COMMINUTION

 Bond Work Index

 Batch amenability tests for Autogenous Grinding (AG) and Semi-Autogenous
Grinding (SAG) circuits
 Mac Pherson autogenous work index
 The Sag Power Index (SPI) test
 The JK Drop Weight Test
 SAG Mill Comminution (SMC) Test
 Advanced Autogenous Media Competency Test (AMCT)
 Pilot plant testwork.
INTRODUCTION

Comminution is a step wise size reduction of ore down to the size where valuable minerals are separated into
discrete particles that are free from gangue. The final comminution step, grinding, is also the most expensive
unit operation in a beneficiation plant because of high; i) power and ii) grinding media consumption.

The degree of grinding and therefore, energy required differs from ore to ore depending on:
Grain size of valuable minerals
Extent of locking with gangue minerals
Hardness of ore

Because of high energy cost in comminution, most of the research effort in grinding is concerned with
establishing a relationship between energy input (kWhr/t) and new surface area created from a given feed size.
However, most of the energy input into comminution equipment does not go into the creation of new surfaces
but is lost in other forms, such as;
Heat
Sound
Friction
Plastic deformation,
The actual proportion of energy that goes into creating new surfaces is very small. For grinding, this could be as
small as <1%!
Moreover, it is difficult to isolate and measure separately the actual energy going into creation of new surfaces.
Economics of Comminution
 Grinding is responsible for high operating cost emanating from:
 High energy usage
 High steel grinding media consumption
 Furthermore, grinding has direct impact on mineral liberation which ultimately affects valuable mineral
recovery and therefore, Revenue.
Recovery Vs Particle Size
 Energy consumption increases with fineness of grind due to :

 Increased breakage resistance as particles become smaller.

 Increased inefficiencies in grinding.
 Increased inefficiencies in classification. The efficiency of comminution is always tied to the efficiency
of classification.
 In terms of benefits that may accrue arising from power consumption;
Grinding > Crushing > Blasting

 However, improvements at blasting yield finer size distribution of ROM and pronounced rock
conditioning (weakening) so that the capacity of SAG mill can be increased.
BREAKAGE PATTERN

Multiple Particle Breakage

 Heterogeneity: Ore contains a variety of minerals present as grains in different sizes intimately
associated with other minerals and also locked with gangue minerals. The minerals are held together
by bonding forces.
 The bonds holding minerals together can be broken if higher compressive or tensile forces are applied.
 Fracture of ore particles occurs with the initiation and propagation of cracks. The energy consumed in
the fracture or breakage of material goes to the extension of these cracks.
 Some of the energy consumed by the cracks is caused by the creation of new surface and plastic
deformation of material near the crack tip. The energy that goes into plastic deformation is several
times more than the energy that goes into creation of new surfaces.
 If a crack is to propagate, two conditions must be satisfied; - the Force condition and the Energy
condition.
 The force condition requires that the tensile stress must be higher than the bonding strength at the tip
of the crack.
 Once a crack forms, the energy condition requires that the energy to propagate the crack be available
from the stress field surrounding the crack.
 Since ore particles are aggregates of different mineral species, it is not easy to predict the result of a
breakage event.
Particle Fracture Possibilities
 When stress is applied to ore, the distribution of stress loading is not uniform. Stress loading is
dependent on;
 Properties of individual minerals
 Strength of forces holding different mineral types together
 Presence of cracks
 Porosity
 These imperfections act as sites of stress concentration.

Summary of Laws of Comminution

1st Law of Comminution (Von Rittinger, 1867): “The energy consumed in the size reduction is proportional to
the area of the new surfaces produced.”
E = KR (1/X2 – 1/X1)
Where; E = Energy
KR = Rittinger constant
X1 = Feed size
X2 = Product size

Limitation: Rittinger’s Law holds in the part of comminution where new surface area is being created, i.e. in grinding where increase in
surface area per unit mass is large.
2nd Law of Comminution (Kick’s Law): “The work required is proportional to the reduction in volume of
particles concerned.” (Reduction Ratio)
E = CK lnL1/L2
Where;
E = Energy input
CK = Kick’s constant
L1 = Initial particle size
L2 = Final particle size
Limitation: Kick’s Law more closely relates to energy required to effect elastic deformation before fracture occurs and is more accurate in
coarse crushing where the amount of new surface produced is much less.

