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public administration bilal eryılmaz

Translated from: Kamu yönetimi bilal eryılmaz

Firdavs Sharipov

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 TRANSLATION 1

public administration bilal

eryılmaz
Firdavs Sharipov

Original Paper 

Abstract
The printing, publishing and sales rights of this book belong to Anadolu University. All
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reserved. All or parts of the book cannot be reproduced, printed or distributed by mechanical,
electronic, photocopying, magnetic recording or any other means without permission from
the relevant institution.

Preface
With the emergence of the modern state, public administration has grown a lot
structurally and functionally. Today

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION INTRODUCTION

Public administration has existed since ancient times, when human beings came
together for common purposes, organized, cooperated and carried out various activities.
Since the early periods of history, people have established and managed various
administrative systems and organizations, although they do not have the characteristics of
modern states. Social and political institutions, starting from the family and emerging in
forms such as tribe, tribe, tribe, city, kingdom, empire and nation-state, are the main groups
that people have created to meet their management needs. are structures. In this respect,
public administration has played a very important role in people's lives since ancient times,
from the moment they organized and carried out joint activities on behalf of society. Today,
public administration, as a very important area of ​the state, is in a process of rapid
development and change all over the world, and is the subject of new conceptualizations,
 TRANSLATION 2

definitions and evaluations.

WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?
In general, management is a natural result of people living together. Because human is a
social being; cannot survive alone; One must have mutual relations with other people
regarding goods, services, work, cooperation, security, information and similar issues. Various
organizations and activities emerge for this purpose. In fact, human life is a phenomenon
dependent on others.

Management Concept
Public administration forms a part of the general concept "management". For this reason,
it is necessary to start by defining the concept of management. Management is subject to
various definitions in the literature and in the language of the public. The concept of
management is used in various meanings such as "activity/management", "organization" and
"administrative system". The emphasis on the concept of management, sometimes on the
aspect of activity, sometimes on the organization, and sometimes on the administrative
system, stems from the fact that it is a multifaceted phenomenon. In fact, the concept of
management includes all of these.

Management is a group activity carried out cooperatively to achieve specific goals or

objectives. This definition of the concept of "management" in classical management books is
simply explained with the following example: Management means moving a rock that one
person cannot move alone. It is a situation in which two or more people cooperate for a
purpose. Here the basic elements of management emerge. These elements are "person-
person-group", "action of influence and cooperation" and "purpose" or objectives. The first
element of management is the human and group element. If we continue our explanation
with the rock example, a standing piece of rock cannot be associated with any management
element in its current state. If a rock rolls down due to natural reasons, the phenomenon of
management does not arise here. In order for the phenomenon of management to occur, the
human element must be included in the event, two or more people must come together, that
is, there must be a group element. These people (group) must act in cooperation at the same
time. The act of influencing and collaborating is the second element of management. The
third element is purpose. Just because two or more people look at the rock does not reveal
the phenomenon of management; they must have a purpose such as moving it somewhere
(Berkley and Rouse, 2004:5-6).

What are the basic elements of management?

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The process of establishing authority over others, getting others to do work, or

influencing the behavior of people in a group and directing them to achieve the desired
results in line with a common goal is also considered a management activity. It is evaluated
(Ergun, 2004:3-4). In this sense, the definition of management is explained with the concepts
of "management and management" and "management" in our country. For example, "The
administration of a small state is easier than the administration of a large state." or "This
business could be run more successfully under your management." The concept of
management in these sentences means "management and management".

Management can also be defined as the activity or process of arranging and using
resources (physical/material and human) to achieve a specific purpose. This definition
includes the management of things and people together and therefore also includes Business
Management and Public Administration.

Secondly, the concept of management describes a certain organization or

institution/institution. Since today, most of the management activities occur by and within
organizations, the concepts of "management" and "organization" are almost equated. When
we talk about organization, "management" comes to mind, and when we talk about
management, "organization" comes to mind. "The judicial remedy is open against all kinds of
actions and transactions of the administration." In the expression, it is used in the sense of
administration (management) and organization (Ery›lmaz, 2009:3).

The concept of management is used thirdly to describe the management systems and
procedures of various countries and institutions. For example, when we say "comparative
management", we mean the comparison of the management models of two or more
countries or organizations. Management in this sense is also used in combination with some
concepts such as "management system" and "management style".

The phenomenon of management is present in all groups, large or small. When we

consider management in a broad sense, we see that everyone living in society is intertwined
with management and some of its problems. Activities carried out to influence others or to
achieve certain goals or objectives by collaborating with others, both in formal organizations
and in informal groups, are evaluated within the concept of management. Thus, management
consists of a set of activities carried out at various stages and levels, starting from the
smallest social unit, the "family", to the largest political authority, the "state". After these
definitions, we can summarize the features of management as follows (Ery›lmaz, 2009:4-5):

1. Management occurs within a group that includes more than one person. A person
plans a job that he can do alone and tries to carry it out in his own way. However, as the
volume of work grows and suddenly
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Management Functions: Planning, organizing, budgeting, directing, coordination and

control.

Organization of work becomes necessary when it requires the joint effort of many people.
This makes certain processes such as planning, division of labor, hierarchy of authority,
coordination and control necessary. 2. Management as a process consists of activities or
elements such as determining and planning the work to be done, organizing, providing and
arranging the necessary resources, directing, coordination and control. These activities or
elements are involved to a greater or lesser extent in all kinds of businesses. Planning is
defining goals, determining policies, and deciding on the methods and procedures
(strategies) to be followed in achieving these. Organizing means creating management units
by grouping the activities necessary to implement the determined plans, defining the duties
of the managers and employees in these units, and regulating the relationships between
them. Providing and arranging resources (budgeting) means gathering together ready-to-use
personnel, capital, facilities and other materials and services necessary for the execution of
plans and achievement of objectives. Directing is the power and effort to direct the available
resources to the determined goals in the most appropriate way. Coordination is a problem
arising from the division of labor in organizations, growth in terms of volume, and the
complex nature of functioning. Coordination is the effort to integrate various actions within
the administrative structure. Auditing is the continuous monitoring and evaluation by
superiors of whether the determined objectives are being achieved effectively and efficiently.
3. Management occurs in a hierarchical order in formal organizations. Formal organization is
a structure in which the roles of those participating in an activity are specified and regulated
in advance. Hierarchy is the grading of employees in the organization in terms of authority
and duties, starting from the top manager to the employee at the lowest level. Hierarchy is
also called "series of ranks" (silsile-i meratip). Thanks to the hierarchical order, an employee
at lower levels is gradually connected to the highest manager in the organization, starting
from the person closest to him/her. Superiors also establish relationships with all personnel
working in the organization through the hierarchy; They give them instructions and get
information from them. In the hierarchy, the role of superiors is generally defined by
rights/authorities, and the role of subordinates is defined by duties. Superiors have the
authority to make decisions, determine policies, direct and supervise. Subordinates are
obliged to fulfill their assigned duties. Management is a system that functions sociologically
according to status and roles. Status specifies the rights, powers and duties of individuals.
Roles are the demonstration of behavior in accordance with the rights and duties that arise
with the status. The behavior expected from a person is called "role requirements". Hierarchy
connects the various elements and departments that make up the organization to a single
command center. Thus, hierarchy is a means of achieving the goals in the organization,
monitoring and evaluating activities, and ensuring integrity in management. 4. Management is
a phenomenon that consists of regular activities. The concept of "order" here refers to the
activities being harmonious and systematic. It is not possible to call "management" activities
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whose elements do not have harmony and do not show integrity. In the case of management,
there is a person who influences others and people who comply with this, or a group that
cooperates for a certain purpose. In fact, management is an activity aimed at ensuring
cooperation or aims to ensure coordination and integrity among various actions. 5.
Management consists of a set of various activities aimed at achieving a specific purpose or
objectives. Goals in management are embodied in legal and administrative regulations, plans
and programs. The main duty of those working in the organization is to achieve these
determined goals. Therefore, management consists entirely of purposive activities.

DEFINITION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

As societies expand in terms of volume and density of relationships, states also grow in
terms of their structure and functions, and institutions become specialized and differentiated.
Accordingly, public institutions that carry out management activities are also becoming more
complex and technical in terms of structural appearance and operation. The increase in
activities related to public administration and their complex and technical nature lead to
various definitions of this concept. These definitions reflect various images of public
administration, which is a broad phenomenon. This shows that public administration is a very
comprehensive and powerful field. The word "public" in Turkish means all, all; the whole of the
people in a country; It means people, public. "Public order" means the order that concerns the
whole of society; "public sector" means the entirety of economic activities carried out by the
state; "public personnel", officials working in the civil service, "public opinion", the sum of the
views, attitudes and beliefs adopted by a large segment of the society on a certain issue;
"Public legal entities" means groups of people and property aimed at public interest; "Public
law" describes the whole of the rules that regulate the establishment and functioning of the
state and its relations with other states, public legal entities and private individuals (Ery›lmaz,
2009:17).

What are the various ways the concept of "Public" is used in daily
life?
As in these examples, the concept of public refers to "formality" and "generality" as well
as "open" as the opposite of "private", "secret" and "closed". It also expresses "personality",
"belonging to the public" and "visibility". Such as public goods, public life and the public
library.

The concept of public administration has four basic aspects. These are "function",
"structure", "academic discipline" and "profession" aspects. Public administration, as a
functional concept, has been subject to various definitions. These definitions can be listed as
follows (Stillman II, 2005:2-4):
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1. Public administration is the production of goods and services to meet the basic needs
of the people. 2. Public administration refers to all activities related to the formulation and
execution of public policies. 3. Public administration is the application of management,
political and legal theories and procedures to carry out the tasks and administrative decisions
stipulated by the legislation regarding the provision of public services. 4. Public
administration is also defined as the processes, organizations, actions and transactions of
public personnel related to implementing laws and administrative regulations. Taking into
account the common elements in these definitions, public administration as a functional
concept; It describes the processes and activities related to the work prescribed by law and
the implementation of public policy decisions. Through this process, laws or rules related to
public administration are transformed into special decisions regarding the solution of
individual cases. Public administration takes part in the political environment of the broader
management sector.

tastes. In this respect, public administration has an important role in determining public
policies and programs and thus forms a part of the political process. Depending on the
functions of the state, there are some changes in the meaning of the traditional concept of
public administration. Traditional public administration has been under the influence of some
methods and concepts applied in private enterprises after 1980, and has undergone a
significant structural and functional paradigm change. For this reason, the concept of public
administration has begun to be expressed as "public management" by some authors in
English. This concept is expressed in Turkish with terms such as "new public management"
and "public management". In fact, management in the sense of "management" expresses the
new understanding of public management, which also includes a functional element of
business administration. "Management" means doing or having something done as quickly,
efficiently and with high quality as possible. Traditional public administration is relatively less
concerned with efficiency; It places more emphasis on the values ​of the public sector, such
as democracy, accountability, public interest, equality and honesty.

Is there a difference between the concepts of public administration and public

management? Discuss.

The use of the concept of public management is quite new and dates back to the end of
the 1970s. The first places it was used were the USA and England. Although the concept of
public administration continues to be used in leading journals in England and the USA and
even in books in this field, the term "public administration" is used in journals bearing the
name of public administration. Article titles, reviews and concepts related to public
management are also included. In the literature of Continental Europe, France, Germany and
Scandinavian countries, the equivalent concepts of "Public Administration" or "Administrative
Science" are used as the basic concept in their own languages ​in this field. data is preferred
to the concept of "public management" (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2002:8-10).
 TRANSLATION 7

As a structural concept, public administration reflects the organizational view of the

executive branch of the state. Every state organizes various organizations at national and
local levels to fulfill its duties determined by law. These public organizations are responsible
for implementing public policy decisions and laws under the direction of governments. In this
sense, public administration is the executive branch of political bodies; It is the fundamental
basis of the state and social order. The existence and continuity of the state and social order
depends, above all, on the uninterrupted functioning of public administration.

In democratic countries, elections remove one government from power and bring another
to power, or reinstate the current government. Political powers change hands through
revolutions. In countries that have not established their constitutional balance, elections can
change not only governments but also regimes.

There may be situations where the legislative body may not be present for a period of
time. The government may even be disrupted for a while. However, if public administration
works, the state and social order more or less continues. As a matter of fact, despite the
changes in political regimes and governments, public administration organizations can
continue their activities without any major disruptions.

In the third sense, public administration refers to an academic discipline. Public

administration acts as a bridge between disciplines, thus taking the necessary parts from
various disciplines and applying them to the solution of public problems and public services.

It is a discipline that applies to the execution of activities. The discipline of public

administration examines management ideas, structures, policies and techniques related to
the public sector. Public administration as a functional concept, public administration as a
discipline as it is generally related to the formulation and execution of public policies and the
management of public institutions and public activities, the subjects included in this
definition It works for the education/training, understanding, development and improvement
of people. Public administration also examines the political, social, cultural and legal
environment/environment that affects the functioning of public institutions and is in close
contact with relevant disciplines. Public administration is the intersection point of disciplines,
covering and benefiting from the relevant subjects of various disciplines, from Political
Science to Sociology, from Business Administration to Law (Shafritz, Russell and Borick,
2009: 30-31). While some authors exclude the structure and activities of the legislative and
judicial bodies from the field of interest of the public administration discipline, some argue
that there are three powers, namely legislative, judicial and executive, and the relations
between them. They also include relationships within the scope of examination of this
discipline (Stillman II, 2005: 2-4).
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How can public administration be defined as an academic

discipline? What are the disciplines closest to public administration?
It has not been easy for the disciplines that benefit from them to accept the unique
nature of public administration and the fact that it has become an independent discipline. For
example; The fact that Administrative Law and Public Administration are separate things in
France could not be accepted until recently. Likewise, some political scientists have not been
able to abandon the view that Public Administration is a sub-branch of Politics.

Finally, public administration is not only an academic discipline but also a profession.
Persons such as engineers, economists, planners and financiers who serve as administrators
in actions and processes such as creating public policies and implementing them, planning,
organizing, directing, coordination, supervision, management and management are also
described as public administrators. They are members of the public administration
profession.

TRADITIONAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND NEW PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION
Traditional public administration is the name of the dominant paradigm that was valid in
public administration from the second half of the 19th century until the last quarter of the
20th century. The intellectual foundations of the traditional understanding of public
administration are largely based on the thoughts of Woodrow Wilson, Max Weber and
Frederick Taylor. Wilson,19. In his article written in the last quarter of the century, he
defended the principle of "politics/administration separation" in order to make public
administration a discipline independent of political science. Max Weber also developed the
idea that the "ideal type bureaucracy" model he formulated was the most rational and
effective form of organization. The views and opinions of Wilson and Weber are that the
fields of politics and the fields of public officials are different, that politicians make basic
decisions regarding public policies, and public officials make these decisions using expertise
and technical expertise. It is based on the principle that they will apply it in the most effective
and impartial manner, based on their knowledge. At the beginning of the 20th century, F.
Taylor's approach called "Scientific Management" emphasized that a single best method
could be found for every job by using scientific methods. It influenced the development of
business and traditional public administration understanding.

The traditional management approach has maintained its dominance in the structure and
functioning of public administration in the management literature until recent times. It is
possible to categorize the basic principles and ideas on which this understanding is based in
four groups.
 TRANSLATION 9

The first principle is related to the structure of public administration. Traditional public
administration is largely based on organization according to the bureaucracy model
conceptualized by German sociologist Max Weber. This model is based on detailed rules and
formalism, impersonal, rigidly hierarchical, career-oriented and largely centralist. It is
assumed that these principles will ensure impartiality, efficiency and effectiveness in public
administration. The public sector has long been influenced by these principles, and strict
adherence to them has been seen as the best way to run organizations.

The second is the idea that the state should take a direct role in the production and
distribution of public goods and services through its own organizations (bureaucracy). With
the influence of the welfare state or other ideas, the state has increased its role in this field,
grown (leviathan) and gained a significant weight in the economy as a producer of many
goods and services.

The third principle is the view that political and administrative issues can be separated
from each other. The duty of the administration or public administration consists of
implementing instructions and rules. The authority to determine policies or strategies belongs
to the political leadership. Politicians determine what will be done in the public sphere, and
public administrators implement them. Public administration is given the duty of strict
obedience to political institutions and administrators. Thus, public administration will be
taken under control and its responsibility will be ensured. The view that politics and
administration can or should be separated from each other was initially expressed by
Woodrow Wilson in his book "The Study of Administration", published in 1887. Based on the
article.

The fourth principle is that public administration is a special form of government. It is

quite different from the management of the private sector. Public administration, its purposes
and the methods it uses -9 Unit 1 - Basic Concepts WOODROW WILSON (1856WILSON ( -
1924) is the 28th President of the USA; he also studies law, political economy, public
administration and history. He is a scientist who has studies in. Wilson proposed a 14-item
peace program for a permanent peace at the end of World War I, and these articles formed
the basis of peace negotiations. He was among the leading advocates of the League of
Nations at the Paris Peace Conference. Wilson's importance in public administration
literature is evident in his article "Administration", which he wrote in Political Science
Quarterly in 1887. It is based on his article titled "The Study of Administration". In this article,
Wilson emphasized that "politics" and "administration" are two separate fields. This article
examines public administration. It has formed the basis of examining politics as an academic
field separate from politics. According to Wilson, the field of management is a field of
business administration. Management issues are not political issues. Politics is the
responsibility of the statesman, management is the field of business administration. It is the
field of the technical officer. It should be examined as a separate field from private
 TRANSLATION 10

administration. In this case, it becomes important to organize public administration according

to a professional bureaucracy and the lifelong employment of employees. This administrative
apparatus must have political neutrality, such as serving every political power equally.

