Process Control-Lecture 03

THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY
School of mines and minerals sciences
CE 560/MT 580
Process control
Lecture 03
Classification of process control variables
C. Botha (Mr.)
Contacts: Chemical Engineering Department
Email: clyde.botha@cbu.ac.zm
Alt. Email: bthclyde@gmail.com
January, 2024
Classification of process variables
o For a any control problem, process variables fall into two general types, viz:
 Input variables: outside variables that effect a process.
 Output variable: variables which denote the effect of a process on the

surroundings.
o In Fig.3.1, input and output variables are as follows:
 Inputs: flow rates 𝑭𝒊 , 𝑭𝒔𝒕 and temperature 𝑻𝒊 and
 Outputs: flow rate 𝑭, temperature 𝑻, and volume or liquid level 𝑽(𝒉).
o Output variables are also in most cases the controlled variables.

o Controlled variable (CV): These are process variables that are controlled i.e.,
maintained at or near the set point.
Feed
Fi (ft3/min), Ti (oF)
T
h
Q
Product
Fi (ft3/min), T (oF)
Steam Condensate
Fst (Ib/min)
Fig.3.1 classification of process variables in a stirred tank heater

o Set point (SP): is the desired value of the controlled variable or the value at which we
wish to keep the controlled variable.
o Output variables can further be classified as measured or unmeasured variables.
 Measured output variables: If values of such variables are known by direct

measurement.
 Unmeasured output variables: If their values cannot be known by direct

measurement.
o However, the measured and unmeasured variables in some cases can also be input
variables.
o The input variables can fall into one of the two categories below.
 Manipulated variable (MV): process variable that can be adjusted by a control

mechanism/human operator to keep controlled variables at or near their set
points.
 Disturbance variable (DV: Input variable that affect the controlled variables but
cannot be manipulated.
 Or process variable whose value is not as a result of adjustment by a control

mechanism or human operator.
o For the stirred tank heater shown in Fig.3.1.

Classification of process variables cont’d…
o Suppose the objective is to maintain liquid level in the tank, then:
 If the feed flow-rate 𝑭𝒊 fluctuates and affect the controlled variable (liquid level)
then 𝑭𝒊 is a disturbance.
 The exit flow rate 𝑭 can be adjusted by installing a control valve in the exit line
i.e. 𝑭 is the manipulated variable.
o As another example, consider a continuous stirred tank reactor in which an

irreversible exothermic reaction takes place.
o Heat produced during the reaction is removed by coolant circulating through the
jacket around the reactor.
Classification of process variables: CSTR
o Control objectives:
Reactants
1) To keep the temperature 𝑻 at the cA,i, Ti , Fi Coolant out
desired value.
Tc,o , Fc
 Achieved by adjusting coolant

A B Products
flow-rate so that it is just enough
cA, T, F
to remove all the heat generated Coolant in
by the reaction. Tc,i , Fc
Fig. 3.2 Variable classification of a CSTR

2) To keep the liquid level 𝒉 at or near
the desired value by adjusting either
reactant or product flow rate.
3) To keep the concentration 𝐶𝐵 in the exit stream at or near its desired value.
 Can be achieved by adjusting coolant flow rate.
o For the CSTR,
 Input variables: 𝑐𝐴𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖 , 𝐹𝑖 , 𝑇𝑐𝑖 and 𝐹𝑐 .
 Output variables: 𝑐𝐴 and/or 𝑐𝐵 , 𝑇, 𝐹, 𝑇𝑐𝑜 , 𝐹𝑐𝑜 and 𝑉(ℎ).
o Product flow-rate 𝐹 can be regarded both as a manipulated and an output variable.
o If it is required to maintain liquid level in the CSTR, then a control valve can be
installed in the effluent stream.
o Flow rate of the effluent stream can then be manipulated to regulate liquid level.
o Flow rate 𝐹 in this case is a manipulated variable (input), else it is an output

variable.
o Furthermore, the inlet stream to the CSTR may come from an upstream unit.
o Control over such a stream might not be possible then 𝑐𝐴𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖 , 𝐹𝑖 , are
disturbances.
o Coolant flow rate 𝐹𝑐 is a manipulated variable since it can be adjusted to control

CSTR temperature.
o And coolant temperature 𝑇𝑐𝑖 is a disturbance variable.