3rd Law of Comminution (Bond’s Law, 1952): “The work varies inversely as the square root of the product particle diameter.”
 Bond introduced an index, the “Bond Work Index” (Wi) which relates power consumption in crushing and grinding to the
feed and product size distribution:
“Bond Work index is the power required in kilowatt hour per short ton, to reduce material from theoretically infinite size to 80% passing 100
microns.”
Thus, E = (1/√P80 – 1/√F80)10Wi

This equation was derived by Fred C Bond from fundamental work and is widely accepted.
Hukki and Morrel
 Later studies have attempted to combine the 3 Laws of Comminution into one generalized equation.
Notable of these were by Hukki and Morrel.

 Hukki (1975): The probability of breakage in comminution is higher for large particles and rapidly
diminishes for fine size.
 He demonstrated that;
 Rittinger’s Law is applicable in fine grinding (10 - 1000μm).
 Kick’s Law is reasonably accurate in crushing size range (particle diameter > 1cm)
 Bond’s Law is applicable in the intermediate size range and this is the range for conventional rod
and ball milling (< 1cm > 1000μm).

 Arising from Hukki’s studies, Morrel proposed some modification to Bond’s equation;
W = KMi/Pf(P) – KMi/Ff(F)
Where;
Mi = Material Index (dependent on breakage property of ore)
K = Constant to balance units
 Validity: Morrel’s equation is valid for particle size range 0.1 – 100mm which is also the range for most modern grinding circuits.
Combination of 3 Laws of Comminution
 The general equation can be written as:
dE/dD = k.Dn
Where;
dE = Differential energy input
dD = Change in particle dimension
k = Constant, function of strength of ore
D = Magnitude of a length dimension
n = Exponent

 Different workers have determined the value of exponent n, as follows;

n = -2 (von Rittinger)
n = -1 (Kick)
n = -1.5 (Bond)

 The figure below illustrates the implications of the exponent.

Graphical Presentation of the 3 Laws of Comminution
 Fred C. Bond made a lot of effort to define a relationship between ore hardness, tonnage milled,
size reduction, and power requirement.
 He developed the Bond Grindability methods for Rod and Ball mills design and selection. Prior to this, mill selection
relied on the experience of manufacturers.
 Grindability gives a quantitative measure of the resistance of ore to breakage. The higher the Grindability the harder the
ore.
 To-date, the most widely used index to measure Grindability is the Bond Work Index, Wi.

Uses of Bond Work Index

 To compare the resistance/hardness of ore to grinding
 To estimate power required for grinding
 To size and select rod and ball mills

BOND WORK INDEX BWi AND GRINDABILITY TEST

 Determination of Wi is carried out in a standard laboratory mill, the Bond Grindability Mill using a standard procedure.

The Bond Grindability Mill

 The Bond Grindability Mill is a stainless steel mill with standard dimensions of 12” (305mm) diameter x 12”
(305mm) length. The ball size and weight distribution is graded as shown in the table.
Ball Size and Weight Distribution in Grindability Bond Mill

No. of Balls Diameter, mm Weight, Kg

43 37 9.094
67 30 7.444
10 25 0.694
71 19 2.078
94 15.5 0.815
Total 285 20.125

 The balls are also made from stainless steel. Total calculated surface area ~842 square inches.
 The mill is equipped with a revolutions counter. Mill rotational speed is 70 revolutions per minute (rpm).
Sample Preparation
 At least 8 Kg of sample is required.
 The sample to be fed to the Bond Grindability Mill is crushed stage wise (to avoid generating slimes) to
100% passing 6mesh (3.35mm). The bulk sample is homogenized and riffled. A sub-sample is taken for
screening to determine % passing 74µm and F 80, i.e. a size which passes 80% of the feed.
 Another sample is taken and carefully loaded into a graduated 1Litre cylinder up to the 700mls mark. The
cylinder is vibrated to compact the material and additional material added to make the 700mls mark.
 The 700mls material is weighed before loading into the standard Bond Grindability Mill containing
the standard ball charge.

