THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

School of mines and minerals sciences

CE 560 / MT 580
Process control

Lecture 02
Introduction to process control

C. Botha (Mr.)
Contacts: Chemical Engineering Department
Email: clyde.botha@cbu.ac.zm
Alt. Email: bthclyde@gmail.com

January, 2021
 Classification of process variables

o Variables associated with a process can be divided into the following:

o Input variables: which represent the effect of the surroundings on a process.
o Output variable: variables which denote the effect of the process on the
surroundings.
o Considering fig.1, then
o Input: 𝑭𝒊 , 𝑻𝒊 , 𝑭𝒔𝒕 and Output: 𝑭, 𝑻, 𝑽
o Input variables can further be divided into manipulated or adjustable variables and
disturbance variables.
o Manipulated or adjustable variables: Variables whose values can be adjusted freely
(independently) by a control mechanism or a human operator.
 Classification of process variables

o Disturbances: Input variables whose values are not as a result of adjustment by a control
mechanism or a human operator.

o Equally, the output variables can further be classified into measured and unmeasured
variables.

o Measured output variables: If values of such variables are known by directly measuring
them.

o Unmeasured output variables: If their values cannot be known by directly measuring them.

o However, the measured and unmeasured variables in some cases can be input variables.

o As an example of this, in the stirred tank heater system (Fig.1).

 Classification of process variables cont’d…

o Suppose that the objective is to maintain the

level in the tank, then:

o Feed flow-rate Fi can be adjusted by

installing a control valve in the inlet stream
i.e. Fi is a manipulated variable.

o Furthermore, suppose that the feed inlet to

the stirred tank heater is difficult to access,
Fig.1 stirred tank heater system
then the feed rate becomes an unmeasured
variable.
 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o As another example, consider a continuous stirred tank reactor in which an irreversible

exothermic reaction takes place.

cA,i, Ti , Fi
Reactants
Thermocouple Tc,o, Fc
Controller

A B cA, T, F
Coolant
Tc,i , Fc Products

Fig.2 Variable classification of a CSTR

 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o Heat produced by the reaction is removed by the coolant circulating around the reactor
jacket.

o At steady-state, the coolant flow-rate is just enough to remove all the heat generated by
the reaction and so keep the temperature T at a desired value, which is, the control
objective.

o Input variables: cA,i , Ti , Fi ,Tc,i , Fc

o Output variables: CA and/or CB, T, F, Tc,o , Fc

 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o Product flow-rate F can be regarded as both a manipulated (input) and output variable.

o Suppose that the control objective is to maintain the volume of the reaction mixture at a
constant value.

o Then, a control valve may be installed in the effluent (product) stream and its flow-rate
controlled.

o In such a case, F becomes a manipulated variable, otherwise it is an output variable.

 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o Furthermore, suppose that the inlet stream to the CSTR comes from some upstream unit
which we have no control of;

o Concentration of reactant CA,i , feed-rate Fi and Temperature Ti can be described as

disturbances or measured disturbances.

o For the output variables, CA, T, F, Tc,o, and V (volume of reaction mixture) are measured
output variables.

o Values of these quantities can be determined using appropriate measuring instruments.

o For instance, thermocouple (T, Tc,o), flowmeter (F) and differential pressure (dp) cell (V).
 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o If an online analyser such as gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer is employed, then;

o Concentration CA of the product can be a measured output variable.

o However, such instruments are usually expensive and unreliable (i.e. break down).

o Hence, CA and/or CB may be difficult to determine, that is, becomes unmeasured outputs.

o In some cases, measuring instruments may be in a laboratory that is located some distance
from the plant.

o Because of the time lag between sampling and obtaining results, measurents may not be
useful for control purposes.
 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o To further understand process variables, a typical grinding circuit is considered.

Product

Water addition
(Flow-rate)

Rod mill Ball mill

· Flow-rate
· Density

New feed-rate
· level
Mill load · Density
· Flow-rate
Pump speed · Density
· Pressure

Fig.3 Milling circuit control variables

 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o The purpose of milling is to reduce ore particle size to a point where economic liberation of
the valuable mineral may be possible.

o The following are the control objectives when implementing instrumentation and control
schemes for the grinding circuit.

1) To maintain particle size in the product stream for a specified maximum throughput.

2) To maintain a constant feed-rate for a specified product size range.

3) To maximise production per unit time in consideration with downstream circuit

performance.
 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o The following are the main input variables that can affect control of grinding circuit:

o Fluctuations in the new feed rate.

o Changes in circulating load amount (flow-rate) and density.

o Changes in feed ore particle size and/or size distribution.

o Ore hardness in feed.

o Water addition.
 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o Other factors that may affect operation of grinding circuit include:

o Interruptions in operation of milling circuit due to stoppages to add a new grinding

medium and to clear a chocked cyclone.

o Among the input variables listed above the following are the disturbances:

1) Fluctuations in new feed-rate.

2) Changes in feed size and/or distribution.

3) Changes in feed ore particle hardness.

 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o The fluctuations in the disturbances listed above may arise from:

1) Changes in feed composition.

2) Differences in mineralisation and crystallisation from different parts of the mine.

3) Changes in crusher settings due to wear.

4) From damaged screens in the crushing circuit.

o Feed composition, mineralization may affect hardness and grindability in the crushers.

o This in turn will affect feed rate, ore particle size and distribution in the feed.
 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o Small fluctuations in the disturbances (ore hardness) can be smoothed out by blending
ore from different parts of the mine.

o Furthermore, ore storage, provided that no segregation occurs in the bins, can be used
to smooth out the new feed rate.

o Increase in feed size or hardness produces a coarser mill product provided that the feed
rate is not reduced.

o Likewise, a decrease in feed size and ore hardness may allow an increase in mill
throughput.
 Classification of process variables: Example 2

o A coarse mill product may lead to a high circulating load.

o Therefore, circulating load depends on the feed rate and cannot be used as a
manipulated variable.

o A high circulating load (volumetric flow-rate) affects cyclone operation.

o The separation efficiency of a hydrocyclone depends on volumetric flow-rate of the

feed (circulating load in this case).

o Hence, product size and/or distribution from the milling circuit may change due to
increased mill circulating load.