Who are the important thinkers who contributed to the formation of

traditional public administration thought?
Towards the end of the 1980s, a new approach to the management of the public sector
began to emerge in developed countries and especially in the Anglo-Saxon geography. This
approach or understanding is called "manageralism", "new public management" and "market-
based public administration" or "entrepreneurial administration". It is expressed with
concepts such as entrepreneurial government. Those who defend this approach emphasize
the difference between the concepts of "administration" and "business". According to them,
the concept of "management" has a narrower meaning than the concept of "business".
Management; To direct and manage the work in accordance with the processes, methods and
rules. Business, on the other hand, instead of doing business only according to instructions
and directives, determines goals and priorities, makes implementation plans to achieve them,
uses human resources effectively, evaluates performance and evaluates the work done. It
refers to many functions such as taking responsibility for tasks.

It is possible to discuss the development of the new public management approach in

three stages as dominant features and trends. The first phase, starting from 1979 and lasting
until the mid-1980s, included legal-structural liberalization (deregulation) in the public sector,
the removal of subsidies in public goods and services, and the elimination of subsidies in
public goods and services. These are savings measures. The second stage is the
privatization of public economic enterprises, which has intensified since 1985, and the 3-E
(Economy-frugality, Efficiency-efficiency) policies, which consist of the initials of English
concepts. Finally, the third stage began in the 1990s, when principles and values ​such as
quality, citizen focus, governance, participation, accountability, transparency and
performance-based management came to the fore in public services. It creates the following
policies. This third stage is an open-ended process to improve quality in public
administration. What will make a difference for countries is the level of development that
each country or administrative unit will achieve in this field.

New public management, unlike traditional management, envisages a new structure in

the organization and functioning of management and its relations with markets and society.
Various classifications have been made regarding the basic elements of the new public
management. For example, C. Hood gathered the elements of new public management into
seven groups (Hood, 1991: 4-5):
 TRANSLATION 11

1. Giving wide management freedom to the manager in the public sector, 2. Performance
measurement, 3. Giving more importance to results than procedures, 4. Discipline and
economy in the use of resources, 5. Increasing competition in the public sector, 6.
Transforming large organizations into new structures of optimal size, 7. Implementing private
sector management techniques in the public sector. It is possible to examine the basic
features of the new public management approach in four groups, taking into account the
reforms made by governments, the theoretical sources on which they are fed, and the
contributions of those who interpret them.

First of all, the new management approach opposes the understanding of organization
based on Max Weber's bureaucracy model. Although this organizational model has made
significant contributions to the development of welfare and democracy in the West, it is no
longer a problem of inefficiency, cumbersomeness and ineffectiveness in the face of
changing conditions. It has become the cause of secondaryism. The Weberian bureaucracy
model prevents managers from taking risks and results in wasting scarce resources instead
of using them effectively and efficiently. According to the new public management approach,
the organizational structure of the public should not be large-scale, but optimally sized,
flexible, with a soft hierarchy, a narrow and few-staffed center, a wide horizontal environment,
and decentralized. Flans should be empowered more.

Secondly, the field of activity of the state should be narrowed. There is a broad
consensus on narrowing the field of activity of the state. The "minimal state" approach is
defended by emphasizing that many activities carried out by the public sector have
alternatives other than the state, and that state interventions cause increasing inflation, rising
costs and red tape. While traditional public administration is based on the direct role of the
bureaucracy in the production and presentation of public goods and services to the public,
the new public management approach aims to keep the field of activity of the state at a
minimum level, It recommends separating the management and production of services,
benefiting more from the market mechanism and improving the arbitration role of the state.
The new public management approach emphasizes that there is no single method for
producing public services through bureaucracy and presenting them to the public; He argues
that in management affairs, controlling the steering wheel is more useful than rowing. In
addition, the new public management approach is based on the mission of guarantoring the
state regarding the public services it is obliged to provide to the society, and the "public",
"private sector" and It imposes the duty of acting as a catalyst between "civil society"
organizations.

Thirdly, the new management approach exhibits a different approach to the relations of
public administration with political administrators and society. He emphasizes that public
administration should be responsible not only to the political leadership, but also to the public
(public). In traditional public administration theory, a distinction is made between those who
 TRANSLATION 12

give orders (politicians) and those who implement them (bureaucrats). In the new
management approach, managers are not considered to have fulfilled their responsibilities
not only by acting in accordance with the rules and procedures, but also by the results of their
work (effectiveness, productivity, quality, customer satisfaction). etc.) are held responsible.

Fourthly, new public management is market-oriented and favors the application of

business management principles and methods in public administration. The new public
management approach emphasizes that the free market mechanism is a more efficient and
effective method in the use of resources and the production and delivery of services. New
public management wants to replace the bureaucracy-based understanding of rationality with
the idea of ​market and society-centered rationality.

What is the approach of the new public management approach to

the field of activity of the state?
The new public management idea is an approach that interprets and directs the change
in the structure and activities of the economic and administrative system after 1980 and
emerged as an alternative to the traditional management idea and largely replaced it.
However, recently, public administration has begun to be defined as a combination of the
normatively oriented traditional public administration approach and the instrumentally
oriented business management approach (Ery›lmaz, 2009:16-25). The differences between
the traditional public management and the new public management approach have been tried
to be shown comparatively at a conceptual level in the table below to facilitate the
explanation. ›r.

Source: Bilal Ery›lmaz, Public Administration, Lecturer Publishing, Ankara-2009, 26-27

ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration is an administrative system for the uninterrupted operation of the
state and social order and the production and presentation of goods and services to meet the
common needs of the public. As in every system, the public administration system consists
of various elements.

The first element of public administration is people; that is, the people. The public
consists of all individuals living in a country, various producer and consumer groups, political
leaders, members of the legislature and pressure groups. Undoubtedly, these five elements of
public administration are more important and impressive than the others.

The second element of public administration is the organization. The organization is the
 TRANSLATION 13

basic tool in producing and providing public goods and services to the public; It is the central
element of management services. The state operates and fulfills its duties through this tool.
The organization, which is the basic tool in the functioning of the state, is positioned at the
central and local level according to the type and quality of services.

The third element of public administration is public policy. Public policy is about defining
social problems and determining their solutions. This is related to making laws, implementing
administrative regulations, choosing between alternative solution proposals and determining
the most appropriate methods to solve problems. Public policy is mostly a task of political
administrators. The decisions taken by political administrators and the methods they follow
to solve certain problems constitute public policy. For example, should we prevent inflation
with tight monetary policy or by limiting prices and wages? Should we carry out development
directly by the state or by supporting the private sector? Choosing one of these is a public
policy.

Public policy is what various government departments, especially the government,

choose to do or not to do. Public policies are created by state bodies and public officials. In
other words, public policies are determined by those who are defined as "authorities" in the
political system: the head of state, the prime minister, the government, the ministers, the
legislature, mayors and municipal councils, civil authorities (governors and district governors)
and high-level public officials. It is formulated by individuals, institutions and bodies such as
managers. Undoubtedly, circles outside the state also have an impact on the formation of
public policies.

The fourth element of public administration is the norm order. The norm order in a
country consists of the constitution, laws, statutes, regulations and administrative decisions,
as well as the decisions and jurisprudence of the judicial authorities. Ideological thoughts and
political preferences; The constitution, laws, administrative regulations and decisions regulate
and direct the organizational structure and functioning of the public administration. All
normative regulations and decisions, large or small, depend on or require "values". For
example, what are human rights? How will it be implemented? Will these rights apply to a
group of people or to all people? Likewise, the concepts of social justice and equality are
shaped according to certain political and social values.

The fifth element of public administration is financial resources. Public finance

constitutes the determining factor of the work to be done by public administration. The level
and amount of services depend on the financial resources available. For this reason, public
administrators are also interested in the problem of increasing existing resources and using
these resources effectively and efficiently.

The sixth element of public administration is the public officials who mobilize and
 TRANSLATION 14

operate the organization. All personnel working under various statuses in public institutions
are broadly defined as public servants. The performance of public administration depends on
the quality of the personnel operating it. The more qualified the administrative staff in a
country is in terms of knowledge and experience, the better and more satisfactory the level of
public services will be. The number of personnel increases and decreases according to the
structure and functions of the state (Ery›lmaz, 2009:8-10).

GOVERNANCE
Governance is derived from the concept of "management" or "to govern". The World Bank
used this concept for the first time in its report dated 1989. Governance has become popular
in the last thirty years and is widely used in literature and daily life as an alternative to the
concept of "management". Governance refers to a new management style based on mutual
interaction in society-state relations. The concepts of efficiency, effectiveness, responsibility
and accountability have been the most emphasized principles in the public administration
literature since the late 1970s. A need was felt for an intellectual framework that would both
enable public administration to operate efficiently and make it more responsible for the
transactions and decisions it makes. Because the classical participation and control
mechanisms of representative democracy were insufficient to meet this need. The concept of
governance offers such an intellectual framework.

What kind of relationship can be established between governance

and new public management? Discuss.
Governance is a concept used to express a complex system that includes public
administration, private sector and non-governmental organizations and their network of
relationships and mutual interactions. Here, apart from the central government and local
government institutions, there is a wide range of actors including non-governmental
organizations, private entrepreneurs and non-profit organizations and their inclusion in the
management system. The concept of governance indicates that the balance of responsibility
in directing and managing society is shifting from the state to civil society. In other words,
governance does not limit public administration to the activities of the state and political
power, but also accepts the private sector and non-governmental organizations as
indispensable actors of management. Here we encounter a multi-actor management
approach and process.

As can be seen, the concept of governance is an important element of the new public
management approach, essentially an understanding and process that expands public
administration to include the private sector and non-governmental organizations. After 1980,
a bureaucracy-oriented management approach was abandoned and mutual roles and
 TRANSLATION 15

responsibilities between the state and society began to be redefined. According to this new
definition, citizens and civil society have risen to a position where they are treated as partners
of the government. Thus, the idea that public administration is a field formed by the
interaction and participation of the whole society and that this field should operate within the
framework of "good governance" understanding has gained importance (Ery›lmaz , 2008:
242). Because good governance is inevitable to serve the public interest. This concept has
turned into a reform strategy developed for developing countries under the leadership of
international financial and technical organizations, especially in the last quarter of the 20th
century.

The "Agenda 21" project, which emerged as a product of the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, is a reflection of the
understanding of "governance". It played an important role in bringing the business to the
local level and in its development. Because "Agenda 21", which sets the goal of "sustainable
development", has brought the understanding of "global partnership and cooperation" to the
agenda in order to achieve this.

You can find more information about Local Agenda 21 at

http://www.kentkonseyleri.net/index.php?lang_change=turkish.

Public administration
Governance: A new management style based on mutual interaction in society-state
relations.

Various countries perceive management as governance and are working to implement

the relevant principles. For this purpose, many countries and organizations, especially the
United Nations, determine the basic principles of good governance and disclose them to the
public. When the principles of good governance in the public sector are mentioned,
"transparency and honesty", "participation", "efficiency and effectiveness", "accountability",
"establishing relations with the public with appropriate methods", "self-improvement of the
management". It is necessary to specify principles and elements such as "and learning
capacity", "a well-functioning state of law", "a strong civil society" and "improved conditions
for decentralization".

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION

The concept of public administration refers to the branch of management related to
public institutions; Private management is used to describe the aspect applied in private
businesses other than public institutions. "Business Administration or Management" deals
 TRANSLATION 16

with this area of ​management. Although public administration and private administration
have some common features because they are sub-branches of management, they also have
some differences due to their different purposes, methods and status.

Similarities
Most of the organizational theories related to management developed in the last century
are based on research conducted in private sector organizations. Public administration
benefits greatly from these researches. There are common elements and problems in both
sectors, such as the system of rules, organization, personnel, financial resources and external
environment. Essentially, all management includes "human resources", "financial
management", "managing the structure and functioning of the organization"; They carry out
four basic functions such as "policy, program and method development".

Depending on the general changes in the world, there is a significant rapprochement and
cooperation between public administration and private administration. It can be said that the
two groups are becoming more and more similar to each other in terms of their working
methods. The most important event that shows the increase in cooperation between the two
administrations is that the public administration outsourced most of its projects and
activities to the private sector through tenders or other methods, privatized and leased some
of its businesses; The adoption of concepts and understandings such as total quality
management, strategic management, performance management and human resources
management in the public sector.

As mentioned above, theories and practices regarding how management and techniques
in businesses can also be applied in the public sector have come to the fore recently. It is
seen that in many countries over the last thirty years, various ideas and techniques developed
mainly in the private sector have also been applied and adopted in public administration. This
new understanding of public management symbolizes a transition from the classical
"administration" policy in the public sector to a management approach.

Today, public administration is influenced by the understanding of business

management, but some basic principles have not been completely abandoned. It can be said
that today's public administration practices are a combination of the traditional management
approach and the business approach. In this practice, democratic values ​such as impartiality,
accountability, public interest are emphasized, as well as risk taking, flexibility, performance
measurement, strategic management, result orientation and achievement of goals. New
values ​are coming into play, such as

How good or bad is public administration being influenced by business management?

Some are in favor of further developing this interaction and cooperation.
 TRANSLATION 17

Some say that this development should be stopped. According to them, public
administration is a completely separate field from business management, it has different
purposes and methods, and therefore it should not be polluted or tainted by commercial
methods.

Differences
Despite some similarities, there are some fundamental differences between public
administration and private administration arising from structure and operation. Although
these differences undergo some changes in terms of quality and over time, they seem to
continue to some extent, although they tend to decrease. It is possible to evaluate these
differences by stating the following.

1. Political environment: Public administration constitutes the executive branch of the

political system. Therefore, public administration is concerned with implementing public
policy decisions made within the political system. Public administrators are responsible to
political administrators and bodies for the activities they carry out; It has to show this
responsibility when making managerial decisions and implementing them. Public institutions
operate in a political environment consisting of voters, politicians, producer and consumer
interest groups and voluntary organizations. For this reason, the activities of public
institutions constitute the area/subject of interest and evaluation of a wide segment of people
in every respect. Apart from the political environment, public administration also has a "social
environment" in terms of the community to which it serves. Public institutions must act with
awareness of their responsibilities towards both environments while carrying out their
services. 2. Public interest: Public administration carries out its services primarily for the
public interest, not for profit purposes. A large part of the goods and services produced by the
public sector are of "public" nature. In public institutions, the concept of "social benefit"
replaces "profit". Protection of the poor, the elderly, the disabled and the homeless, providing
housing at affordable prices to those who do not have a home, supporting farmers in various
ways, incentives given by the state to increase production are all "social benefit" and "social
benefits". These are issues that can be evaluated within the concepts of "policy". Private
companies and individuals are completely free to comply with the general desires of the
public or to attach importance to the values ​of others. The purpose of a private organization
is to advance the interests of the organization. This interest is generally expressed with the
concept of "profit". 3. Legality, impartiality and continuity: Public administration is a part of
the state and is subject to various legal regulations regarding its establishment, duties and
powers and how they will be used. Public administration is generally established by law, its
boundaries are determined by law, and it is responsible for implementing the law. Public
administration and services are continuous; Public organizations cannot terminate their
activities by the decision of their managers, they perform their services impartially, and
citizens have equality before the law. In the private sector, the management of the business
 TRANSLATION 18

can terminate its activities when necessary, change its type of business, lay off its employees
and close the company according to market conditions. 4. Accountability: Public
administrators are accountable to political bodies and individuals, their administrative
superiors, the financial audit unit (the Court of Accounts), judicial bodies, the public, the
ombudsman regarding the use of public resources and powers. and must be accountable to
other public control units. Although private enterprises have accountability to judicial bodies,
bosses and customers within the framework of contracts and legal regulations while carrying
out their activities, it is not as comprehensive and versatile as in public administration. 5.
Flexibility of management: Laws and plans, or other regulatory acts, judicial decisions often
limit the freedom of action of public administrators, and this affects the decisions and
actions of administrators. It may be restrictive. A manager in the private sector has wider
management freedom than a public manager in solving the problems of his business and
increasing its efficiency. Salaries and wages of public employees are often determined by
laws, budget laws, or by political bodies within lower and upper limits. Public managers do not
have the authority to increase or decrease the wages of employees (except in cases where a
pay-for-performance regime is applied). Private enterprises are in a position to act more
flexibly and freely in personnel management than the public sector. 6. Fighting against
negative externalities: Public administration, unlike the private sector, has to fight against
"negative externalities". The negative effects on other people, organizations and the
environment during the production and consumption of a good or service are called "social
cost or negative externality". The activities of some industrial and commercial organizations
may cause soil, air and water pollution. Destruction of the natural environment affects the
health of society. Similarly, consumption of substances such as cigarettes and alcohol also
increases diseases and treatment costs. Ultimately, the state bears the burden of traffic
accidents. Law enforcement and health services are carried out to compensate for or
minimize "negative externalities". Private sector organizations do not want to deal with the
problem of negative externalities or social costs. For them, activities aimed at preventing
negative externalities will increase operating expenses and therefore reduce company profits.
For this reason, no business can establish a purification facility, install a filter on its chimney,
or put the words "It is harmful to health or causes death" on cigarette packages without the
sanctioning power of the public administration. It is not willing to take any precautions such
as putting the phrase. 7. Arbitration: Public administration has to function as a
mediator/arbitrator by making arrangements between conflicting economic and social
interests. For this reason, public administration can impose some restrictions on the behavior
of individuals and groups. As the free market mechanism began to dominate, a very
important change took place in the economic and social role of the state. In today's world, the
management of the economy operates not according to command, but according to the
signals coming from the market. The rules of business are largely determined by markets, not
governments. While the state has withdrawn from many areas since 1980 and left these
areas to market actors, it has created regulatory and supervisory administrative authorities to
ensure that these actors act according to the rules of the game. These administrative
 TRANSLATION 19

authorities operate to regulate and supervise the functioning of the system, without being a
party to the game so that the markets can function freely. In all countries where the free
market system is implemented, independent administrative authorities have been established
to fulfill the arbitration function. In our country, radio and television, banking, capital markets,
telecommunications, energy, tenders, competition, etc. There are regulatory and supervisory
institutions that act as referees in these fields.