Bond Grindability Test Procedure

 As a start, the 700mls sample is milled for 100 revolutions (arbitrarily chosen) in Cycle 1. The mill
product is emptied on to a screen without losing any balls. The balls are brushed to make sure no
material sticks to the balls.
 Mill product is then screened on a chosen screen, say 74µm, and undersize is weighed and
removed. Precaution: Screen small portions at a time to avoid damaging screens.
 An equal weight of fresh material (i.e. weight of -74µm) from the stock sample is added to the +74µm
material to maintain steady feed, i.e. initial weight of 700mls sample.
 The number of revolutions for Cycle 2 is calculated based on the weight of undersize removed and
the grammes -74µm produced per revolution.
 Grinding, screening, replenishment is repeated until at least three consecutive data of grammes per
revolution is constant. This signifies steady state. The Grindability figure is averaged from the last
three steady state figures of G.
 It is recommended to carry out Grindability tests at two screen sizes to ensure reproducibility and
therefore, have high confidence level in results.
 Closed circuit grinding is achieved by screening on 74μm screen and replenishing the weight of -
74μm with fresh material at the end of each cycle.
Data so far
Weight of 700ml sample = W in gm
From screen analysis on feed, say % -74μm =x%
Therefore, mass of -74μm in feed = (x/100)*W
Let number of revolutions per minute in Cycle 1 = N rpm
Weight of -74μm in ground product = W1 gm
Net weight of -74μm produced by grinding = (W1 – Wx)/100
Grindability (or net weight of -74μm produced by grinding per revolution) in Cycle 1
= G1 = (W1- Wx/100)/N1
 Assumptions:
i. Circulating Load = 250%
ii. For this Circulating Load, mill throughput = 350% of mill product.
So, the weight of product (in this case -74 μm) to be produced per cycle = 100/3.5 = 28.6% of the total mill feed =
0.286W.
 This is the “Intended Product Passing (IPP).”
 The oversize, i.e. +74μm from Cycle 1 is the CL during this cycle.
 Number of revolutions for Cycle 2 = N2 = (IPP – Wt. of -74μm in new feed)/G1.
N2 = (0.286W – W1x/100)/G1 = (Net Wt. of Material to be produced/Grindability of C1)

 Grinding for Cycle 2 is carried out for N2 revolutions. The procedure of grinding, screening, replenishing fresh
feed and calculating number of revolutions for next cycle is repeated until three consecutive values of G are
practically constant.
 The average of the three equilibrium G values is used in the calculation of Wi.
 To obtain P80, the three minus 74μm products of the three equilibrium cycles are mixed and subjected to screen
analysis. Like F80, the P80 is obtained from the semi-log plot of Particle size in μm Vs % Passing.
 To ensure reliability and high level of confidence in results, the Grindability test is repeated on at least one other
screen, e.g. 106μm.
Empirical Formula for Calculation of Wi:

Wi = 44.5/(Pi0.22 G0.82 (10/√P80 – 10/√F80))

Where;
Wi = Work Index
Pi = Mesh of grind in microns, e.g. 74μm
G = Average of three equilibrium Grindability values
F80 = Micron size, μm passing 80% of mill feed
P80 = Micron size, μm passing 80% of mill product
The factor 44.5 is used when working in short ton and 48.95 when working in metric tonnes. Bond worked in short ton.

 Wi is then used in the Bond equation to calculate grinding power or operating work index, W io thus;
Wio = 10Wi(1/√P80 – 1/√F80)
Where;
Wio = kWh per shot ton (operating/plant work index). It is independent of classifier type.
F80 = Micron size, μm passing 80% of mill feed
P80 = Micron size, μm passing 80% of mill product
Important
 Power Wio, determined from the above equation is for the following specific conditions:
Rod Mill; Wet, open circuit grinding in a 2.44m diameter inside liners
Ball Mill; Wet, closed circuit grinding in a 2.44m diameter inside liners.
 In his work, Bond used a 2.44m (8 foot) internal diameter wet grinding mill.
 Power calculated is the power required at the pinion shaft of the mill, which includes mill bearings
and pinion gear losses but does not include motor or other drive, e.g. clutch losses.
 There are 8 efficiency factors to be applied to the calculated grinding power to allow for variations
from specified conditions and optimum feed sizes
EF1 Dry grinding
EF2 Open circuit ball milling
EF3 Diameter efficiency factor
EF4 Oversized feed
EF5 Fine grinding in ball mills to product sizes finer than 80% -74μm
EF6 High or low ratio of reduction rod milling
EF7 Low ratio of reduction ball milling
EF8 Rod milling

The equation for selection of the largest diameter ball for initial charge and for make-up charge is:

B = (F80/K)0.5(SgWi/100CsD0.5)0.34
Where;
B = Diameter of ball in mm
F80 = Micron size, μm passing 80% of mill feed Cs = Fraction of critical speed
K = Ball mill K factor D = Mill diameter inside shell liners, m
Sg = SG
Draw backs of Bond Grindability Method
 It is long and tedious
 It requires a standard set of conditions, - equipment (mill and ball sizes), sample, and procedure.

