qualitative agreement with the correlation devel-
oped in this work, implying that the impact crusher of this kind
may be displayed very similar behavicr.
Notation
Ag ash content
BFBC bubbling fluidized bed combustion
C percentage of carbon
css close side setting
deg 80% passing size or feed size, mm
F feed rate, kg/min
G gap between the blowbars, mm
OSS open side setting
N revolutions per minute
r run number
process parameter level
% fines percentage of fines less than 1 mm m size

Tabie 8 Effect of coal properties on fines generation at the plant during the year 2006 data
-

% Total moisture a
a Free moisture Inherent moisture % Volatile matter % Ash content % Fixcarbon % Fines
9.4 5 1.9 26.5 A? 28.0 40.6
9.4 / 4 19 25.1 Ad? 28.2 33.3
8.5 6.6 1.9 24.9 Ad 3 28.8 30.1
10.3 8.3 2.0 25.8 Ad t 28.1 30.9
10.2 §.3 1.9 247 Ad 3 29.1 32.9
10.5 8.5 2.0 25.7 40.5 317 40.6
9.6 1.9 26.1 39.6 32.4 31.5
8.9 26.4 40.1 31.9 27.4
10.3 8.6 re 26.6 40.9 30.8 35.6
10.7 8.9 1.6 26.2 405 31.5 39.1
9.9 8.4 1.5 24.9 ADS 31.1 36.3
9.9 &.1 1.9 23.7 ASS 28.9 33.3
9.8 79 1.9 25.5 42.6 30.0 32.6

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714 FUEL PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
Acknowledgements
The work was carried out under the research project sup-
ported by Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) for the year
2005-2006. The authors are thankful to BHEL, R&D, Trichy,
India for providing the funding.
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