Public power:
Relations between private individuals and organizations are based on the principle of
equality of the parties. It is not possible to make the other party do something that they do
not want, therefore agreement is essential in mutual relations. On the other hand, public
administration uses public power to achieve its purpose and, when necessary, can make and
implement unilateral decisions without the consent of the other party. Public power is a
"unilateral action". There is often a lack of equality in the relations between public and private
individuals. For example, the municipality can expropriate without feeling the need to seek
people's consent to build a road or bridge. It is among the duties of the public to enforce the
laws and to use force and punish when necessary. Since public administration represents and
executes public power, it sees itself above society and tends to be distant from the public.
The administration's closedness, secrecy, and excessive adherence to rules and procedures
all stem from its tendency to be in a superior position vis-à-vis the public. . Citizens are forced
to submit to the will of the administration, humbled in the face of numerous and complex
procedures and rules. 9. Motivation of Managers: The goods and services produced by public
administration are generally monopolies and closed to competition from other organizations.
The activities of public bureaucrats are not motivated by the "competition" factor in the
market system. The main factor that motivates bureaucrats is the feeling of gaining "prestige"
and "authority" and the tendency to gain the appreciation of political administrators. However,
the main factor that motivates the activities of managers in the private sector is the market
mechanism. Goods and services produced by the private sector are subject to market control,
whether they are purchased by consumers or not. Therefore, the success of business
managers is evaluated according to the results of this market audit. In short, companies in
the private sector compete with their competitors in market conditions to develop their
resources. In the state, institutions compete with each other within the political system to
expand their budgets, increase the number of personnel and improve social opportunities.

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
The concept of "strategy", which was previously used only in the military field, has
become widespread over time by being adopted by all organizations, including business
management and public administration. Strategy dictionary means the set of basic
 TRANSLATION 20

management procedures that can be applied and the paths to be followed in order to achieve
the desired goal in a field. Strategic management is a management approach based on a
strategic plan in making daily decisions and conducting business. A strategic plan is an
official document that expresses the goals an organization wants to achieve and the ways
and methods related to them. Strategic planning is an element of strategic management, but
it is not the same as it. Strategic management can occur without a strategic plan. However, a
strategic plan is useless without a strategic management approach. It is important to
correctly select the targets and policies to be achieved in the strategic management
approach. For this, the internal and external environment of the organization is examined,
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats are tried to be determined, in short, a SWOT
analysis is performed.

The strategic management approach has six basic features: 351):

1. Determining the goals to be achieved in the future (which is usually included in the
vision definition), 2. Creating a time plan for the realization of the determined goals, 3.
Establishing the organization's examining and evaluating its current situation, especially in
terms of capacity, 4. Objectively analyzing the environment in which the organization
operates, taking into account its present and future, 5. Considering various alternatives to
achieve the desired (determined) goals. 6. Integrating organizational efforts around this
determined strategy. Businesses that have grown, developed and become more complex
since the 1970s have adopted a strategic management approach in order to solve the
problems they face, compete and develop. Strategic management is the name of using time
and opportunities well, being future-oriented, fighting against negative environmental
conditions and keeping up with change. Strategic management; It is a three-stage process
that we can call "plan", "implement" and "monitor-evaluate".

The strategic management approach, which was first implemented and successful in the
private sector, was adopted with the idea that it would bring some innovations in public
administration to keep up with change, solve problems, act proactively and be future-oriented.
Strategic management brings an understanding of vision to public administrations, enables
the determination of medium and long-term goals, envisages carrying out business on the
basis of performance, and makes accountability objective and measurable.

In various countries, especially in our country, the strategic management approach has
become a legal obligation. Public institutions in our country (with a few exceptions) have
started to prepare and implement the strategic plan, which is the basic element of strategic
management, since 2006. Studies on this subject are carried out under the guidance of the
Ministry of Development. Strategic plan is a plan that includes the medium and long-term
goals of public administrations, basic principles and policies, targets and priorities,
performance criteria, methods to be followed to achieve these and resource allocations. .
 TRANSLATION 21

Does the strategic management approach have a legal basis in our

country?

QUALITY AND TRANSFORMATION OF THE STATE

The modern state is the result of society growing through various stages and reaching a
complex structure. The state regulates the relations between people and ensures that these
relations operate in accordance with the norms; resolving disputes; It represents the highest
sovereign legitimate power that produces or manages public goods and services. The
political institution equipped with the highest political authority in a society is the state. State;
It represents the unity, order and legitimate authority of the society and carries out common
services. German sociologist Max Weber defined the state in terms of its unique tools.
According to him, the state is a human community that holds the monopoly on legally using
physical force over a certain piece of land (country). The state is accepted as the sole source
of the "right" to use force. The right to use physical violence is granted to other institutions or
individuals only to the extent permitted by the state. The state carries out its duties through
law and physical force, which is the means of fulfilling this (Weber, 1986: 80).

This political structure, which holds the monopoly on the use of physical force, has over
time become a powerful company and a large employer in the economic field. Today's states
have very different characteristics compared to previous ones. First of all, the functions of
states have undergone a great change, become complex, diversified and increased. In parallel
with this change, the structure of public institutions has grown and there has been a great
increase in public expenditures. Over time, there has been a shift from the classical state
concept of ensuring external security and internal order to the concept of "interventionist",
"planning", "social" and finally "mediator/arbitrator" state. The development is noteworthy.

The functions of the state, taking into account the stages it has gone through, can be
grouped into four groups: "classical", "resource mobilization", "social" and "arbitration".
Classic functions; These are functions that are mandatory for the existence of a state, such
as tax collection, justice, security, defense and foreign relations (diplomacy). Without these,
the existence of the state cannot be mentioned.

The state's function in mobilizing resources is to assist and support certain sectors such
as agriculture, industry and transportation with financial incentives. For this purpose, the
state often uses tax policy tools.

The third function of the state is the social assistance it provides directly or indirectly to
some groups in society (elderly people, disabled people, students, children, the poor, etc.).
This function has shown a significant development in the last fifty years under the influence
 TRANSLATION 22

of the "social state" approach. The social state symbolizes an understanding and tendency
that expresses what the state should do, rather than what it should not do. In Western
societies, the functions of the state have developed from classical functions to resource
mobilizing functions and from there to social functions.

The fourth function of the state is the "arbitration" mission that came into play with the
development of the market economy. The state has transferred the economic-commercial
functions it has undertaken over time and the businesses it has created under the influence
of various factors, to the market, to the private sector, as a result of "downsizing the state"
and "privatization" policies since the early 1980s. had to transfer it to other companies. While
the state leaves the economic and commercial areas to market actors, it has undertaken new
functions as a regulatory and supervisory actor in these areas, setting the rules of the game
and enforcing them in order to ensure the regular functioning of the markets within
competitive conditions. New structures called "independent administrative authorities",
"superior boards" or "regulatory and supervisory boards" were created to monitor the
implementation of the law.

What is the arbitration function of the state? What institutions has

this function created in our country?
The role of the state in the economic field oscillates between "interventionism" and
"laissez-faire" depending on the conditions. While the planning, interventionist and managerial
state approach was dominant in the past, liberal thought has gained importance in state
administration since the early 1980s, and there has been a strong tendency towards market
economy in all countries. has emerged. The basic policy of this trend is "privatization".
Privatization essentially aims to shrink the state and strengthen the market system.

The strongest movement against the growth of the state has long been "liberalism" and
its emphasis on the individual and the market. Today, this movement tries to re-evaluate the
rights and power of individuals vis-a-vis state power. Liberalism adopts a limited
understanding of government. According to John Locke (1632-1704), one of the key figures
of early liberalism, the legitimate role of government is limited to the protection of "life, liberty
and property". The basic function of management is not to go beyond the "minimal" functions
of protecting public order and property, ensuring external security and ensuring compliance
with contracts. About a century later, Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) formulated the same
understanding with the saying "the best government is the least government." According to
liberals, the market is a self-regulating mechanism. The state should not intervene in the
market because it operates according to the mechanism that A. Smith (1723-1790) referred
to as the "invisible hand" (Heywood, 2007: 34-65). Under the name of New Right policies, the
state was restructured according to the neoliberal perspective after 1980, especially in
 TRANSLATION 23

developed countries.

The economic crisis, which first started in the financial markets in the USA in 2008,
expanded in waves and affected all countries and turned into a global crisis. This global
economic crisis has been described as the most severe crisis of the last century, shook
society's confidence in the market economy, and caused states to reconsider their role vis-à-
vis markets. States intervened in financial markets and provided monetary support to save
bankrupt companies and banks. In some countries, most banks have been nationalized.
Various legal regulations have been made to prevent companies from going bankrupt. A
significant break occurred in 2008 in the liberal policies of the states towards the markets in
the 1980s and later. This policy change was also reflected in the structure of the state, public
expenditures and employment. The tendency to downsize the state has stopped,
unemployment and public expenditures have increased, social policy tools have come to the
fore, and public service has become the most reliable form of employment.

To be able to explain the concept of management and the elements of management. The
concept of management is used in various meanings such as "activity/management",
"organization" and "administrative system". Management, which occurs in a group involving
more than one person, occurs in a hierarchical order in formal organizations. Management as
a process consists of activities or elements such as determining and planning the work to be
done, organizing, providing and arranging the necessary resources, directing, coordinating
and controlling. Management has three elements. These are "person-group", "action of
influence and cooperation" and "purpose" or "objectives".

To be able to define concepts related to public administration.

The concept of public administration basically has four aspects. These are "function",
"structure", "academic discipline" and "profession" aspects. Public administration as a
functional concept; It describes the processes and activities related to the work prescribed by
law and the implementation of public policy decisions. As a structural concept, public
administration reflects the organizational view of the executive branch of the state. In this
sense, public administration is the executive arm of political bodies; It is the fundamental
basis of the state and social order. As an academic discipline, public administration is a
discipline that acts as a bridge between disciplines and thus takes the necessary parts from
various disciplines and applies them to the solution of public problems and the execution of
public services. Public administration is both an academic discipline and a profession.
Towards the end of the 1980s, a new approach to the management of the public sector
began to emerge in developed countries and especially in the Anglo-Saxon geography. This
approach or understanding is called "manageralism", "new public management" and "market-
based public administration" or "market-based public administration". It is expressed with
concepts such as "entrepreneurial government". Those who defend this approach emphasize
 TRANSLATION 24

the difference between the concept of "administration" and "business". According to them,
management; To direct and manage the work in accordance with the processes, methods and
rules. Business, on the other hand, instead of doing business only according to instructions
and directives, determines goals and priorities, makes implementation plans to achieve them,
uses human resources effectively, evaluates performance and evaluates the work done. It
refers to many functions such as taking responsibility for tasks. It is possible to examine the
basic features of the new public management approach in four groups. First of all, the new
management approach opposes the understanding of organization based on Max Weber's
bureaucracy model. Secondly, the field of activity of the state should be narrowed. Thirdly, the
new management approach emphasizes that public administration should be responsible not
only to the political leadership but also to the public (public). Fourthly, new public
management is market-oriented and favors the application of business management
principles and methods in public administration.

Traditional public administration and new public administration

To summarize the elements of public administration. The elements of public
administration consist of the public, organization, public policy, norm order, financial
resources and public officials.

To be able to explain the concept of governance.

Derived from the concept of "management" or "to govern", "governance" refers to a new
management style based on mutual interaction in society-state relations. Governance is a
concept used to express a complex system that includes public administration, private sector
and non-governmental organizations and their network of relationships and mutual
interactions. r. Here, apart from the central government and local government institutions,
there is a wide range of actors including non-governmental organizations, private
entrepreneurs and non-profit organizations and their inclusion in the management system.

To summarize the similarities and differences between public

administration and private administration.
Essentially, all management includes "human resources", "financial management",
"managing the structure and functioning of the organization"; They carry out four basic
functions such as "policy, program and method development". The differences between
public administration and private administration are the political environment, public interest,
legality, impartiality and continuity, accountability, flexibility of management, negative
externalities. It arises in the subjects of fighting, refereeing, public power and motivation of
 TRANSLATION 25

managers.

To be able to explain the concept of strategic management.

Strategic management is the name of using time and opportunities well, being future-
oriented, fighting against negative environmental conditions and keeping up with change.
Strategic management; It is a three-stage process that we can call "plan", "implement" and
"monitor-evaluate". The strategic management approach, which was first implemented and
successful in the private sector, was adopted with the idea that it would bring some
innovations in public administration to keep up with change, solve problems, act proactively
and be future-oriented. . Strategic management brings an understanding of vision to public
administrations, enables the determination of medium and long-term goals, envisages
carrying out business on the basis of performance, and makes accountability objective and
measurable.

To summarize the effects of the nature and transformation of the

state on public administration
The modern state is the result of society growing through various stages and reaching a
complex structure. The functions of the state, taking into account the stages it has gone
through, can be grouped into four groups: "classical", "resource mobilization", "social" and
"arbitration". The role of the state in the economic field oscillates between "interventionism"
and "freedom". The development in the structure and functions of the state has parallelly
affected public administration, which is its service execution tool. Just as the growth of the
state enabled the public administration organization to develop in terms of structure and
function, the shrinking of the state shaped the functions and structure of public
administration in a similar way. (Tribe, 1984: 263). In modern societies, the complex structure
and growth of the state and the increase in the number and complexity of public services
have further increased the need for professional public servants. The concept of "profession"
is generally defined as a job or occupation based on systematic knowledge or theory.

The basic elements of the concept of profession are knowledge and skill. Basic
professional knowledge is mainly obtained through university education. Indeed, universities
and professional schools have played an important role in the professionalization of public
administration. At universities, candidates receive the knowledge required for civil service, are
socialized with professional norms and, in a sense, develop a professional identity. In
addition, the university and faculty have an important role in evaluating the personal and
intellectual abilities of the student. Public administration experts use their professional
knowledge to serve citizens with an impartial and competent attitude (Gargan, 1998 (Gargan,
: 1090.
 TRANSLATION 26

Public Administration as an Academic Discipline

Public administration, as a part of managerial activity, is as old as the development of
political systems and strives to achieve the program objectives determined by political
decision-makers. Nowadays, public administration is differentiating itself as a field of
systematic investigation. Manager consultants and commentators have put forward their
observations in their works on management (such as Aristotle's Politics, Machiavelli's The
Prince). However, after the 18th century, Cameralism, which was concerned with the
systematic management of government affairs, became a specialty of German academics in
Western Europe. Such a development did not occur in the USA until the end of the 19th
century. Woodrow Wilson's article "The Study of Administration" published in 1887 is
generally considered the starting point in this field. From this moment on, public
administration has become a well-known specialized area of ​interest, either as a subfield of
political science or as a distinctive academic field (Heady, 2001: 1). Approaching public
administration as a field of study is closely related to debates about whether it is a branch of
science or not. Wilson and his followers strived to make management science, which
emerged in Europe, a separate discipline from political and legal sciences. According to
Wilson, management is a field of business, far from the rush and excitement of politics.
Administrative issues are not political issues. For this reason, the subject of management
science is different from political science. The administration differs from the controversial
basis of constitutional studies in many respects. In this respect, public administration is the
detailed and systematic implementation of public law (1961: 63-65). American public
administration, as a field of study, follows the footsteps of Wilson's article written in 1887.
Although public administration, as a discipline, initially emerged as a sub-branch of Political
Science or Administrative Law, it has been linked since the middle of the 20th century. It can
be said that it has developed as an uncharted area.

Public Administration as Art

Public administration as an art refers to management consisting of business and action
related to a practical purpose (Pruthi, 2005: 12). In other words, public administration as an
art refers to a creative activity carried out by practitioners and cannot be learned with
numbers (Lynn, 1996). However, as in all other arts, in order for public administration to
develop, it must be based on science, that is, knowledge that will enable good administration.
Just as a painter must know the rules of composition, perspective, distribution of light and
harmony of colors, a successful manager must know the rules of political economy,
psychology, science and Must have knowledge of the basic principles of management.
Considering the complexity of the modern state and the chaotic problems faced by public
administrators, especially senior public officials must have the necessary knowledge. Thus,
science shapes the establishment and functioning of management, as in other arts (Pruthi,
2005:12).
 TRANSLATION 27

Reading Passage
1. e If your answer is wrong, "What is Management?" Re-read the section.

a
If your answer is wrong, "What is Management?" Re-read the section.

to
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Traditional Public Administration and New Public
Management" section.

c
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Traditional Public Administration and New Public
Management" section.

b
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Traditional Public Administration and New Public
Management" section.

b
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Elements of Public Administration" section. 7. c If
your answer is wrong, re-read the "Governance" section. 8. a If your answer is wrong, re-read
the "Governance" section.