 A number of shorter methods have been proposed.

 The method proposed by Bruce and Berry offers a fairly good correlation with Bond Grindability.
 In this method, a reference sample, r, is ground for a certain time and power consumption is
recorded.
 Test sample, t, of the same weight is ground for a length of time such that power consumed is
identical to that of reference ore.
 From Bond’s equation,
Wr = Wt = 10Wir(1/√Pr – 1/√Ft) = 10Wit(1/√Pt – 1/√Ft)
AMENABILITY TO AUTOGENOUS GRINDING (AG) AND SEMI-AUTOGENOUS GRINDING (SAG)

 The first and most important step in designing a comminution plant, and any other plants indeed, is to
understand the characteristics of the ore to be processed, in other words, Ore Characteristics.
 In grinding circuits, the circuit must achieve two critical criteria;
 maximum throughput
 Desired grind (a pre-determined % Passing say, 74μm or P80)

 These criteria must be achieved economically.

 In a continuously running grinding circuit, achieving economic operation of grinding circuit implies
effective utilisation of; Power, Grinding Media, and Installed Capacity.
 The design of the grinding circuit must be robust enough to be able to handle variations, such as ore
hardness, that will arise in the nature of the ore according to the mining schedule.

 If the circuit is under-designed, then throughput cannot be achieved and unit cost will be high.
 On the other hand, over-designing is not prudent use of capital and will unnecessarily reduce return
on investment (ROI).
Important Factors to Consider in Designing and/or Selecting AG/SAG Circuits
 Variability of ore within the same orebody (proportions of incompetent and competent ore).
 Ensuring the availability of a steady proportion of competent ore
 Sensitivity of downstream circuit performance to grind size, e.g. Metal Recovery Vs Grind level
 Circuit flexibility
 Maintenance planning
 Accessibility of sampling points
 Future expansion plans, e.g. staggered installation of grinding mills according to stages in life of mine
and ore type being mined.
Ore Characterisation
Why is Ore Characterisation Important?
It facilitates benchmarking of plant operations, i.e. it gives an indication of what can be achieved in a real and
continuous operation of the plant.
It provides information on breakage and grinding characteristics of ore
It enables evaluation of grinding efficiency
It ensures continuous improvements in circuit performance

 There are a number of techniques that can be applied in characterizing ore.

 The quality and usefulness of information from ore characterisation can be improved by comparing with already
existing data in a data base.

 More characterisation data is required for designing AG/SAG grinding circuit compared to the conventional
Crusher–Rod Mill–Ball Mill circuit.
 In AG/SAG, the bigger pieces of ore fed to the mill serve as grinding media so that grinding media is
predominantly derived from the ore itself.
 Therefore, the characteristics of ore will have great effect on the performance of the mill.
 In particular, the following factors have significant bearing on AG/SAG Mill Performance:
 Ore hardness (soft, moderately hard, hard)
 Size distribution (mix of large competent pieces to act as grinding media and smaller pieces to be ground)
 SG of ore
 Abrasion
 Grindability

 These factors will also affect mill power draw. The power draw will fluctuate according to the
characteristics of the new feed to the mill.
 In Rod and Ball mills, up to 80% by mass of mill feed is contributed by steel grinding media so that by
contrast the Rod & Ball mill combination essentially draws constant power.
Effects of Ore Hardness
 If the ore is too soft, even the large pieces meant to act as grinding media will themselves grind out rapidly and
therefore, will not provide the required grinding media.
 Conversely, if the ore is too competent, the build up of critical size/scats will hinder production of finished particles
and result in reduced production rate.
Effects of SG
 A concentration of heavy minerals is desirable because it increases power draw. However, a larger motor may
have to be installed to sustain the heavy load.


On the other hand, concentration of light minerals is problematic because it decreases power draw, resulting in insufficient capacity. A larger shell may be required to achieve the design power.

Ore Blending
 Blending of soft and hard ores does not necessarily result in proportionate mean grind performance.
This deviation is amplified in Autogenous grinding.
 Pilot grinding tests have consistently demonstrated that the harder ore components tend to build up
in Circulating Load and dominate power requirement and throughput.