o 𝑇, 𝐹, 𝑇𝑐𝑜 , and 𝑉(ℎ) are measured outputs since values of these variables can be
known by direct measurements.
o E.g., thermocouple to measure 𝑇 and 𝑇𝑐𝑜 , venturi-meter to measure 𝐹, and

differential pressure cell to measure ℎ(𝑉).
o The concentrations, 𝑐𝐴 and/or 𝑐𝐵 can be classified as measured variables.
o Possible if an analyser e.g., gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer can be

installed in the effluent stream.
o Such analysers are usually not available in most industrial processes.

o This is because such instruments are usually expensive and have low reliability.
o I.e., give poor measurements or breakdown easily.
o In some cases, measuring instruments may be available e.g., in a laboratory.
o But the results of the analyses may not be instantly available.
o Because of this time lag between sampling and availability of results, measurents
may not be useful for real time control.
o Thus, 𝑐𝐴 and/or 𝑐𝐵 may be difficult to determine and can then be classified as

unmeasured outputs.
Classification of process variables: Milling circuit
o Consider a typical grinding circuit shown in Fig 3.3.
Particle size
distribution,
density &
flow rate
Water Water
flow-rate) flow-rate)
Rod mill Ball mill

New feed-rate  Flow-rate
 Density
 level
Mill load  Density
 Flow-rate
Pump speed  Density
 Pressure
Fig.3.3 Process variables in a milling circuit

o Main objective: Reduce ore particle size such that economic liberation of the
valuable minerals is possible.
o Instrumentation and control for such circuits can be used to regulate key variables.
o Typically centred around the following overall control objectives:
1) Maintain product particle size within a desired size range for a specified
maximum throughput.
2) To maintain a constant feed rate for a specified product size range.
3) Maximise production rate in consideration with downstream circuit performance.
4) Minimize specific energy consumption.

o The following are the main process variables associated with a typical grinding
circuit.
1) New feed rate.
2) Circulating load: Amount (flow-rate), density and pressure.
3) Feed ore particle size and/or size distribution.
4) Ore hardness in feed.
5) Water flow rate.
6) Particle size distribution, flow rate and density of the product.
7) Sump level
o Of the variables above, the following can be considered as disturbance variables:
1) Fluctuations in new feed-rate, may result from:
 Changes in crusher settings due to wear.
 Damaged screens in the crushing circuit.
 Changes in ore hardness.
 Affects grindability so that less material is treated (throughput) in crushers

when ore hardness increases.
2) Changes in feed size and/or distribution which may be due to:
 Changes in crusher settings due to wear.

 Damaged screens in the crusher circuit.
 Changes in ore hardness which affects grindability of the ore in the

crushers.
3) Changes in feed ore hardness which also may result from:
 Differences in mineralization from different parts of the mine which may

affect feed composition.
o Other factors that may affect operation of the grinding circuit i.e., other
disturbances include:
 Interruptions in operation of the milling circuit.

o E.g., stoppages to add a new grinding medium and to clear a chocked cyclone.
o Ore feed rate and water addition can be adjusted independently.
o Thus, two control strategies are possible:
1) Control product size by controlling ore feed rate, and circulating load amount.
 Variables associated with circulating load can also be controlled instead.
2) Control product size by simply controlling ore feed rate.
o Choice depends on which loop responds faster to disturbances.
 I.e., particle size loop or circulating load loop.

o Thus, the controlled variables are:
1) Particle size & distribution in the product stream.
2) Production rate.
3) Feed rate (total mill feed rate)
4) Circulating load amount, density and pressure.
5) Specific energy consumption of the grinding circuit.
o The manipulated variables
1) Water addition
2) Ore feed rate, can be considered both as manipulated and controlled variable.
o Other variables depend or responds to water addition and changes in feed rate.
o Thus cannot be used as manipulated variables as they cannot be adjusted

independently.
o As a manual control mechanisms:
1) Small fluctuations in ore hardness can be evened-out by blending ores from

different parts of the mine.
2) Ore storage can be used to smooth out fluctuations in the new feed rate.
 Provided that no ore segregation occurs in the bins.