D
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Public Administration and Private Administration"
section.

10.c
 TRANSLATION 28

If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Quality and Transformation of the State" section.

Your Turn Answer Key

It's Your Turn 1 There are at least three basic elements of management. These are
"person-group", "action of influence and cooperation" and "purpose" or "objectives".

It's Your Turn 2

The word "public" in Turkish means all, all; the whole of the people in a country; It means
people, public. "Public order" means the order that concerns the whole of society; "public
sector" means the entirety of economic activities carried out by the state; "public personnel",
civil servants; "public service" means public services carried out by or under the supervision
of the State and other public legal entities; "public institution" means a public legal entity
established for the purpose of performing public services; "public opinion" means the sum of
the opinions, attitudes and beliefs adopted by a large segment of society on a certain issue;
"Public legal entities" means groups of people and property aimed at public interest; "Public
law" describes the whole of the rules that regulate the establishment and functioning of the
state and its relations with other states, public legal entities and private persons.

It's Your Turn 3

Depending on the functions of the state, there are some changes in the meaning of the
traditional concept of public administration. Due to the fact that traditional public
administration was under the influence of some methods and understandings applied in
private enterprises after the 1980s, the concept of public administration began to be
expressed as "public management" by some authors in English. This concept is expressed in
Turkish with terms such as "new public management" and "public management". In fact,
management in the sense of "management" expresses the new understanding of public
management, which also includes a functional element of business administration.
"Management" means doing or having something done as quickly, efficiently and with high
quality as possible.

It's Your Turn 4

The discipline of public administration examines management ideas, structures, policies
and techniques related to the public sector. Since public administration, as a functional
concept, is generally related to the formulation and execution of public policies and the
 TRANSLATION 29

management of public institutions and public activities, public administration as a discipline

covers the subjects included in this definition. It works for education/training, understanding,
development and improvement. Public administration also examines the political, social,
cultural and legal environment that affects the functioning of public institutions and is in
close contact with relevant disciplines. Public administration is located at the intersection of
disciplines, covering and benefiting from the relevant subjects of various disciplines, from
Political Science to Sociology, from Business Administration to Law. It has not been easy for
the disciplines that benefit from them to accept the unique nature of public administration
and the fact that it has become an independent discipline. For example, in France, the fact
that Administrative Law and Public Administration are separate things could not be accepted
until recently. Likewise, some political scientists have not been able to abandon the view that
Public Administration is a sub-branch of Politics.

It's Your Turn 6

The new public administration adopts a liberal understanding as an economic view,
therefore it is in favor of narrowing the field of activity of the state. It defends the
understanding of "minimal state" by emphasizing that many activities carried out by the
public sector have alternatives other than the state, and that state interventions cause
increasing inflation, rising costs and red tape. While traditional public administration is based
on the direct involvement of the bureaucracy in the production and provision of public goods
and services to the public, the new public management approach aims to keep the field of
activity of the state at a minimum level. It recommends separating the management and
production of public services, benefiting more from the market mechanism and improving the
arbitration role of the state. The new public management approach emphasizes that there is
no single method for producing public services through bureaucracy and presenting them to
the public; He argues that in management affairs, controlling the steering wheel is more
useful than rowing. In addition, the new public management approach is based on the
"public", "private sector" and "civil sector" rather than acting alone to solve social problems
with the mission of guarantor to the state regarding the public services it is obliged to
provide to the society. It imposes the duty of acting as a catalyst between "society"
organizations.

It's Your Turn 7

New public management is a management approach whose theory was created based
on the managerial practices developed after the 1980s. Governance, on the other hand, is a
management approach that tried to regulate the relations of public institutions with external
actors such as citizens, civil society and the private sector, which was developed in the
1990s. While the new public management focuses on the inside of the organization,
 TRANSLATION 30

governance focuses on the outside of the organization.

It's Your Turn 8

in our country

It's Your Turn 9

The state has transferred the economic-commercial functions it has undertaken over
time and the businesses it has created under the influence of various factors to the market
as a result of "downsizing the state" and "privatization" policies since the early 1980s. It had
to be transferred to private sector companies. While the state leaves the economic and
commercial areas to market actors, it has undertaken new functions as a regulatory and
supervisory actor in these areas, setting the rules of the game and ensuring the orderly
functioning of markets within competitive conditions. New structures have been created
under the names of "independent administrative authorities", "superior boards" or "regulatory
and supervisory boards" to monitor its implementation. In our country, radio and television,
banking, capital markets, telecommunications, energy, tenders, competition, etc. There are
regulatory and supervisory institutions that act as referees in these fields.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION INTRODUCTION

Public institutions and managers act in accordance with certain principles and rules
when making decisions and carrying out public services. The principles and rules regarding
the organization, functioning and responsibility of public administration are called
"management principles".

Since the beginning of 1980, two fundamental changes in the understanding and
practices of public administration attract our attention. The first amendment concerns the
performance of public administration. Negativities such as inefficiency, cumbersomeness,
waste, red tape, and not providing services that meet the needs in public administration have
caused intense debates in the public and still continue to do so. In order to eliminate these
negativities, more emphasis has begun to be placed on principles and values ​such as
efficiency, effectiveness, frugality and quality.

The second change is related to the public administration's understanding of

responsibility. The negativities and bad management practices experienced from time to time
in the use of public powers and resources have resulted in the review and restructuring of
public administration's relations with society. Public administration is required to work with a
 TRANSLATION 31

greater sense of responsibility towards society, to be accountable, to look after the public
interest, to be transparent and honest, and to follow a citizen-centered policy. In this context,
new principles and values ​have gained importance both in the organization and service
delivery of public administration and in the responsibility system.

PRINCIPLES DOMINATING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

When it comes to the principles of public administration, we mean accountability,
transparency, participation, effectiveness and efficiency, legality, as well as the traditional
principles of the management process such as organization, planning, budgeting, decision-
making, direction, coordination and control. All principles related to the functioning,
performance and responsibility of management, such as fairness and impartiality, come to
mind.

Some of the principles related to public administration are related to organization, and
some are related to the functioning and responsibility of public administration. In this section,
in addition to the principles regarding the organization of public administration such as
centralized management, decentralization, breadth of authority and decentralization;
Principles regarding the functioning, performance and responsibility of public administration
such as accountability, participation, transparency, efficiency and effectiveness, ethics and
honesty are included.

Management Principles
Organization in public administration means gathering the tools and resources
necessary for public services in an order and creating a structure by determining authorities,
duties and responsibilities. For this, first the goals are determined. Then, the powers and
duties are listed. The bodies, units, authorities and resources that will fulfill these are defined.
Organization is not an end in itself, but rather a tool for the realization of public goals
(Ery›lmaz, 2009: 69).

What are the main principles regarding the organization of public

administration?
The state works to meet the common needs of the people living within national borders
and to protect their general interests. For this purpose, the state organizes itself based on
two principles. One of these is that the functions of policy-making, decision-making and
execution regarding general public services, the benefits of which are spread throughout the
country and which are often not possible to be carried out on a local scale, are carried out by
 TRANSLATION 32

the bodies under the command and command of the central government. / is carried out by
organizations. This is called "central management". The other is that some functions
(science, culture, trade, economy, etc.) and regional and local functions/services are carried
out by autonomous units outside the hierarchical structure of the central government, which
is called "decentralization". is given the name.

Regardless of their political nature, all countries create their structures and carry out their
services according to these two organizational principles. There is neither a completely
centralized administration nor a state organized solely on the basis of decentralization. While
shaping the principles of centralized management and decentralization, each state takes into
account its social, economic, cultural, political and historical conditions and moves towards
structuring based on these. For this reason, some countries focus on centralized
management, some on decentralization, and some try to establish a certain balance between
the two.

In general, it can be said that as democratization and economic development increase,

the tendency to focus on decentralization and its practices develop.

Organizational Principles
The principle of centralized administration has created various public institutions and
organizations, especially ministries, affiliated with the central government. The principle of
decentralization has developed autonomous public institutions, especially local governments,
and federated units (republic, canton, state, etc.).

Centralized Management: Definition, Types and Features

Public services can be divided into two: "general" and "local". Services whose benefits are
spread throughout the country and are indivisible on this scale are called "general public
services". National security, diplomacy, economic and financial policies, environment,
education and health policies, etc. They are in this group. Such services are organized
according to central management. Services whose benefits remain at a certain scale and can
be carried out more efficiently, effectively and based on participation at this scale are also
included in the "local public services" group. These are generally structured according to the
principle of decentralization.

Centralized management means that decisions and activities regarding certain services
are carried out by the central government and the organizations within its hierarchical
structure in order to ensure unity and integrity. The principle of centralized management is
divided into two: "political" and "administrative".
 TRANSLATION 33

Politically, centralized administration means that the legislative body and the government
are one in a country, and therefore the political authority is completely concentrated in the
central power and there is a legal unity. It does. In such an organizational form, there is no
other legislative body at the lower level, on a regional scale, other than the national assembly
that makes laws. National sovereignty is concentrated in the parliament at the central level.
The state organized according to political centralism is called "unitary state" (monist state).
Türkiye, France and Japan are examples of unitary state forms.

Administratively, centralized management has a narrower meaning. While the authority to

determine policies and take decisions regarding public services is concentrated in central
bodies, the initiative regarding their execution is also in the hands of these bodies. Sub-units,
regional and provincial organizations within the hierarchical structure of the central
government are not granted wide discretionary powers.

Discuss the relationship between political centralization and

administrative centralization.
Administrative centralism is a result of political centralism. Because administrative
centralization cannot occur in a state administration where there is no political centralism.
However, the existence of political centralism does not always necessarily lead to
administrative centralism. For example; Extensive administrative decentralization is practiced
in various European countries with political centralism (England, Sweden, Denmark,
Netherlands, Italy, etc.). In Turkey, there is both political centralization and administrative
centralization.

Features of Centralized Management

Administrative centralized management refers to the fact that the financial management
and personnel policies regarding the services are in the hands of the central body, as well as
the functions of determining policies, decision-making and supervising the execution of
public services. .

The characteristics of centralized management can be summarized as follows: Breadth

of authority can be applied within the provincial organizations of the central government, as
well as within an organization (such as central government or local government
organizations). When an organization is established, the authority to make decisions on
certain issues on behalf of the head of the organization may be delegated to lower-level
authorities. This situation is defined as "breadth of authority" (Gözübüyük, 2002: 40).

The breadth of authority is determined by a legal regulation; who will exercise this
 TRANSLATION 34

authority and what subjects it covers are specified in the law. The manager, who has a wide
range of authority, can use this authority without consulting the center and the responsibility
rests with him. However, since the manager with broad authority is included in the
hierarchical structure of the central administration, decisions taken based on the breadth of
authority are subject to the hierarchical control of the center. Therefore, citizens can appeal
against these decisions to higher authorities through the hierarchy. In this respect, the
breadth of authority differs from the principle of decentralization. In decentralized
administration, the authority to make decisions and execute them lies not with a manager or
body within the hierarchical structure of the center, but with the body(s) that are elected and
independent/autonomous from the center.

In our country, the province is one of the primary units where the breadth of authority is
exercised. The Constitution stipulates that the administration of provinces will be based on
the principle of breadth of authority (Art. 126). The governor carries out his activities within
the scope of his authority in some areas, as the representative of the state and the
government in the province and as the representative of each minister and their executive
tool. The governor, who is at the head of the provinces, can make decisions on some issues
on his own and implement them without consulting the center. The principle of breadth of
authority is not granted to district governors.

What is the principle of breadth of authority and where is it applied?

Delegation of Authority and Signing Authority In addition to the breadth of authority, the
concepts of "delegation of authority" and "signing authority" should also be mentioned. The
source of authority in Administrative Law is laws. The law also states who will exercise the
authority. Managers can only use whatever authority they are equipped with. Managers such
as ministers, undersecretaries, general managers, governors and mayors can delegate some
of their powers to their deputies, provided that their limits are clearly determined in writing. or
they may delegate it to other subordinates. In the delegation of authority, laws sometimes
specify on which subject and what kind of authority can be delegated to which authorities.
Delegation of authority must be done through an administrative process. In delegation of
authority, the owner of the main authority can withdraw the authority at any time. With the
delegation of authority process, decision-making and the related responsibility are transferred
to the person to whom the authority is delegated. However, delegation of authority does not
eliminate the management responsibility of the supervisor who delegates authority. Signature
authority is a legal formula created to ease the burden of a manager. Subordinates sign some
of the documents that the superior must sign, on his behalf and under his responsibility.
There is no need for an explicit legal authority to grant signing authority. However, it is not
possible to transfer signature authority on matters. As in delegation of authority, in signing
authority, the superior can withdraw his authority at any time. The responsibility for granting
signing authority remains with the superior who gave the signing authority (Gözübüyük, 2002:
 TRANSLATION 35

40).

Decentralization: Definition, Types and Features

Decentralization is the use of some of the political and administrative powers in a country
by authorities other than the central government. Decentralization is divided into two:
"political" and "administrative".

Political Decentralization
Political decentralization is the distribution of political power between the central
government and regional government units. In this system, political authority was not
concentrated at the center, but was shared among various units. Regional government units
such as province, republic, canton and state, which emerged with the principle of political
decentralization, have a part of sovereignty. Regional government units are given some
powers in legislative and executive matters. The powers of these regional government units
are regulated by the federal constitution.

Political decentralization gave rise to the federal state system. Federalism represents a
political system that is different from and opposite to the unitary state system. In the unitary
state system, there are no other units with sovereign power that come between the citizens
and the national parliament.

In the unitary state system, organization occurs in two ways: central government and
local governments. In the federal system, there is another administrative level between the
central government and local governments; And that is the state government. The existence
of a tripartite level in the federal system causes intergovernmental relations to gain a more
complex character than in the unitary state structure. The organizational expression of
federalism is polycentrism. Like the central government, states derive their authority directly
from the people within the constitutional framework. The states are structurally protected
against central government intervention. Functionally, they carry out many activities together
with the federal government. However, this cooperation does not eliminate their policy-
making roles and decision-making power.

Federalism is generally the result of seeking solutions to various political, cultural and
economic problems in a country. The federal structure is based on the understanding of
granting a certain degree of political autonomy to communities that differ in terms of religion,
language and ethnicity. The federal form of government is largely implemented in countries
with large geographical areas (USA, Russia, Canada, Australia, India, etc.) that are not
culturally homogeneous and have socio-economic differences.
 TRANSLATION 36

Define the concepts of unitary state and federal state. What are the
differences between them?
Administrative Decentralization Administrative decentralization is the execution of local
public services and some economic, commercial, cultural and technical functions by public
legal entities outside the hierarchical structure of the central government. These public legal
entities represent either the people living in a certain geographical region or certain services
(functions) such as education, trade, industry and culture.

Administrative decentralization is widely practiced in all countries. The aim of this is to

eliminate the drawbacks of excessive centralization, to ensure the participation of the public
in management, to establish a balance between local needs and services, and to increase the
efficiency or effectiveness of public services. is to increase efficiency. Types of
Decentralization The principle of administrative decentralization is implemented in two ways:
"functional" (service) and "geographic" decentralization.

Basic Features of Decentralization

Functional Decentralization
Functional (service) decentralization is the transfer of certain functions from the central
government to autonomous institutions. Here, certain public functions are given an
autonomous status and organizations that will carry them out are established. Thus, the
service burden of the central government is transferred to more technical and specialized
units. With this, it is aimed to carry out the functions (services) in question more rationally,
quickly and efficiently. In our country, institutions such as universities, public economic
enterprises, chambers of commerce and industry, bar associations, medical associations,
chambers of architects and engineers are among the leading institutions that emerged from
the principle of functional decentralization.

Geographic Decentralization
Geographical or spatial decentralization means that the authority to carry out some
administrative tasks is not dependent on the central government and the decision-making
bodies are determined by the votes of the voters.

It is given to administrations whose activities are limited to a certain geographical area,

such as a designated region, province, municipality or village. Geographic decentralization
aims to enable the people of a region, province, municipality or village to decide and carry out
 TRANSLATION 37

local services through their own organs. Local governments are a result of this principle.

In geographical decentralization, the responsibility for decision-making and execution is

given to local governments such as provinces, municipalities and villages, whose decision-
making bodies are locally elected according to democratic procedures. In this system,
representatives of the local people are given the authority to make and execute decisions to
meet local common needs. In functional decentralization, an organization is formed to carry
out a specific function or functions. Autonomy is given not to the people or the region related
to the service, but to the function itself (such as education, science, culture).

While the local governments resulting from the principle of geographical decentralization
carry out multifaceted duties and functions, the tasks performed by organizations organized
according to functional decentralization are limited and of a single type. For example, the
purpose of universities that emerged according to the principle of functional decentralization
is education and research. However, the duty of the municipalities is to provide all local
common services "from cradle to grave".

Geographic decentralization contributes to the development of feelings of cooperation

and unity among fellow citizens. Because politics requires cooperation with others,
compromise and tolerance. In this sense, decentralization is an important guarantee of
political peace. As a matter of fact, countries where internal peace is established are also
societies where the tradition of geographical decentralization has developed.

decentralization
Decentralization is an idea that originally emerged in the West. However, today this idea
is considered in a broader sense than its classical meaning in the West.