Objectives of Ore Characterisation Include:

1. To determine media competence and suitability of ore for Autogenous Grinding. Not all ores are
amenable to AG/SAG. For AG/SAG milling to take place effectively, the ore:
 Must be competent enough so that larger lumps will be able to grind smaller particles.
 Must break along grain boundaries at desired product size.
 Additionally, the finer sizes must break easily and should be removed from the mill, to avoid a build up
of “Critical size” particles.
2. To study product quality at steady-state, especially in relation to the accumulation of “critical size”
particles.
3. To study the effects of blending ore of different characteristics, e.g. different hardness or SG.
4. To develop a relationship between breakage and specific power input in a continuous system. The
relationship can then be used in simulation.
5. Performing continuous tests on sufficient and representative samples taking into account the largest
particle size (top size).
6. To obtain a realistic total power requirement.

 Suffice to say, ore characterisation tests cannot take care of all factors that can possibly affect mill
performance. A compromise has to be made.

Sample Selection for Autogenous Testing

It is important to be certain that the samples selected for testing are in conformity or are relevant to the
mine plan. However, some practical factors may not permit adequate analysis particularly in greenfield
projects. For example,
 Ease of access to the sample
 Cost of obtaining the sample
 Size of sample required
 Variability of ore
 Proportions of different ore types according to the mine schedule, i.e. Blending
 Impact of blending “Hard” and “Soft” ore
 Accumulation of hard and/or dense ore

 When a drill core sample is to be used in ore characterisation tests, care must be taken during crushing so
that the size distribution is as close to natural as practically can be.
 Sampling for an operating plant is easier and normally, the mill feed is taken but conditions of
representativeness (i.e. quantity and each particle having same chance to be sampled) must still be satisfied.

Test Procedures for Comminution Circuits

 Ore characterisation tests can be bench-scale or continuous pilot scale. Sample requirement is obviously less
for bench-scale, <250kg, compared to pilot characterisation which can take up to 10 tonnes per test condition.
 A pilot test programme is a continuous operation with a circuit that is similar to the one envisioned in actual
plant operation.
Earlier Testing for AG/SAG Milling
Previously, tests for Autogenous milling consisted of obtaining samples from 10 – 100tonnes and
grinding in a test mill of diameter 1.68m.
Obviously, these tests were very expensive given certain practical constraints especially for greenfield
ore deposits. For example, highly variable orebody and those lying deep down underground.
Furthermore, there is an inherent difficulty in obtaining a representative sample with top size ranging
from 150-200mm for pilot testing.
As a result of the above difficulties, a number of smaller pilot scale testing schemes have been
developed. Five such testing procedures are discussed here, and these are;

i. Mac Pherson Autogenous Work Index, Wi

ii. The Sag Power Index (SPI) test
iii. The JK Drop Weight Test
iv. Sag Mill Comminution (SMC) Test
v. Advanced Media Competency Test

1.Mac Pherson Autogenous Work Index Test

The Autogenous Work Index Test was developed by Arthur Mac Pherson and colleagues while
evaluating AG/SAG mill design at Aerofall Mills Ltd.
The MacPherson Grindability Mill
 The MacPherson Grindability Mill is 46cm in diameter and is a dry mill. The ball charge is 8% by volume
so that in reality, the MacPherson Grindability Mill is a SAG mill. However, results have been used for
analysis of FAG mills.
 The tests are run continuously until equilibrium is attained in much the same way as the Bond Grindability
mill tests.
 A draft fan supplies air flow necessary to move mill discharge from the mill.
 A product collection system consists of a 14mesh screen, vertical classifier, a cyclone and a dust
collection/trap system (baghouse).

 The vertical classifier underflow is screened on the 14mesh screen and oversize is returned to the mill.
 Top size of mill feed is 32cm and sufficient weight is required to achieve steady-state and run for at least
6hrs.
 The mill is fed from the hopper by an automatic vibrating feeder.
 The feed control system continuously regulates feed rate by maintaining a pre-set sound level with a
microphone located underneath the mill shell.
 This controls the mill level to 25% charge by volume while the CL is controlled around 5% by adjusting air
flow rate to the mill.
 The mill is run continuously for a minimum of 6hrs until steady-state is achieved.
The MacPherson Autogenous Grindability Test Apparatus
Sampling
 Every 15 minutes, samples of screen oversize, screen undersize and cyclone underflow are taken
separately. The data is recorded. Screen oversize is returned to the feed tray as CL.
 After 5hrs of operation, and If the throughput and CL are steady, the sampling for the final hour can start.
 This sampling is carried out for a period of 1hr at 15minute intervals.