Impact of disturbances on milling circuit operation
o Increase in feed size or hardness may produce a coarser mill product provided
that the feed rate is not reduced.
o Likewise, a decrease in feed size and/or ore hardness may allow an increase in
mill throughput.
o A coarse mill product may lead to a high circulating load and increase in density.
o A high circulating load (volumetric flow-rate) affects cyclone operation.
o The separation efficiency of a hydrocyclone depends on volumetric flow-rate of the

feed
o I.e., circulating load in this case.
o Hence, product size and/or distribution from the milling circuit may change due to
increased mill circulating load.

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THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

School of mines and minerals sciences

 Input variables: outside variables that effect a process.

 Output variable: variables which denote the effect of a process on the

o In Fig.3.1, input and output variables are as follows:

 Inputs: flow rates 𝑭𝒊 , 𝑭𝒔𝒕 and temperature 𝑻𝒊 and

 Outputs: flow rate 𝑭, temperature 𝑻, and volume or liquid level 𝑽(𝒉).

o Output variables are also in most cases the controlled variables.

Fig.3.1 classification of process variables in a stirred tank heater

o Output variables can further be classified as measured or unmeasured variables.

 Measured output variables: If values of such variables are known by direct

 Unmeasured output variables: If their values cannot be known by direct

 Manipulated variable (MV): process variable that can be adjusted by a control

 Or process variable whose value is not as a result of adjustment by a control

o For the stirred tank heater shown in Fig.3.1.

o Suppose the objective is to maintain liquid level in the tank, then:

o As another example, consider a continuous stirred tank reactor in which an

 Achieved by adjusting coolant

Fig. 3.2 Variable classification of a CSTR

 Can be achieved by adjusting coolant flow rate.

o For the CSTR,

 Input variables: 𝑐𝐴𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖 , 𝐹𝑖 , 𝑇𝑐𝑖 and 𝐹𝑐 .

 Output variables: 𝑐𝐴 and/or 𝑐𝐵 , 𝑇, 𝐹, 𝑇𝑐𝑜 , 𝐹𝑐𝑜 and 𝑉(ℎ).

o Product flow-rate 𝐹 can be regarded both as a manipulated and an output variable.

o Flow rate 𝐹 in this case is a manipulated variable (input), else it is an output

o Coolant flow rate 𝐹𝑐 is a manipulated variable since it can be adjusted to control

o And coolant temperature 𝑇𝑐𝑖 is a disturbance variable.

o E.g., thermocouple to measure 𝑇 and 𝑇𝑐𝑜 , venturi-meter to measure 𝐹, and

o The concentrations, 𝑐𝐴 and/or 𝑐𝐵 can be classified as measured variables.

o Possible if an analyser e.g., gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer can be

o Such analysers are usually not available in most industrial processes.

o I.e., give poor measurements or breakdown easily.

o In some cases, measuring instruments may be available e.g., in a laboratory.

o But the results of the analyses may not be instantly available.

o Thus, 𝑐𝐴 and/or 𝑐𝐵 may be difficult to determine and can then be classified as

o Consider a typical grinding circuit shown in Fig 3.3.

Rod mill Ball mill

Fig.3.3 Process variables in a milling circuit

o Typically centred around the following overall control objectives:

2) To maintain a constant feed rate for a specified product size range.

3) Maximise production rate in consideration with downstream circuit performance.

4) Minimize specific energy consumption.

o Of the variables above, the following can be considered as disturbance variables:

1) Fluctuations in new feed-rate, may result from:

 Changes in crusher settings due to wear.

 Damaged screens in the crushing circuit.

 Changes in ore hardness.

 Affects grindability so that less material is treated (throughput) in crushers

2) Changes in feed size and/or distribution which may be due to:

 Changes in crusher settings due to wear.

 Damaged screens in the crusher circuit.

 Changes in ore hardness which affects grindability of the ore in the

3) Changes in feed ore hardness which also may result from:

 Differences in mineralization from different parts of the mine which may

 Interruptions in operation of the milling circuit.

o Ore feed rate and water addition can be adjusted independently.

o Thus, two control strategies are possible:

 Variables associated with circulating load can also be controlled instead.

2) Control product size by simply controlling ore feed rate.

o Choice depends on which loop responds faster to disturbances.

 I.e., particle size loop or circulating load loop.

o Thus, the controlled variables are:

1) Particle size & distribution in the product stream.