In the classical sense, decentralization refers to the transfer of authority, duties and
resources from the central government to local governments. In this sense, decentralization
is a key concept in central government-local government relations.

Decentralization in the modern sense means transferring some of the administrative

powers such as planning, decision making and collection of public revenues from the central
government to provincial organizations, local governments, federated units, semi-
autonomous public institutions. to professional organizations and voluntary organizations
outside the administration (such as associations and foundations). At the same time,
decentralization also refers to the process of transferring authority from upper levels to
middle and lower units in an organization. In this context, "breadth of authority", "delegation of
authority", "subsidiarity in service" and "privatization" are evaluated within the modern concept
of decentralization. Decentralization is a political and administrative goal aimed at alleviating
 TRANSLATION 38

the burden of the central government, strengthening local governments, voluntary

organizations and individuals, bringing decision-making mechanisms closer to the public, and
utilizing administrative capacity efficiently and effectively. (Ery›lmaz, 2008: 227).

Decentralization in the modern sense can be considered in two ways: "internal

decentralization" and "external decentralization". Internal decentralization is the process of
transferring the authorities collected at the upper levels of an organization to the lower units
and empowering the personnel. External decentralization describes the process of
transferring powers and duties from the central government to local government units,
voluntary organizations and the market mechanism. For example, institutions outsourcing
some of their services to private sector organizations through tendering is the most
important form of external decentralization (Ery›lmaz, 2008: 228).

When examining the issue of decentralization, it is necessary to mention the principle of

"locality in service". The principle of subsidiarity in service constitutes the basic justification
of the decentralization movement. As a concept, subsidiarity is based on Latin military
terminology and means "local", "secondary" and "auxiliary". In this context, subsidiarity means
backup and secondary, which serves to strengthen an action, a behavior, a person or an
institution, supports and helps them (Çevik, 2001: 198).

This concept is expressed in our country with the words "locality", "subsidiarity" and
"closeness to the public in service". The principle of locality in service essentially aims to
strengthen the individual and the local and make them capable. This In short, the concept is
based on the understanding of "Let a service be carried out by the unit closest to it." The
basic idea underlying the principle extends from the individual to the family, from the local
community to groups/units of different sizes. Interference with political authority in
developing entities should be limited to situations where they cannot meet their various
needs.

Although the principle of localization in service has a broad meaning, it is mostly applied
to the sharing of powers and duties between the central government and local governments.
Accordingly, the central government can undertake local services if that service cannot be
fulfilled at the local level or cannot be carried out effectively. Since the aim of the principle of
locality in service is to bring the decision-making mechanism as close as possible to the
citizens, it has a fundamentally political nature. This principle is included in the European
Charter of Local Self-Government as follows: "Public responsibilities shall generally and
preferably be exercised by the authorities closest to the citizens".

The principle of locality in service has an important place on the agenda of the European
Union for various reasons. The main purpose expected from the principle of "locality" within
the Union is to determine the sharing of powers and duties between the Union and the
 TRANSLATION 39

member states. In this context, to bring decision-making mechanisms closer to citizens as

much as possible; to secure the national identities of member states and protect their rights,
to protect the autonomy of local governments, and to ensure that citizens embrace the
European integration process. In the Maastricht Treaty (1992), which is the founding element
of the European Union, the principle of subsidiarity was emphasized. The principle of
subsidiarity forms the basis for protecting the powers of subnational units and is considered
a guarantee of local autonomy.

The principle of locality in service is stated in the Municipality Law No. 5393 in our
country, "Municipal services are provided in the closest places to the citizens and with the
most appropriate methods." It is included in the provision (Art. 14).

Transparency
Transparency in administration is one of the important tools for auditing public
administration by the governed. There are various elements of transparency. The first
element is people's right to access official information and documents. This includes
monitoring management activities and obtaining all kinds of documents and information from
the management when necessary. Transparency in management also includes institutions
presenting their tender processes, activity and audit reports, transaction processes, and
service standards to the public through appropriate methods.

The right to access official information and documents constitutes the third phase of
human rights that emerges after "fundamental rights and freedoms" and "economic and
social rights". In addition, transparency means the right to access official information and
documents.

What are the elements of transparency? Is there a legal regulation

regarding transparency in our country?
Transactions outside of judicial review; documents and information regarding state
secrets, economic interests of the country and intelligence; Information and documents
regarding administrative and judicial investigations, privacy of private life, confidentiality of
communications, trade secrets, intellectual and artistic works, internal regulations and
internal opinions, information notes and recommendations, right to information. These are
the exceptions.

As a result, transparency realizes the right of citizens to access official information and
documents and ensures their participation in important public policy decisions. Thus, it
strengthens the legitimacy of the administration in terms of both inputs (access to
 TRANSLATION 40

information about policy-making processes) and outputs (decisions, policies).

Accountability
Public administrators have played very important roles in the processes of creating and
implementing public policies and making public expenditures, both due to their expertise and
permanent status, as well as the wide discretionary powers given or delegated to them. . This
situation increases the accountability of public administrators and causes new forms of
accountability to come into play. Accountability; It can be defined as the obligation to explain
the work done and expenditures, explain the reasons and justify the decisions taken in
management. Everyone who uses public authority and resources must be accountable to the
relevant authorities for their use of this authority and resources in matters such as
administrative, financial, legal, ethical and performance.

Public administrators are subject to various forms of accountability. When examining the
types of accountability, classification is generally made according to the questions
"accountability to whom" and "accountability to why". The answer to the question "Why
accountability" is related to the subject of accountability; It refers to forms such as
“managerial accountability,” “financial accountability,” “performance accountability,” or
“process accountability.” The answer to the question "To whom they are accountable"
describes the people and authorities to whom managers are accountable. These people and
authorities are senior managers, elected politicians, courts, the Court of Accounts, inspectors
and professional organizations (Bovens, 2007: 186).

According to the classification made taking into account the accountable authorities,
there are at least four categories: "organizational or hierarchical accountability", "political
accountability", "legal accountability", "accountability to professional organizations".

are collected in groups (Romzek, Dubnick, 2000: 389-392). New ones have been added to
these recently. According to the authorities to whom accountability is held, the forms of
accountability are divided into six headings as "administrative accountability", "political
accountability", "legal accountability", "accountability to the Court of Accounts", "professional
accountability" and "social accountability". It is possible to discuss it below. In places where
there is an ombudsman and ethical audit, the types of "accountability to the ombudsman" and
"accountability to the ethics committee" can be added to these forms of accountability.
Social accountability describes the mechanisms and methods by which public administrators
have responsibilities towards society in addition to classical forms of accountability.
Especially in the public administration reforms carried out since 1980, the importance of
citizen and market-centered mechanisms in the actions and transactions of public
administrators has increased. Policies such as total quality management, new public
management approach, transparency in management, ethics and honesty are elements that
 TRANSLATION 41

expand the rights of individuals and increase the effectiveness of public administration.
Public institutions' declaration of quality and service standards and their efforts to measure
the satisfaction levels of citizens regarding these, performance programs, the importance
given to the ombudsman institution, principles of ethical behavior and ethical auditing,
governance. and new mechanisms and policies such as transparency, new methods and
understandings for public administration to be accountable not only to higher authorities,
political institutions and judicial bodies, but also directly to citizens. can be evaluated as.

State the types of accountability according to the authorities and individuals to whom
accountability is given.

Participation
Participation is closely related to the concept of "governance", which has been widely
used recently. Because governance envisages participation. As explained in the First Unit,
governance is the management of individuals and non-governmental organizations based on
horizontal relations and interaction, instead of formal management approaches and
hierarchical steps in the decision-making and implementation processes in public
administration. It is the product of an approach to actively involve people in decisions and
activities.

The concept of participation has two forms: political and administrative. Political
participation refers to all kinds of behaviors and actions taken by individuals and groups to
elect political administrators at national and local levels and to enable administrators to
make decisions in line with their own wishes and interests. . Voting in elections and
participating in election campaigns and demonstrations are the most well-known forms of
political participation (Dursun, 2004: 231).

Managerial participation is one of the stages of preparing, maturing, turning into

decisions and implementation of basic decisions regarding public services, apart from
elections and election-related activities. It involves the contribution of those who will be
directly or indirectly affected by that decision to some or all of it. Through the participation
process, the administration involves citizens in the public policy-making process; listens to
their problems, demands and thoughts; It takes their thoughts and reactions into account in
the decisions it makes.

In our country, consulting stakeholders in the preparation of strategic plans and

performance programs, implementing city councils in local governments, obtaining the
opinions of relevant parties in the preparation of regulations, etc. understanding and practices
are some examples of managerial participation.
 TRANSLATION 42

Forming public policy with a participatory approach makes a significant contribution to

the development of individual-public administration relations. The first of these contributions
is that individuals

Transparency, accountability and participation are among the basic elements of good
governance.

By participating in the process of creating public policy, it embraces that policy.

Secondly, the participation of different segments of society and individuals with different
knowledge and experience in management increases the quality of public policy. Thirdly, it
also serves to increase the level of democratic education by enabling individuals to have
more knowledge about the process of creating public policy and the functioning of
administration (Köseo¤lu, 2009: 68). In short, participation not only improves the quality of
public programs and their implementation, but also serves to strengthen the legitimacy of
decisions. mak›r. The event also includes setting standards in advance; It also refers to the
ability to take action, organize and direct resources to specific purposes (Berkley and Rouse,
2004:307;Denhardt and Denhardt, 2009:226;Henry, 2007:148).

Efficiency and Effectiveness

The concepts of effectiveness and efficiency are values ​that complement each other. An
investment and a project that should not be done can be carried out efficiently, but this is not
the right thing to do in terms of effectiveness. Effectiveness, unlike productivity, is the
achievement of the right work and the right goals. If the ladder placed to climb the wall is
installed in the wrong place, the success of climbing the wall may be expressed with
efficiency, but it is not effective because it does not lead us to the result.

Public institutions often specify their desired goals and objectives in strategic plans and
performance programs and carry out various projects and activities to achieve them. They
develop various programs to measure whether these have been achieved or not. Especially
after 1980, performance programs began to be carried out in the public sector in various
countries in order to improve efficiency and effectiveness. In our country, it is a legal
obligation to make and implement a strategic plan and performance program. The purpose of
performance programs is to ensure that public institutions use their capacity and resources
sparingly, effectively and efficiently to achieve the determined targets; and to ensure that
relevant managers are held accountable for the results of the implementation.

Ethics and Integrity

Ethics and honesty are among the basic principles of politics, judiciary and public
 TRANSLATION 43

administration.

Ethics, in general terms, means values, principles and rules regarding good-bad, right-
wrong. It is sometimes used interchangeably with morality. The branch of philosophy related
to morality is called "ethics". Ethics, in a way, is the form of morality reflected in different
professions. Science ethics, political ethics, judicial ethics, artistic ethics, publishing ethics,
management ethics, press ethics, and medical ethics can be given as examples.

Ethics in public administration is a set of values, principles and rules such as impartiality,
transparency, honesty, accountability and public interest that public officials must comply
with when using public resources and authorities. These values ​and principles guide public
officials in determining how decisions should be made and how work should be done in
public administration. Ethical principles and standards often define and specify what should
happen. Ethics is the result of an understanding that aims to benefit from the inner world of
the person by appealing to his conscience in the face of the inadequacy of external controls.
Since ethical values ​and principles originate largely from society and are the product of long
experiences, they serve as a legitimacy from society to the state.

Public officials use public authority and public resources while carrying out public
services. This authority and resource must be used in accordance with the law and service
standards. For this reason, public officials are subject to the supervision of various
authorities. Considering the limitations of the forms of control such as judicial control,
administrative control, ombudsman control, financial control and political control, which are
implemented in the fight against corruption and corruption in general in every country,
especially in the 1980s. Since the beginning of the 20th century, in order to develop ethical
principles and values ​in politics, public administration and the judiciary, states, as well as
global organizations such as the United Nations, OECD and the Council of Europe, have
prepared ethical codes and included institutional regulations for this purpose. headed.

The main purpose of ethical regulations in all countries is to create a corporate culture
that adheres to/respects the principles of ethical behavior. This has three elements. First,
decisions in the institution must be taken in accordance with the principles of ethical
behavior; The second is the senior management's ability to ensure that activities are carried
out with ethical responsibility and honesty, that is, the ethical leadership role, and the third is
the existence of ethical practices that have gained the trust of the public. It is important for
individual public officials to act in accordance with ethical principles, but what is more
important is to ensure that institutions act ethically. In this respect, ethics is not only an
important tool in the fight against bribery and corruption; Moreover, it is considered an
important element of good public administration and increasing public trust in the public.

Public administration principles in our country are undoubtedly not limited to the
 TRANSLATION 44

principles we tried to explain above. These principles include public interest, non-
discrimination, impartiality and equality, law (legislation) application, etc. principles should
also be added. Among the principles we have included here, values ​such as transparency,
participation, accountability, efficiency and effectiveness, ethics and honesty are accepted as
the basic principles of good public administration. The European Union is trying to shape the
"European Administrative Space" around the values ​shared between member countries
regarding public administration. "Transparency", "effectiveness and efficiency", "participation"
and "accountability" of the "European Administrative Space" of the negotiations held during
the enlargement process of the Union. It is seen that it is carried out on the basis of principles
(Demir, 2009: 88).

GOVERNANCE PRINCIPLES IN THE CONSTITUTION

Although public administration principles are essentially a matter of management
approach, policies and service requirements rather than being legal, they have also entered
our constitutions. In particular, some principles regarding the organization, duties and
functioning of public administration have been included in all constitutions, whether narrowly
or broadly, starting from the 1876 Constitution, and therefore have become "constitutional
principles".

There are various principles in the 1982 Constitution regarding the organization and
functioning of public administration. Under the title of "Characteristics of the Republic" in the
Constitution, it is stated that "the Republic of Turkey is ... a democratic, secular and social
state of law" (art. 2). Another article states that "The State of Turkey is an indivisible whole
with its territory and nation" (art. 3). Although these principles and provisions are the
characteristics of the State, they also affect the organization, duties and functioning of public
administration.

In the Constitution, the principles and provisions that directly affect public administration
are regulated under the title "IV. Administration". The Constitution uses the term
"administration" instead of the concept of "public administration" or "management".

Integrity of Management
The first of the Constitution's principles regarding the organization and activities of
public administration is "integrity of administration" (integrity of administration). According to
the 1982 Constitution, "The administration is a whole with its establishment and duties and is
regulated by law" (Art. 123). The principle of integrity of management aims to ensure unity
and harmony among public institutions organized with various management principles and
having different statuses. At first glance, the principles of centralized management and
 TRANSLATION 45

decentralization may present a fragmented appearance among public administration

institutions due to different organizational structures and different duties and powers. The
difference between them is in terms of organization, distinction of duties and authority. In
fact, these are parts of a whole in terms of system. Each part has a systematic relationship
with the whole. "Hierarchical control" and "tutorship control" ensure both the unity and order
within the institutions and the harmony between administrations in terms of the organization
and duties of the institutions that make up the public administration. Hierarchical control
refers to the integrity and order of each public institution organized in the form of superior
and subordinate; "Guardianship control" is a form of control that emerged and is used to
ensure the integrity between the central government and decentralized institutions.

Hierarchical control and tutelage control are discussed in more detail in Unit 10.

Legal Management
The second of the management principles included in the Constitution is the principle of
"legal administration" or "legal administration". This principle is also a requirement of the
understanding of the rule of law. The Constitution stipulates that the establishment and
duties of public administration or administration should be regulated by law (Art. 123).

The Constitution stipulates that public legal entities can only be established by law or
based on the authority expressly granted by the law (Art. 123).

The legal management principle consists of two elements. Firstly, the establishment and
duties of public administration must be regulated by law. According to the Constitution, no
public institution can arise by itself or assume duties and roles on its own, it must have a
legal basis. The second element of the legal management principle is that management
transactions and activities should not be against the law. In Article 8 of the Constitution,
"Executive authority and duty are exercised and fulfilled by the President and the Council of
Ministers in accordance with the Constitution and laws." The provision points to this principle
(Kalabal›k, 2008: 26-27;Günday, 2002: 41-42).

Central Management and Decentralization

The third principle in the Constitution regarding the establishment and duties of public
administration is the principles of "central administration" and "decentralization". The
Constitution states, "The establishment and duties of the administration are based on the
principle of centralized management and decentralization." It includes both principles
together by saying (Art. 123). The Constitution does not make a provision regarding which
services should be organized according to the principle of central management, but it
 TRANSLATION 46

specifically stipulates that the establishment, duties and powers of local governments should
be regulated in accordance with the principle of "decentralization" (Art. 127). .

There are no common standards and practices in the world regarding which services
should be organized according to which principle. However, in developed democratic
countries

It can be said that the similarities are more than the differences, and the differences arise
from the historical, political, social, economic and cultural characteristics of the countries. In
our country, "administrative decentralization" is applied as the principle of decentralization
and our public administration structure is arranged accordingly. As stated before, the
principle of political decentralization is not applicable in our country. Administrative
decentralization also means "geographical" or "spatial" decentralization; It is implemented in
two ways: "functional" or "service" decentralized management. Local governments, public
economic enterprises, professional organizations that are public institutions, universities,
TRT, regulatory and supervisory institutions are structured according to the principle of
administrative decentralization.