The following conditions must be fulfilled to close the Mac Pherson test:
1) The difference between the highest and lowest values in the final hour must be within 10%.
2) Values must vary; down/up/down or up/down/up.
 If these conditions are not satisfied, samples from the first 15 minutes sampling are discarded and
sampling extended for another 15 minutes until the above conditions are satisfied.
 After sampling, the mill is emptied and the charge level measured. This must fall within 11.6-12.2Litres,
which approximates to 25% volumetric charge within 2.5%.
 At the end of the test, the mill charge and the products are subjected to size analysis and size-by-size
SG determinations.
 For the products, the overall size distribution is re-calculated taking into account the mass split.
 From the test run, a steady-state throughput (kg/hr.) and specific energy input (kWhr/t) are obtained, see
graph.
Example Case Study Results
Points to Note from Graph:

Observation: Ore has become harder (increasing power draw and decreasing throughput).
Conclusion: There exists a possibility of build up of critical size.
Possible solution: Increase % ball proportion or install pebble crusher.

Advantages of the MacPherson Autogenous Grindability Method

 It is relatively cheap
 Requires less material (<180kg)
 It gives steady-state and energy input requirement
 Mill product size distribution is a reasonable indication of actual product size distribution obtained
from industrial mills.
 The MacPherson method is particularly suitable on highly heterogenous ores, made up of
minerals with variable hardness and SG.
 The harder ore component in feed will make up most of the CL and therefore, control the mill
performance.
Limitations of MacPherson Grindability Test Method
1) The test is limited to size particles of less than 32mm imposed by the diameter of the test mill and
the requirement to use reasonable sample size. Larger ore top size requires larger sample and
mill diameter.
2) The method is less accurate on hard ores, AWi >10kWhr/st and factors have to be applied in mill
design.
3) The data obtained from MacPherson tests does not produce a suitable energy-breakage
relationship that can be used directly in computer simulation.
The JK Drop Weight Test
 The JK Drop Weight Test was developed by the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (JKMRC) in
1962 as a means of determining breakage characteristics of a sample of ore in an autogenous mill.
 The two main breakage mechanisms in an autogenous mill are Impact (high energy) and Abrasion (low
energy).
 The JK Drop Weight Test measures the impact and abrasion parameters for a specific sample of ore
using two separate methods, thus:
i. The Impact breakage parameters, A and b, are determined using a high energy impact breaking device
called the JK Drop weight Tester.
ii. The Abrasion breakage parameter, ta, is determined using a tumbling test mill.

 The parameters in (i) and (ii) are then input into the JKSimMet Mineral Processing Simulator software.
 In the JKSimMet, the parameters are combined with equipment details and operating conditions to model
FAG/SAG mill performance.

 The same test procedure provides ore specific parameters that are used in the JKSimMet crusher model.
Application of JK Drop Test
 In greenfield and brownfield to determine the breakage parameters of an ore and autogenous milling
conditions for circuit design, optimization and analysis.
 Design of crushing circuit using JKSimMet crusher model.
 To determine parameters for a new or existing crusher.

Description of Impact Breakage Test – Determination of Parameters A and b:

i. Screen sample size, 100kg into five size fractions: -63 +53mm; -45 +37.5mm; -31.5 +26.5mm; -22.4
+19mm; and -16 +13.2mm
ii. For each size fraction, between 10 and 30 particles are broken under impact using the JK Drop Weight
Tester at three energy levels, giving 15 size/energy combinations.
iii. A weight is dropped from a pre-determined height onto a particle so that the particle breaks.
iv. The breakage products of all particles for each size/energy combination are collected and sized.
v. A parameter known as “t10” is then established. The t10 is a size that passes one tenth (1/10) of original
particle size.
vi. A set of t10 and Specific Energy (Ecs) values are produced for the 15 energy/size combinations.
 The amount of breakage, t10, is related to Ecs by the equation;
t10 = A(1-e-bEcs)
The JK Drop Weight Tester
Schematic of Drop Weight Tester
 The best-fit A and b parameters are calculated using minimization of errors squared.
 The resulting A and b parameters are related to the resistance of the ore to impact breakage.
 The A and b parameters are interdependent. For this reason, it is common to report Axb as a single
value.

Abrasion Breakage Testing – Determination of Parameter ta:

i. Abrasion or low energy breakage is characterized using a Tumbling Mill Test of selected single size
fractions.
ii. The lab test mill is 305mm x 305mm (diameter x Length) filled 4 x 6mm lifter bars and runs at 70%
of critical speed.
iii. 10kg of -55 +38mm ore sample is tumbled for 10 minutes.
iv. The product is screened to determine ta.
ta = t10/10

 In both the Impact and Abrasion tests, the lower the value the higher the resistance of the ore to that
type of breakage.
Advantage of JK Drop Weight Test

 The high energy of the impact test approximates the peak energy input in commercial mills.
 Cheaper than pilot trials

Limitations of JK Drop Weight Test

 Unable to evaluate steady-state condition because the test relies on single particle breakage.
 The abrasion test is affected by roughness of the sample surface.
 The power determined from Drop Weight Test is not the power required to grind ore from one size to
another.
SAG Mill Comminution (SMC) Test (Developed by Steven Morrel)

 The SMC Test method is similar to the JK Drop Weight Test except that one particle size range, -19mm to
+12mm, is used rather than five size ranges used in the JK method. Therefore, the SMC is a shorter
adaptation of the JK Drop Weight Test.
 Cores are cut into ¼ cylinders using a diamond saw and the test is performed as per the standard drop weight
test procedure, except that only one size fraction is tested.  The test generates the “A” and ”b” parameters
and a drop-weight index (DWI) in kWh/t. 
 Normally, the main ore zone is tested using the full procedure to calibrate the SMC test. 
 The SMC test is then used to generate detailed mapping information on localized samples.
 The test procedure requires 100 rocks (minimum 60), or quarter core ‘cubes’, in any given size fraction of the
JK Drop-Weight Test procedure.
 Lower weight (5 kg) is often sufficient if the test is performed on smaller rocks.
Advantages of SMC Method
 Comparatively faster
 Requires relatively smaller samples
 Comparatively cheaper
 Particularly ideal for highly variable ores, and
 Situations where it is not easy to obtain large samples.
SMC is now applied widely to evaluate suitability of ores to SAG milling.

Short-comings of SMC Method

 As with other simplified methods of Drop Weight Test (DWT), the values of “Axb” are generally
lower than those obtained by using the full DWT. This can be explained by:
a) Higher resistance of smaller particles to breakage compared with large particles.
b) Higher imperfections in large particles compared with smaller ones. Imperfections arise
because of natural planes of weakness, cracks – natural and those induced by blasting.
 Consequently, it is necessary to calibrate values obtained from shorter methods of DWT to
equivalent values that could be obtained from full DWT.
SAG Power Index (SPI) Test

Motivations for development of SAG Power Index:

 High cost and difficulty of obtaining representative samples required for grinding testwork, mill sizing
and design.
 Lack of suitable equipment to enable existing plants to investigate changes in ore hardness in good
time.

The SAG Power Index Mill

SAG Mill Size: 305mm x 102mm (Diameter x Length)
Steel charge: 25mm diameter balls @ 15% ball charge
Test feed F80: 2kg dry ore crushed to 80% passing 12.7mm
Total mill charge: 24%
Test product required P80: 80% passing 1.7mm (10 mesh)
Test Procedure

i. Grind the dry ore in stages to achieve product P80 of 10 mesh. The +10 mesh is returned to the mill and
constitutes the circulating load.
ii. Screen analysis of mill discharge giving P64 size, estimate of natural breakage or grain size.
iii. The time (in minutes) taken to achieve the specified size reduction is a measure of the power used to create
the constant size reduction.
iv. This time is directly proportional to plant SAG mill power when grinding to 10 mesh. The relationship can be
described by a straight line function and converted to power using proprietary transformation.
 In general, softer ores have natural breakage sizes ranging 400-800μm while harder ores range 200-500 μm.
Harder ore abrade with difficulty to fine grain size and require more power and time in the mill to be reduced to -
10 mesh.
Advantages of the SPI
 Good correlation between lab test time and plant power
 Power required to grind an ore to a given size in a production SAG circuit can be predicted from lab SAG tests.
 SPI test has potential to be used as a tool for mine planning control Vs mill production on routine basis.