Breadth of Authority
The fourth principle stated in the Constitution is "breadth of authority". The principle of
breadth of authority is mentioned in the Constitution for the "administration of provinces"
(Art. 126). As mentioned before, this principle emerged in order to alleviate the negative
effects of centralism. The principle of breadth of authority is valid for regional organizations
as well as for the administration of provinces. Provincial Administration Law No. 5442
regulates the powers and duties of governors. The law defines governors as "the
representative of the State and the government in the province and the representative of each
minister separately and their means of administrative and political execution" (Art. 9), in some
matters. It gave the opportunity to make and implement decisions spontaneously without
consulting the center.

To be able to list the principles that dominate public administration.

When it comes to the principles of public administration, we mean accountability,
transparency, participation, effectiveness and efficiency, legality, as well as the traditional
principles of the management process such as organization, planning, budgeting, decision-
making, prevention, coordination and control. All principles related to the functioning,
performance and responsibility of management, such as fairness and impartiality, come to
mind. Some of the principles related to public administration are related to organization, and
some are related to the functioning and responsibility of public administration. Principles
 TRANSLATION 47

such as central management, decentralization, breadth of authority and decentralization are

the principles regarding the organization of public administration. Principles such as
accountability, participation, transparency, efficiency and effectiveness, ethics and honesty,
public interest, equality and impartiality are related to the functioning, performance and
responsibility of public administration. are principles.

To be able to explain the principles of centralized management and

breadth of authority.
Centralized management means that decisions and activities regarding certain services
are carried out by the central government and the organizations within its hierarchical
structure, in order to ensure unity and integrity in management. The principle of centralized
management is divided into two: "political" and "administrative". Politically, centralized
administration means that the legislative body and the government in a country are one, and
therefore the political authority is completely concentrated in the central power, and there is
legal unity. expresses. Administratively, centralized management means that the authority to
determine policies and make decisions regarding public services is concentrated in central
bodies, and the initiative regarding their execution is in the hands of these bodies. It means.
Breadth of authority is a softened form of centralized management. In this system, some
powers of the central government regarding decision-making and execution are transferred
by law to the managers at the head of the sub-units within its hierarchical structure. Thanks
to the breadth of authority, some of the workload of central organizations is transferred to
subunits and organizations outside the capital. The breadth of authority was developed in
order to carry out the functions undertaken by the central government more efficiently and
effectively. Thanks to this authority, provincial administrators carry out a flexible application
in solving local problems, taking into account local conditions, within the framework of the
aim of efficient and effective execution of services. In our country, the province is one of the
primary units where the breadth of authority is exercised. The Constitution stipulates that the
administration of provinces will be based on the principle of breadth of authority. The
governor carries out his activities within the scope of his authority in some areas, as the
representative of the state and the government in the province and as the representative of
each minister and their executive tool. The governor, who is at the head of the provinces, can
make decisions on some issues on his own and implement them without consulting the
center. The principle of breadth of authority is not granted to district governors.

To summarize the features and types of the principle of

decentralization.
Decentralization is the use of some of the political and administrative powers in a country
 TRANSLATION 48

by authorities other than the central government. Decentralization is divided into two:
"political" and "administrative". Political decentralization is the distribution of political power
between the central government and regional government units. In this system, political
authority was not concentrated at the center, but was shared among various units. Regional
government units such as province, republic, canton and state, which emerged with the
principle of political decentralization, have a part of sovereignty. Regional government units
are given powers in some legislative and executive matters. Administrative decentralization is
the execution of local public services and some economic, commercial, cultural and technical
functions by public legal entities outside the hierarchical structure of the central government.
These public legal entities represent either the people living in a certain geographical region
or certain services (functions) such as education, trade, industry and culture. The principle of
administrative decentralization is implemented in two ways: "functional" (service) and
"geographic" decentralization. Functional (service) decentralization is the decentralization of
certain functions.

It is taken from the central government and transferred to autonomous institutions. In

our country, institutions such as universities, public economic enterprises, chambers of
commerce and industry, bar associations, medical associations, chambers of architects and
engineers are among the leading institutions that emerged from the principle of functional
decentralization. Geographical or spatial decentralization means that the authority to carry
out some administrative tasks is carried out within a certain geographical area, such as a
region, province, municipality or village, which is not affiliated with the central government
and whose decision-making bodies are determined by the votes of the voters. It is given to
limited administrations. Organizations that emerged with the principle of administrative
decentralization have an autonomous status. While in centralized management, those who
benefit from the service cannot participate in decisions on service-related issues and are
rather in a passive state, they become active and participatory with administrative
decentralization. Administrative decentralization organizations have independent legal
entities. Administrative decentralization organizations have their own budgets.
Administratively, decentralized organizations are managed by their own bodies. These bodies
are generally determined by election. The relationship between the central government and
local government organizations is one of "administrative tutelage". Administrative
decentralization organizations are established either directly by law or based on an authority
granted by law.

To summarize the principles of decentralization and locality in

service.
Decentralization is a key concept in central government-local government relations. In
the classical sense, decentralization refers to the transfer of authority, duty and resources
 TRANSLATION 49

from the central government to local governments. Decentralization in the modern sense
means delegating some of the administrative powers such as planning, decision making and
collection of public revenues from the central government to provincial organizations, local
governments, federated units and semi-autonomous public institutions. organizations and
voluntary organizations outside the administration (such as associations and foundations).
Decentralization in the modern sense can be considered in two ways: "internal
decentralization" and "external decentralization". Internal decentralization is the process of
transferring the authorities collected at the upper levels of an organization to the lower units
and empowering the personnel. External decentralization describes the process of
transferring powers and duties from the central government to local government units,
voluntary organizations and the market mechanism. The principle of subsidiarity in service
constitutes the basic justification of the decentralization movement. As a concept,
subsidiarity originates from Latin military terminology and means "local", "secondary" and
"auxiliary". In this context, subsidiarity means backup and secondary, which serves to
strengthen an action, a behavior, a person or an institution, supports and helps them. This
concept is expressed in our country with the words "locality", "subsidiarity" and "closeness to
the public in service". The principle of locality in service essentially aims to strengthen the
individual and the local and make them capable. This In short, the concept is based on the
understanding of "a service should be carried out by the unit closest to it." The basic idea
underlying the principle extends from the individual to the family, from the local community
to groups/units of various sizes. Interference with political authority in functioning entities
should be limited to situations where they cannot meet their various needs. Although the
principle of subsidiarity in service has a broad meaning, it is mostly between the central
government and local governments. It is applied in the sharing of powers and duties within
the organization.

To be able to define the concepts of transparency and

accountability.
Transparency in administration is one of the important tools for auditing public
administration by the governed. There are various elements of transparency. The first
element is people's right to access official information and documents. This includes
monitoring management activities and obtaining all kinds of documents and information from
the management when necessary. Transparency in management also includes providing
institutions' tender processes, activity and audit reports, transaction processes, and service
standards to the public through appropriate methods. The right to access official information
and documents constitutes the third phase of human rights that emerges after "fundamental
rights and freedoms" and "economic and social rights". Transparency is not just the right to
access official information and documents. The second element of transparency is the right
to monitor the meetings of public policy-producing bodies and the fact that important
 TRANSLATION 50

projects and decisions are taken by consulting the public. Accountability; It can be defined as
the obligation to explain, explain and justify the decisions taken, work done and expenditures
in management. Everyone who uses public authority and resources must be accountable to
the relevant authorities for their use of this authority and resources in matters such as
administrative, financial, legal, ethical and performance. Public administrators are subject to
various forms of accountability. When examining the types of accountability, classification is
generally made according to the questions "accountability to whom" and "why to be
accountable". The answer to the question "Why accountability" is related to the subject of
accountability; It refers to forms such as “managerial accountability,” “financial
accountability,” “performance accountability,” or “process accountability.” The answer to the
question "To whom are they accountable" describes the people and authorities to whom
managers are accountable. These persons and authorities are senior managers, elected
politicians, courts, Court of Accounts, ombudsman, inspectors and professional
organizations.

To be able to explain the concepts of participation, efficiency,

effectiveness and ethics.
The concept of participation has two forms: political and administrative. Political
participation is any behavior that individuals and groups show to elect their political leaders at
national and local levels and to enable them to make decisions in line with their own wishes
and interests. and expresses action. Voting in elections and participating in election
campaigns and demonstrations are the most well-known forms of political participation.
Managerial participation is one of the stages of preparing and maturing basic decisions
regarding public services, turning them into decisions and implementing these decisions,
apart from elections and election-related activities, It includes the contribution of those who
will be directly or indirectly affected by that decision to some or all of it. Through the
participation process, the administration involves citizens in the public policy-making
process; listens to their problems, demands and thoughts; It takes their thoughts and
reactions into account in the decisions it makes. Productivity indicates the relationship
between inputs and outputs related to the production of a good or service. Efficiency is
accomplishing a task using the least possible resources/inputs (manpower, money,
equipment, time) or producing more goods and services with existing resources. Calculating
the unit cost of a job and performing the job at the lowest cost is expressed by the concept of
efficiency. Activity is the achievement of the goals set for a business or program/project.
Effectiveness is about setting the right goals and achieving them and is a result-oriented
concept. In other words, effectiveness is doing the right things well and on time. The event
also includes setting standards in advance; It also refers to the ability to take action, organize
and direct resources to specific purposes. The concepts of effectiveness and efficiency are
values ​that complement each other. Ethics in public administration is a set of values,
 TRANSLATION 51

principles and rules such as impartiality, transparency, honesty, accountability and public
interest that public officials must comply with when using public resources and powers.
These values ​and principles guide public officials in determining how decisions should be
made and how work should be done in public administration. Ethical principles and standards
often define and specify what should happen. Ethics is the result of an understanding that
aims to benefit from the inner world of the person by appealing to his conscience in the face
of the insufficiency of external controls. Since ethical values ​and principles originate largely
from society and are the product of long experiences, they serve as a legitimacy from society
to the state.

To be able to determine the management principles included in the

Constitution.
There are various principles in the 1982 Constitution regarding the organization and
functioning of public administration. Under the title of "Characteristics of the Republic" in the
Constitution, it is stated that "the Republic of Turkey is... a democratic, secular and social
state of law" (art. 2). In another article, "The State of Turkey is an indivisible whole with its
territory and nation." provision (art. 3) is included. Although these principles and provisions
are the characteristics of the State, they also affect the organization, duties and functioning
of public administration. In the Constitution, the principles and provisions that directly affect
public administration are regulated under the title "IV. Administration". The principles set out
in the Constitution are the principles of "integrity of administration", "legal administration",
"central administration and decentralization" and "breadth of authority".

Let's Test Ourselves

1. e If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Principles Governing Public Administration"
section.

b
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Principles Governing Public Administration" section.

D
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Centralized Management" section. 4. a If your
answer is wrong, re-read the "Decentralization" section. 5. a If your answer is wrong, re-read
the "Decentralization" section.
 TRANSLATION 52

D
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Governance Principles in the Constitution" section.
7. c If your answer is incorrect, re-read the "Accountability" section.

to
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Efficiency and Effectiveness" section.

D
If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Governance Principles in the Constitution" section.
10. b If your answer is wrong, re-read the "Governance Principles in the Constitution" section.

Your Turn Answer Key

It's Your Turn 1 Some of the principles related to public administration are related to
organization, and some are related to the functioning and responsibility of public
administration. Principles such as central management, decentralization, breadth of authority
and decentralization are the basic principles regarding the organization of public
administration. Central administration is divided into two as "political central administration"
and "administrative central administration". Decentralization is implemented in two ways:
"political decentralization" and "administrative decentralization". There are two types of
administrative decentralization: "functional decentralization" and "geographic
decentralization".

It's Your Turn 7

According to the authorities to whom one is accountable, the forms of accountability are
"administrative accountability" (to higher authorities, tutelage authorities), "political
accountability" (to political persons and institutions), "legal accountability" (to judicial
authorities). It is possible to discuss it under six headings: "accountability to the Court of
Accounts", "professional accountability" (to professional organizations) and "social
accountability" (to society). In places where there is an ombudsman and an ethics board, the
types of "accountability to the ombudsman" and "accountability to the ethics board" can also
be added to these forms of accountability. Güler, Birgül Ayman. (2009). Governance of
Turkey: Structure. Ankara: ‹mge Bookstore. Günday, Metin. (2002). Administrative Law. 5th
Edition, Ankara: ‹maj Publishing. Brave, fieref. (2002). Management Law. 16th Edition, Ankara:
Turhan Kitabevi. Henry, Nicholas. (2007). Public Administration and Public Affairs. Tenth
 TRANSLATION 53

edition, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. . Politics. Ankara: Address Publications. The
crowd, Halil. (2008) (Hughes, 1994). The management approach that survived until the
modern period, both in Asia, Europe and the USA, had characteristics that were personal,
traditional, dispersed, unsystematic and generally not based on rules. With modern
bureaucracy, a structure with hierarchical, impersonal, rational, success-oriented and
universal features has developed, and the discipline of public administration has begun to
emerge to examine this new structure in the modern sense.

After the 1850s, modern public administration organization began to be shaped by many
official regulations in both European countries and the USA. Especially, as the public
bureaucracy has become a professional structure and a rational and law-based system has
begun to be established, today's current public administration

Development of Public Administration Science

These were the first steps of the organization of the government. Today, although the
characteristics of the bureaucratic structures of that period are criticized and alternatives are
put forward with the new public management approach, the modern public sector that
matured in the period that can be called the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the
20th century. management features still form the essence of existing structures.

The emergence of public administration as a branch of science or discipline dates back

to the mid-19th century. However, different opinions have been put forward about which
country the founders of public administration came from. It is said that the first studies on
public administration in Europe began with the book Principles of Public Administration
published in France by Charles Jean Bonnin in 1812. In this respect, Bonnin can be seen as
the first person to write about public administration (Karasu, 2004). On the other hand, the
emergence of public administration was attributed to the German thinker Lorenz von Stein,
who suggested that public administration science should be a new disciplinary field in
Germany based on disciplines such as political science, sociology, administrative law and
public finance. It can be accepted that he was one of the pioneers who contributed to the

When did public administration emerge and who were its pioneers?
In the USA, Woodrow Wilson is considered the founder of public administration with his
article "Analysis of Management" published in 1887. Wilson, who was later elected to the US
Presidency, stated that the aim of his administration studies was to determine what and how
successfully public institutions and organizations (public administration) were doing. and
secondly, to examine how they provide the most service at the least cost. Wilson stated that
the distinction between management and politics is important, that public and private
 TRANSLATION 54

organizations should be examined comparatively, and that the effectiveness of public

services can be determined by improving management techniques and helping employees.
He stated that it should be developed through education and benefit-based evaluation
(Wilson, 1997). With these views, Wilson made significant contributions to the formation and
development of public administration.

Frank J. Goodnow is another American political scientist who contributed to the

formation of the public administration discipline. Goodnow was among the founders of the
American Political Science Association and served as the first president of this association.
In his work titled Politics and Management, published in 1900, Goodnow argued that politics
(legislative) and administration (executive-administration) should be considered as separate
fields and should be examined. According to Goodnow, politics makes decisions and
management implements the decisions of politics as a technical service tool. This debate,
initiated by Goodnow, is an issue that continues to this day and still maintains its currency.

CLASSICAL PERIOD IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE OF

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
During this period, important studies were carried out on the organizational structures
and functioning of industrial enterprises and public institutions. "Principles of Scientific
Management" published by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1997) in 1911, "The Theory of
Bureaucracy" published by Max Weber (1947) in 1920, Henri Fayol (1973) Fayol's ( , 2005
"General and Industrial Management" published in 1916, "Management Science" compiled by
Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (1997) in 1937 Books titled "Articles on" can be counted
among the works that have a very important role in the development of the public
administration discipline.

Although it is thought that the concept of scientific management belongs to Frederick W.

Taylor, in fact the owner of this concept is Taylor's friend Louis D. Brandeis. On the other
hand, studies on public administration were continuing in Europe during the same period.
Fayol (1973Fayol ( , 2005), who is French, was not actually a management scientist, but an
industrialist working in the mining industry. He based his views on his managerial
experiences, called management theory or management science, on General and Industrial
Management (General and Industrial Management). He published the book titled General and
Industrial Management in France in 1916. According to Fayol, management has principles
that can be applied everywhere. These principles, which he collected under fourteen titles.
These are: Division of labor, authority, discipline, unity of command, unity of management,
superiority of general interests over special interests, centralism, chain of authority, job
reward, equity, stability in the employment of personnel, spirit of initiative and unity (Fayol,
1973:102).The five basic management elements are: Planning, Organizing, Directing, Co-
 TRANSLATION 55

Direction and Control (PÖ-YED).Fayol stated that his ideas about management are effective in
the private or public sector. He accepted that it would not make any difference to the public
administration and that management activities were universal. In some books written on
public administration in Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s and taught at universities, Fayol's
principles were followed. i is seen (Tortop et al. 2005;Öztekin, 2003;Ayd›n, 2008).

Henri Fayol's management theory or the functions or principles of management, one of

the important classical management approaches, was later developed by Gulick and Urwick.
The most important point that Gulick and Urwick emphasized in the compilation book titled
"Articles on Management Science", which they edited and published in 1937, is that, as Fayol
said, management activity takes place in public administration or private sector. It was the
idea that there would not be much difference and that the management principles were
general. Luther Gulick (1997) touched on this point while explaining the organization in his
chapter "Notes on Organizational Theory" in this book and talked about the universal
principles of management without distinguishing between private or public organizations.
Gulick increased Fayol's five management functions to seven and claimed that these
principles were universal. Management process functions called POSDCORB (planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting).

What are the names of those who put forward classical approaches
in explaining public administration and their works?
Luther Gulick (1997:81) states that it is essential for all large and complex organizations
to have a division of labor among the people they employ, and when this is done, believes that
the best results will be achieved. Therefore, according to Gulick, division of labor is the basis
of an organization. Moreover, this division of labor must be based on coordination within the
organization. While Gulick (1997:81-83) explains in detail how to do division of labor and
coordination, he also explains how to determine a manager's span of control within the
organization, time and work. He stated that importance should be given to points such as the
size of the project. As a result, management activity is a process consisting of some
functions. The most important role in performing these functions falls to the executive. As
will be mentioned below, Gulick's views on the principles of management were heavily
criticized, especially by Herbert Simon, in the 1940s.

On the other hand, German thinker Max Weber explained his views on bureaucracy,
especially regarding the organizational structure in public administration, not with a critical
approach but rather with a descriptive method. Weber's aim seems to be to give a definition
of the complex management structure in modern industrial society. While explaining
bureaucracy, Weber tried to list and explain some of the features that he thought this
bureaucracy had. According to Weber, a modern management structure is one in which there
 TRANSLATION 56

is specialization, the hierarchy of duties is determined, the transactions of the public

bureaucracy are secret, there is a separation of private life and business life, and there is a
permanent management structure. It is a structure where civil servants are employed, regular
salaries are paid, and records of all transactions are kept. In this sense, it would not be wrong
to say that the first person who best defined and discussed modern bureaucracy was Max
Weber.

Also during this period, in the USA in 1912, William F. Willoughby was a member of the
Taft Commission, which called for creating a public budget as one of the important areas of
public administration. Willoughby played an important role in the passage of the Budget and
Accounting Law in 1921. Willioughby revealed the main elements of creating a public budget
in his book Budget Reform Movement in the USA, which he published in 1918. On the other
hand, Leonardo D. White published the first public administration textbook, Introduction to
Public Administration Review, in the USA in 1926. The book of White, an academician who
played an important role in establishing the field of public administration as a separate
discipline, has been taught in the USA for years (Shaftriz and Hyde, 1997:5).

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR APPROACH IN THE DEVELOPMENT

OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SCIENCE
Formal and rational explanations of the public or private management mechanism
(organization) made with traditional approaches have concentrated only on the visible
structural dimension of the organizations. Therefore, humans are accepted as a part of this
mechanism.

Span of Control: The number of subordinates that a manager can effectively supervise.

In this context, behaviorist views emerged that suggest that management is not only a
formal bureaucratic structure, but also that organizations have natural (informal) aspects and
thus importance should be given to the social capacity of the organization. It is gone. At this
point, the sociological and social psychological dimensions of the organization, in other
words, the behavior of people in an organization and their relationships with other people,
should be taken into consideration in organizational descriptions. The idea that the
management mechanism consists of people and their natural relationships and human
behavior, rather than formal relationships, became widespread after the 1930s. Although her
name is not well known, the first person to draw attention to this issue with her article in 1926
was Mary Parker Follett. In his article titled "Giving Orders", Follett states that the
management mechanism is not just a structure where orders are given and these orders are
fulfilled, and that the participation and cooperation of employees in organizations is essential.
It has been revealed that there is a need for needles. According to Follett, bureaucratic
 TRANSLATION 57

structures are actually social entities and the behavior and attitudes of employees are very
important for successful management. Follett's contribution to both public administration
and management in general can be summarized in the following words. Management activity
is not the use of power over someone, but the use of power with someone (Follett, 1997).

Chester Barnard's work titled "Functions of the Executive" published in 1938 is also very
important in this context. Chester Barnard (1997) stated that the formal explanations put
forward by classical approaches are insufficient in explaining an organization, and that the
natural (informal) dimension of organizations is also important. He said that it should be
taken into consideration. Barnard devoted a chapter of this book to natural organizations and
their connections with formal organizations. Barnard saw organizations as systems in which
everyone works together. The basic function of top management is to establish and maintain
a working balance between the needs of the organization and the needs of its employees. To
achieve this, organizational management must be aware of and take into account the
interdependent formal and natural structures of the organization. Thus, Barnard is one of the
important people, after Follett, who said that the focus should be on the behavior and
relationships of individuals in organizations. As a result, Barnard emphasizes that the natural
relationship network of the organization is as important as its formal relationship network in
achieving the goals of an organization, whether it is a public institution or a private company,
and that the top management should take both of these into consideration. He stated that the
organization should be managed by establishing a balance between them.

What has the behavioral approach brought to the development of

public administration? What are their claims?
Again, one of the most important behavioral studies is the Human Relations Theory,
which stands out as the human relations approach and is based on a field study, put forward
under the leadership of Elton Mayo. This approach was initiated by a group of scientists in
1924, when Elton Mayo took over in 1927, and completed in 1932. n Based on a study
conducted at the factories of the Western Hawthorne Electric Company in Chicago. This
research is often seen as pioneering the revolution in industrial management sociology. The
most important point revealed by the Hawthorne research is that it enabled the main
emphasis in organization theory to shift towards recognizing the importance of human
relations. Thus, Hawthorne research conducted under the leadership of Elton Mayo revealed
that organizations should be examined as living social structures. For this reason, it has been
suggested that people are the most important element in the organization and that people
should be considered from a social perspective. Accordingly, the most important factor
regarding the amount of work done is not physical capacity but social capacity. Because
Hawthorne studies
 TRANSLATION 58

It was found that social conditions were more effective on the employee than the
physical conditions aimed by the research. It has been observed that employees exhibit group
behavior within an organization not due to their own personal behavior, but under the
influence of group psychology.

After Follett, Barnard and Mayo, human-oriented behavioral approaches in management

have been introduced successively in the context of human resources management,
especially in increasing the willingness of employees to work. It has been revealed. Some
examples of these motivation theories are: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1997), Herzberg's
Motivation Hygiene Theory (1973), McGregor's Theory X and Y (1973, Argyris's Immaturity-
Maturity Theory and Mixed Model (1973).

You can find more comprehensive information about Management

Theories in Atilla Baransel's book, The Evolution of Contemporary
Management Thought: Classical, Neo-Classical Management and
Organizational Theories (Istanbul University Publications, Istanbul,
1979).

UNDERSTANDING OF POLITICS-MANAGEMENT COOPERATION

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, early pioneers of public administration such as
Woodrow Wilson and Frank J. Goodnow stated that politics and administration were separate
fields. However, in the 1940s, opinions emerged in public administration studies that the
distinction between politics and management was not very valid. Herbert Simon (1997:127-
141), who claimed that the distinction between politics and administration is not very
meaningful and that the process covers both areas, published a book in Public in 1946. He
published his article titled 'Proverbs of Administration' in the Administration Review
magazine. In this article, he heavily criticized the views of Gulick, one of the traditional
approaches. Simon said that management actually consists of a decision-making process
and therefore management can be explained by the administrative behavior shown in this
decision-making process. He stated that the views put forward in the principles listed by
Gulick do not reflect the facts at all, but are rather wishes. Simon discussed the forms of
behavior revealed during the decision-making process, based especially on Chester Barnard's
views, and used the forms of administrative behavior in explaining the management
mechanism. drew attention to its importance. Apart from Herbert Simon, public
administrators such as Paul Appelby and Dwight Waldo also stated that the distinction
between politics and administration is not valid and that they should be examined together. In
his book "Great Democracy", written in 1945, Paul Appleby emphasizes that insisting that
 TRANSLATION 59

there is a theoretical distinction between politics and administration in public administration

decision-making processes is not in line with the facts. ›r. According to Appleby, the
distinction between politics and administration does not have much meaning in public
administration studies and this is an imaginary idea. Because the presence of politics in
public administration practices is a must for the control of bureaucratic power. Appleby
(1997) ends his book with the following statement: "Public administration is different because
public administration is politics". Simon (1916Simon ( -2001

What does politics-administration unity mean in public

administration analysis?
Robert Dahl discussed the discipline of public administration in his article titled "The
Science of Public Administration", which he wrote in 1947. Dahl thinks that public
administration theorists working in this developing field should also be considered political
scientists. The science of public administration must recognize the complexity of human
behavior, deal with questions of normative values ​regarding administrative situations, and
examine the relationship between itself (public administration) and its social environment.
should be taken into consideration. This idea began to be accepted in the following years
(Shafrtiz and Hyde, 1997).

One of the people who is not well known in the field of public administration but can be
considered the most important public administrator is Dwight Waldo. Waldo brought together
democratic values ​and the philosophy of public administration in his book "Administrative
State", which he wrote in 1948, which was derived from his doctoral thesis and was later
republished in 1984. He is a scientist who brought Waldo, who argues that public
administration should be examined in the context of culture, argues that the distinction
between politics and administration is not possible and that public administration
mechanisms are related to politics, value system and It has been demonstrated that it cannot
be examined properly without taking into consideration concepts such as culture.

It can be said that after the 1950s, management mechanisms began to be examined as a
whole, together with their environment, from a more comprehensive perspective. Particularly
the efforts to apply the system approach to political structures and management
mechanisms indicate that bureaucratic structures are structures related to their environment
and this point should be taken into consideration when examining them. It means that it will
be useful. In particular, the studies put forward by Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn in their book
"Social Psychology of Organizations" published in 1966, are in line with David Easton's (1957,
1965, The explanations of the political system can be called the contingency approach in
Burns and Stalker's books published in 1961, which are based on a field study. Their studies
can be examples of these.
 TRANSLATION 60

As discussed above, after the 1940s, the idea that the discipline of public administration
should not only be a branch of science that examines the management mechanism but also a
branch of science that examines politics became public in the 1970s. He contributed to
policy studies. Public policy studies gained momentum in this period, and this approach
examined politics and management together by viewing the process in public administration
as a whole (Çevik and Demirci, 2008). Public policy studies increased during this period,
especially in the USA, England and France, but decreased in the 1990s. However, in recent
years, the field of public policy has expanded again in the USA and even the names of public
administration departments in many universities have begun to be changed to public policy
and management.

NEW TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

SCIENCE: NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT AND NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, new views on public administration discipline began to
emerge. One of the most notable studies is H. George Frederickson's article "Towards a New
Public Administration". In this article, Frederickson named the new public management
movement as second generation behaviorism. With this approach, public administration
should be carried out in a way that gives more importance to the needs of the public, is more
customer- and citizen-oriented, is more normative, and is still based on more scientific
principles. During this period, Frederickson and others

New public management theorists began to emphasize organizational culture and

behavior in the 1970s (Shafrtiz and Hyde, 1997). This period is also known as the period when
the state transformed into a growing, expanding and even cumbersome structure after the
Second World War. Therefore, public administration mechanisms that were thought to have
become inoperable were criticized and the role of the state was opened to discussion. In this
respect, the criticisms of the social state from both new liberals, new right thought and public
choice theorists have led towards a new understanding of public administration, Bilgiç, 2008.

The steps taken by the changing governments in the USA and England accelerated the
emergence of this approach. David Osborne and Ted Gaebler (1992) systematized the new
understanding of public management with their book titled "The Reinvention of Public
Administration". According to this understanding, public administration should increase
competition in service delivery. Inspection should be done mostly by the public and the public.
A performance-based management approach should be established. Public institutions must
have a strategic management approach. Thus, goals and objectives should be the main
determinant. Public institutions should use private sector techniques and consider citizens as
customers. Thus, it must meet customers' expectations and respond to their demands in the
services it offers. Public institutions should consider operating like private companies and
 TRANSLATION 61

finance public services through earnings whenever possible. The public economy should be
operated like a market economy. The state should shrink as much as possible and take
measures to mobilize other sectors so that the potential of voluntary organizations and the
private sector in providing public services can be used more efficiently. Public administration
should adopt participatory management. Additionally, the possibility of localization should be
explored as much as possible in the organization of public administration. The new public
management approach is based on creating a public administration that is transparent,
accountable, prioritizes performance, has a strategic vision, and is based on efficiency and
effectiveness of public institutions and organizations. , Bilgiç, 2008.

However, after nearly a quarter of a century of experience, the problems that emerged in
the countries that implemented the new public management approach caused the views to
be re-evaluated, especially the social dimension of the new public management practices.
The thought that he neglected it became dominant. In particular, turning citizens into
customers is the most important point of criticism. In this context, Janet Denhardt and Robert
Denhardt (2000Denhardt ( , 2001Denhardt ( , 2003aDenhardt ( , 2003b)) who put forward the
new public service approach, discussed it and carried out studies in this field can be given as
examples. These people have common Their published studies indicate that the new public
service approach and a new line in public administration have begun to emerge. Denhardt and
Denhardt define the new public management approach. They say that it provides public
administrators with an entrepreneurial vision and plays an important role in privatized public
administration and the adoption of private sector values ​and practices. He puts it forward by
comparing it with the understanding of public administration and generally seems to be more
right in discussions compared to classical public administration.

On the other hand, when Denhardt and Denhardt say new public service, they are talking
about a movement based on democratic citizenship, democratic community, civil society,
organizational humanity and discourse. These authors (Denhardt and Denhardt, 2000)
propose seven principles to reveal the role of the public official, which is to help citizens and
protect their common interests rather than to control and direct society.

1. The duty of a public official is to serve society and citizens, not to direct them. 2.
Public interest is a goal, not an intermediate product. 3. The public servant thinks strategically
but acts democratically. 4. Public officials serve citizens, not customers. 5. Ensuring
accountability is not simple. Public officials should be more careful than private sector
employees and at the same time, they should protect the constitution, relevant legal
regulations, professional standards, cultural values ​and citizen interests. 6. Value should be
given not only to productivity and efficiency, but also to humans. 7. Public officials should
value citizenship and public service more than entrepreneurship. The public good is better
served by public officials and citizens who are committed to doing meaningful work for
society, rather than by entrepreneurs who try to spend government money as if it were their
 TRANSLATION 62

own. As a result, when we look at the development of public administration in the USA and
Europe in general, it can be seen that it has gone through a process of approximately two
centuries. Especially the last century of this process has witnessed significant changes in the
emergence, shaping and development of public administration science. Public administration
has become a separate branch of science rather than being a part of political science or
administrative law. Although it is seen that a distinction was made between politics and
administration, especially in the period when liberal thought was dominant, public
administration, as in all social sciences, only includes administrative mechanisms. and it is
not a branch of science that technically examines their functioning; It has developed as a
discipline that also takes into account the social, political, economic and cultural values ​of the
society. Now, it would be useful to briefly discuss the emergence of public administration as
a branch of science in Turkey. .

DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SCIENCE IN TURKEY

For more detailed information about the development of public administration science in
the world and in Turkey, see Prof.Dr. It can be accessed from Bilal Ery›lmaz's book Public
Administration (Lecturer Yay›nc›l›k, Ankara, 2011).

When we look at the public administration discipline literature in Turkey, it is seen that
there are not many studies except for recent years. Those who conduct public administration
studies in Turkey in line with the approaches of Henri Fayol and Gulick-Urwick duo generally
examine the process by explaining the functions of planning, organizing, directing,
coordination and control (PÖYED) under the name of management science ( Tortop et al.,
2005;Öztekin, 2002;Ayd›n, 2008). On the other hand, those who deal with public
administration from a structural perspective and in politics-administration unity, have a more
comprehensive perspective and look at the issue in terms of structures rather than functions.
Öktem and Ömürgönülflen, 2004;Polato¤lu, 2003;Aykaç et al., 2003;Y›lmaz and Ökmen,
2004). There are a few significant studies in the field of public administration within the
politics-administration association (Heper, 1973(Heper, , 1977(Heper, , 1985Çevik, 2007).
Recently, new public management approach In parallel, studies have begun to come to the
fore (Balc› et al., 2008;Acar and Özgür, 2003;Parlak, 2008).

You can access publications and opinions regarding the field of

public administration at Ankara University Department of Political
Sciences.
It can be accessed from the website http://kamyon.politics.ankara.edu.tr/ managed by
the Faculty of Public Administration Department.
 TRANSLATION 63

As a result, public administration in Turkey has made significant progress in becoming a

separate discipline. However, in general, this development continued under the influence of
European and US public administration literature and a distinctive public administration
discipline has not developed in Turkey.

VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF BUREAUCRACY

When we are sent from one government office to another without being able to obtain
the information we want or without completing the transaction, when we are rejected on the
grounds that one of the various documents is missing or filled out incorrectly, or when many
managers and staff are asked for a job. When we stand in line for our work when the
signature of the officer is required, we always think of the bureaucracy and criticize it.
Bureaucracy, in the language of the public, is a concept that generally indicates
dissatisfaction, such as "inefficiency", "slow pace of work", "rule-based" and "red tape". In
Turkish, bureaucracy is generally used to mean paperwork. The word bureaucracy is derived
from the Latin words "burra" and Greek "kratos". "Burra", dark fabric used to cover tables;
"kratos" means sovereignty and management. Accordingly, bureaucracy means "the
domination of desks or offices". In the period when this concept emerged, the tables where
civil servants served were covered with a dark fabric. In fact, what is meant by this analogy,
Bureaucracy, is the increasing dominance of civil servants over society. This sovereignty of
civil servants was characterized by a tool (writing desk) or place (office) in which they carried
out their service (Ery›lmaz, 2010: 214;Fiflek, 2005:102). The concept of bureaucracy was first
used in France in 1745 by the physiocratic economist Vincent de Gournay (1712-1759), who
was the minister of commerce at the time.