Limitations
 The SPI test has the lowest peak energy input among the tests described. As such, it is an indicator of the
response of the ore to abrasion (low energy).
 Steady-state mill load is never reached
Summary Grindability Test Sample Requirements, Type, & Energy Level (Adapted from Mosher & Bigg, 2002)

Top Size, Closing Size, Sample Peak Mill Diameter,

Test mm mm Requested, kg Type Energy, m
J
Pilot Testing 100-150 Varies 10,000/test Continuous 150 1.83
Media Competency 165 N/A 750 Batch 100 1.83
Drop Weight 64 N/A 75 Single particle & 450 N/A
Batch
MacPherson 32 1.2 175 Continuous 3.3 0.450
SAG Power Index 25 N/A
F80 = 13 P80 = 1.7 10 Batch 0.2 0.305
Bond Ball Mill 3.3 0.149 10 Locked Cycle 0.6 0.305

Pilot Testing
 The main aim of pilot testing is to determine operating conditions that result in achieving highest throughput
at desired grind and with the least power.
 Variables studied include; Ball charge, mill speed, critical size & pebble crusher requirements, power
requirements, classification sizing.
Advanced Media Competency Testing (AMCT)
 The Advanced Media Competency Test was developed by Orway Mineral Consultants and AMDEL
of Australia.
 The principal objective of AMCT is to assess the survival of ore media in Autogenous milling.
 The test, known as “Tumble test,” is carried out in a 1.83m x 0.305m (Diameter x Length) mill
followed by impact test on surviving rock pieces.

 Test material fed to the mill comprises 10 large rocks in five size fractions ranging from 165mm to
104mm.
 The mill is rotated for 500 revolutions. The mill charge is dumped and screened.
 The surviving rocks are then subjected to the Bond low-energy impact tests in five size fractions.
 Resulting data is input into computer software models.

 With the top size of 165mm, the AMCT is about the most suitable method available to evaluate
media competency.
Guide on Circuit Configuration Vs Media Competency
No. Single Stage Configurations
1 FAG
2 FAG Mill + Recycler Crusher
3 SAG Mill (8 – 15% Ball Charge)
4 High Ball Charge SAG Mill (15 – 25% ball charge)
5 Low Ball Charge SAG Mill, High mill speed, (4% ball
charge, 90% critical speed)
6 SAG Mill (Configurations 3 & 5) with recycle crusher
7 SAG Mill treating partially or fully secondary crushed “Top-end Competent ore.” Typically to achieve moderate to coarse grind
ore
Application
Competent ore – homogenous. The grind size is often dictated by the
relationship between abrasion and impact breakage, especially in fixed
speed mills. Often selected when low steel contamination is required.
Competent ore – Relatively homogenous. The recycler crusher is used to
balance the rate of impact breakage within the circuit.
Ore of variable competency
Incompetent ore
Competent & Abrasive ores. A cross between FAG and SAG.
Competent ore. Better suited to coarse grind sizes as recirculating load can
be high.
sizes with 8-15% ball charge for partially secondary crushed feed, and 15-
25% ball charge for fully secondary crushed material.
Pilot Vs Continuous Testing Techniques

 For a long time, pilot testing has been carried out to benchmark power requirements for a commercial
AG/SAG circuit. However, there has not been consensus on the scale and extent of pilot testing.
 For example, mill diameters between the extremes of continuous testing:
 Pilot scale mill diameter;1.83m
 MacPherson Autogenous mill diameter; 450mm
 Between these extremes, there is a number of intermediate sized mills.
 While continuous testing techniques may give the confidence of correlation to full scale installations
especially in the design of large mills, there are also large scale installations which have been successfully
designed using intermediate testing techniques.
 A systematic design of comminution circuit involves employing a combination of Grindability tests
described then inputting test data into accompanying computer software models to scale up to commercial
size unit.

Advantages of Pilot Testing

 Generates data with highest confidence level.
 Data obtained requires least scale-up.
 Lowers the risk of capital and operating cost requirements.
 Provides sound input data for computer simulation.
Successful Pilot Testing
 Successful pilot testing consists in;
 Selecting compatible ancillary equipment (e.g. SABC, pumps, pipes, etc.)
 Accurate sampling.
 Accurate measurement and recording of operating data including recycle streams.
 Monitoring by skilled manpower.

Challenges in Pilot Testing

 Sample. Temptation of selecting convenient rather than most relevant sample due to difficulties of
accessibility and ease of sampling.
 Sample Preparation. Single number, F80 Vs Full size distribution.
 Classifier Performance. Classifier performance affects overall grinding circuit performance and yet
selecting correct size classifier is a challenge in pilot testing.
 Scale-up. Assumptions/approximations for data that cannot be scaled up easily, e.g. particle top size
or deciding if primary crushing is required or not.