Bureaucracy is a multifaceted concept and is used in different meanings. The different

meanings of bureaucracy arise from different approaches to defining its features. Two basic
approaches can be mentioned on this issue. Some of them define and analyze bureaucracy
by taking into account its structural features (division of labor, hierarchy, large scale, etc.).
Some of them examine it based on its behavioral characteristics (red tape, rigidity,
impartiality, etc.). Undoubtedly, these two aspects of bureaucracy must be considered
together. First, it is necessary to start the subject by stating the different meanings of
bureaucracy.

What are the approaches to definitions and studies regarding

bureaucracy?

Red Tape and Inefficiency

 TRANSLATION 64

Bureaucracy has a rather negative and derogatory meaning in the eyes of society.
Bureaucracy is a pejorative (derogatory and derogatory) concept used to describe the
negativities of organizations and the abuse of official authority. In this sense, bureaucracy
includes "inefficiency", "slow pace of work", "rule-based", "red tape", "avoidance of
responsibility", "reluctance to delegate authority", "excessive dependence on authority". These
are negative behaviors and actions such as "lukewarm". These negative behaviors are also
described as "bureaucracy disease" or "bureaucratism". Webster's dictionary gives
bureaucracy meanings such as disregarding human needs, the tendency to delegate
decisions to superiors, and bogging things down with red tape. In the Turkish Dictionary of
the Turkish Language Association, the meanings of the word "bureaucracy" are "stationery"
and "public administration".

Rational Organization
Bureaucracy is a form of organization with certain characteristics. This definition
emerged with the German social scientist Max Weber (1864-1920). The dominant
understanding of bureaucracy is centered around Weber's definition. According to Weber,
bureaucracy is a form of organization consisting of division of labor, hierarchy of authority,
written rules, filing of correspondence and activities, impersonality, a disciplined structure and
official positions. In this sense, bureaucracy is rational. It is a form of organization that is
technically superior to other forms of organization. Bureaucracy consists of fixed offices
(departments) and official authorities. The duties, powers and authority of each office are
regulated by formal rules; therefore, it has a stable and orderly system of operation.
Managements that are interested in increasing efficiency must give importance to these
organizational features. The bureaucrat is expected to act according to the rules in
bureaucracy. The office also works according to the rules; human factors are not taken into
account when the rules are applied to the events.

As a rule, patronage and favoritism do not occur in a bureaucratic organizational

structure (Ery›lmaz, 2010:215).

Public administration
The concept of bureaucracy is often used synonymously with "public administration".
Bureaucracy describes the administrative structure and its actions, which are a part of the
political system. In this sense, bureaucracy means performing various administrative duties
in state administration.

It is the name given to the whole of organizations managed by governments and

consisting of various public institutions and their actions-transactions. In this sense,
 TRANSLATION 65

bureaucracy refers to public sector organizations and their management rather than private
sector organizations. Public administration is the aspect of the state that operates routinely
and is reflected to the public on a daily basis. Therefore, bureaucracy is the point where the
state is embodied in the eyes of the people and where they are in contact. In this respect, the
concept of bureaucracy is also given the meaning of "state administration".

Some authors call a part of public administration and the procedure implemented there
bureaucracy. This section consists of classical state institutions that are non-profit, financed
by state aid, and work directly for the public benefit. Profit-oriented economic state
enterprises are considered outside the scope of this concept (Niskanen, 1973: 8-13).

Management by Civil Servants

Bureaucracy has also been defined as a form of government in which authority is largely
in the hands of civil servants who come to power through appointment. In this context,
bureaucracy is a form of government such as "democracy", "aristocracy" and "monarchy" and
can be compared with them. This meaning of bureaucracy originally dates back to the 18th
century French statesman and thinker Vincent de Gournay (1712-1759). With the concept of
bureaucracy, Gournay tried to add a fourth (management by civil servants) to the long-known
forms of administration and tried to distinguish the new form of administration from the
others by taking into account the managerial element (civil servants). . Gournay used the
concept of bureaucracy mostly in a negative sense. John Stuart Mill also defines bureaucracy
as a system in which state affairs are in the hands of professional managers. Mill also calls
the ruling class consisting of civil servants bureaucracy (Mill, 1997: 221-222).

Is bureaucracy a form of government?

Bureaucracy, in the sense of rule by civil servants, is a concept used to contrast it with
the system of representative government, which is rule by elected politicians. In addition, the
concept of bureaucracy is used to describe a management phenomenon in which there is a
representative government system, but in this government system the dominant authority is
in the hands of appointed officials, not in the hands of elected politicians. . Nowadays, it
seems that more emphasis is placed on this aspect of bureaucracy.

Large Structured Organizations and Modern Society

Finally, bureaucracy is a concept used to describe the development of large-structured
organizations in society. Bureaucratization has developed as a dominant feature not only in
the state since the 19th century, but also in political parties, religious institutions, the judiciary
 TRANSLATION 66

and industry. Thus, society has become characterized by organizations that emerge and
operate in every field. In short, organizational society has started to be talked about. These
organizations resulted in the bureaucratization of not only politics, administration, judiciary
and production affairs, but also social and cultural relations. It should also be emphasized
that not only large-structured organizations, but also every organization can be described as a
bureaucracy.

These different uses or analyzes of bureaucracy arise from the fact that it is viewed in
different ways by different academic disciplines. It is possible to multiply these definitions.
As a matter of fact, Albrow talked about seven meanings of bureaucracy (Albrow, 1970: 84-
102).

Bureaucracy in the Thought of Karl Marx

Marx did not develop a systematic theory of bureaucracy; He discussed bureaucracy
more in the context of power relations within the state administration. Rather than seeing
bureaucracy as a result of the emergence of a complex industrial society, Marx associated it
with the specific needs of capitalism and viewed bureaucracy as a mechanism for supporting
bourgeois interests and defending the capitalist system. evaluated (Heywood, 2007: 509).
According to Marx, the state does not represent the general interests, contrary to the view
advocated by Hegel, but the interests of the ruling class, which is a part of civil society. There
is an organic connection between the state and civil society. According to this perspective,
bureaucracy constitutes a specific and special social group. It is located between the state
and civil society. Bureaucracy, like the state itself, is a tool used by the ruling class to
maintain its dominance over other social classes. The future and interests of the bureaucracy
are, to a certain extent, closely related to the interests of the state and the ruling class. The
real task of the bureaucracy in capitalist society is to impose an order that will ensure the
maintenance of class distinction and domination over the entire society. In short, its basic
function is to protect the status quo and the privilege of the ruling class. Another duty of the
bureaucracy is to mask this pressure by placing itself between the exploiters and the
exploited with the aim of hiding the general interest. According to this approach, bureaucracy
and ultimately bureaucratization are inevitable and necessary in a society divided into
classes. The political system of such a society will increasingly require stricter control to
maintain inequalities and divisions between different groups (Mouzelis, 2001: 21).

This view of Marx influenced not only his followers but also thinkers who criticized him,
such as Weber and Michels. Weber sensed the danger in the increasing dominance of the
state bureaucracy in the socialist movements of his time, pointing out that this would
eventually lead to a totalitarian regime (as it turned out to be true) and eliminate all individual
freedoms. (Mouzelis, 1975: 25-26). Weber, who already hated bureaucracy as a shackle for
the liberal individual, thought that socialism would lead to further serfdom (slavery). At that
 TRANSLATION 67

time, "What is rising today is the dictatorship of the civil servants, not the dictatorship of the
workers." wrote Weber, 1986: 50-51).

Public administration
According to Marx, bureaucracy is a tool used by the ruling class to maintain its
dominance over other social classes.

Bureaucracy in Liberal Thought

The views of liberal thought on bureaucracy were essentially shaped around the
approaches of the English writer John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Mill approached state
interventions and bureaucracy from the perspective of individual freedoms. He emphasized
the dangers of a growing state and bureaucracy in terms of freedoms and defended the
thesis of "limited state" and therefore "limited bureaucracy". According to Mill, the main thing
is the ability of the individual It is to ensure that the profession is developed and its efforts
are revealed. The state should essentially work for this. Increasing the powers of the state is
to the detriment of individual freedoms in this respect. It is necessary to make a distinction
between the part of human life that concerns the individual and the part that concerns the
state. If it intervenes, it violates freedom.The reason that justifies state intervention in human
life is to protect the individual against the intervention of other individuals who are more
powerful than himself. The more functions the state undertakes, the more professions
emerge. Thus, it attracts many freeloaders. If most of the work of society were in the hands
of the government and if the government departments employed the most talented and
qualified people, the broad cultured and experienced minds of the society would be
concentrated in a crowded bureaucrat class. There is work, and the remaining people expect
everything from them, and therefore the talent of the nation becomes more monopolized.
Since the civil servants are dependent on each other and work according to fixed rules, they
tend to do business with a red tape approach (Mill, 1997: 218-222).

Mill calls the management job being in the hands of professional managers bureaucracy.
Such management brings together experiences, has well-established traditional rules and
presents them as appropriate practical information to those who carry out the actual work of
management (the government). According to Mill, a skilled public administration is of course
necessary. However, this administration should be under the general control of the bodies
representing the whole people (Mill, 1861: 113-117).

Another important name of liberal thought on the subject of bureaucracy is the Austrian-
born economist Ludwig von Mises. Mises (1881Mises ( -1973) looks at bureaucracy as a
phenomenon related to the state and gives it meanings such as a procedure used to provide
 TRANSLATION 68

public services, an administrative system and the substitution of state enterprises instead of
private enterprises. Mises sees bureaucracy in certain services and areas as necessary for
democracy According to Mises, bureaucracy in democratic regimes means managing affairs
by strictly complying with the laws and the budget. What he opposes is the expansion of the
field of activity of the state, the entry into the field of private enterprises in economic life and
the market. Mises described the substitution of state enterprise instead of private enterprise
as "totalitarianism". According to him, bureaucratic authority is the result of a management
system that limits the freedom of individuals to manage their own affairs freely and imposes
many duties on the state (Mises , 1947: 20-44).

In liberal thought, the administration is given a minimal role in protecting public order and
property, ensuring external security, and ensuring compliance with contracts; The
bureaucracy has been given a purely instrumental and subservient task. The reason for this is
the emphasis on individual freedoms, economically and politically.

Bureaucracy and Oligarchy

German sociologist Robert Michels (1876Michels ( -1936) is one of the first theorists
who tried to connect bureaucratization to the oligarchic tendencies of modern societies.
Robert Michels worked on socialist parties and labor unions in Europe and especially in
Germany. - Based on his research, he developed his theory called "Bronze Law of Oligarchy" in
1911. The Bronze Law of Oligarchy clearly states that modern large-scale organizations
inevitably exhibit oligarchic characteristics. Even if this oligarchic order is not compatible
with the ideals and intentions of the rulers and the ruled, the situation inevitably develops in
this way. To prove his point, Michels used the German Socialist Party, which is assumed to be
more democratically organized than other parties. He examined the internal structure.
Michels revealed that the system was oligarchic and that democracy was only an external
appearance that emerged in official practices and laws. Michels generalized these
observations and eliminated the possibility of internal democracy in all large organizations.
He concluded that he was tending to develop a bureaucratic structure that would be
inconsistent (Mouzelis, 2001: 42).

Michels' theory is as follows: Leaders of party bodies and their members find it
necessary to employ salaried officials who will work full-time. These officials specialize in
certain branches after they start working in party organs. Organizational leaders also need the
necessary education and experience to manage the organization. These leaders have
"professional leadership" because they specialize in what they do over time. They break their
ties with the strata to which they belong in terms of social origin and turn into a kind of elite
group. These managers work to protect their positions and maintain their power. When they
realize that they cannot maintain their positions, they determine those who will come after
them through a kind of co-optation (the method of choosing the successor of the
 TRANSLATION 69

predecessor). In this case, official elections have no meaning beyond voting. Thus, all
organizations, even those whose structures are officially democratic, will be subject to a
"bronze law" that will effectively transform their structures into oligarchy (1962: 338).

What is the validity of the Bronze Law of Oligarchy?

Michels stated that salaried officials are not specific to the state alone, and that every
large-scale organization needs them in the modern world. Although Michels did not see the
limitation of bureaucracy as improbable, he concluded that no force or method could cope
with the "iron law of oligarchy". Michels's following statement has become an aphorism:
"Whoever talks about organization is talking about oligarchy" (1962: 365).

Bureaucracy According to Max Weber

Modern public administration literature chooses Weber's "bureaucracy" model as the
starting point to examine contemporary bureaucracies. Today, Weber's name is almost
integrated with the concept of bureaucracy. Weber conceptualized the bureaucracy model,
which he put forward while analyzing the structure and operations of the bureaucratic
organization, as the "ideal type". Weber's "ideal type bureaucracy" model is not a form that
can be observed in its pure and complete aspect in reality, but rather a mental definition and
qualification. Here, the concept of "ideal" does not mean "desirable", "good" or "superior" in
one way or another (San, 1971:24-25). Then, ideal type means a template framework that can
be used in analysis. Existing organizations are bureaucratic to the extent that they approach
this ideal type.

Public administration
Oligarchy: The exercise of de facto sovereignty by a small group in political regimes and
organized groups where the sovereignty is in the hands of a small number of people and a
few families.

It seems that Weber was content to indicate its elements and features rather than
directly defining bureaucracy. In this respect, the definition of bureaucracy is not found in
Weber's writings. Weber (1986: 192-199) and his commentators drew attention to the
following structural and operational features of bureaucracy (Ery›lmaz, 2010: 217-219).

• According to Weber's point of view, the main feature of bureaucracy is its "rationality"
and "legality". What is important for him is that social functions are carried out by a
"rationally" organized organization. Weber added the concept of "legality" to rationality. The
 TRANSLATION 70

bureaucratic organization will operate in accordance with systematic legal rules expressed at
an abstract level as well as being rational. Since this legal-rational bureaucracy type is a
structure free from personalism and politics, it will provide services to every political power at
the same level of efficiency and effectiveness.

Patrimonial Bureaucracy and Rational Bureaucracy

Weber mentioned two types of bureaucracy: "patrimonial" and "rational". Patrimonial
bureaucracy is based on non-free civil servants, not on officials appointed on the basis of
contracts. This form of bureaucracy describes administrative organizations in the periods
when the slavery system was widespread. Elements such as hereditary values ​and statuses,
personal relationships, and the mixing of private affairs and public services are dominant in
these organizations. According to Weber, patrimonial bureaucracy was based on traditional
rulers. The country was the personal property of the ruler. Administration was also seen as
the personal business of the ruler. The authority of the ruler was not subject to a distinction
between "official" and "private" spheres; Private business and official activity were not
separated. As a matter of fact, Weber cited the Roman Empire, Ancient Egypt and the
Byzantine Empire as examples of patrimonial bureaucracy (Weber, 1986: 200). According to
Weber, patrimonial or traditional bureaucracies were unstable. This instability was due to
impersonality and the lack of a developed money economy.

According to Weber, what are the main features of patrimonial bureaucracy?

Rational bureaucracy is Weber's modern organizational model, the features of which we

have mentioned above. This bureaucracy is based on structures and behaviors determined by
impersonal, rational administrative regulations and laws. The ideal type of bureaucracy
separates the office or government office from the private residence of the ruler (king or
ruler). Civil service is a profession. The loyalty of the civil servant is not to the person, but to
the rules that regulate the purpose and activities of the office or official department.

Advantages of Legal-Rational Bureaucracy

According to Weber, structures organized according to bureaucratic principles have
significant advantages over others. These advantages can be listed as follows. According to
Weber, is legal-rational bureaucracy an effective and efficient form of organization?

Authority According to Weber

In order to better analyze Weber's thoughts on bureaucracy, it is necessary to touch upon

his views on authority. Because Weber gave special importance to the idea of ​legitimacy of
 TRANSLATION 71

authority while developing the bureaucracy model. While examining the relationships within
the organization, Weber used the concepts of authority and power.

makes a distinction between them. If a person can carry out his will in a social
relationship despite the resistance of others, he has power. Authority is a form of power. If an
order imposes a duty of obedience on someone else, it is authority. Authority is based on a
principle of "legitimacy". Legitimacy also has a basis of "belief". This belief also states that
the arrangements made and the orders given are correct and therefore they must be obeyed
(Mouzelis, 2001: 28-29).

According to Weber, there are three types of beliefs about the legitimacy of authority and
these reveal three forms of authority. These are "traditional", "charismatic" and "legal"
authority (1986: 80-81).

Traditional authority is an authority formed in accordance with long-standing traditions.

Traditional authority is based on heredity and status, not on merit. Those who use the power
to command are generally masters who have personal authority due to the status they inherit.
In such a system, one obeys not the laws but the masters whom traditions give them the
authority to command. The legitimacy of the orders given by the masters depends on
whether these orders are not contrary to traditions. For example, the king's authority to
command and the legitimacy of his authority are based on traditions.

Charismatic authority is the authority of an extraordinary and God-given personality

(charisma), that is, the authority based on absolute devotion and trust in a person, belief in his
heroism or other qualities. This authority can develop in a direction completely opposite to
traditions. What is important is that it creates a "belief" that the person has magic, heroism or
other extraordinary abilities and charisma. Charismatic authority stems from an extraordinary
personality structure. Leaders with this kind of authority are rare, they usually emerge in times
of crisis.

What type of authority is the bureaucracy model conceptualized by

Weber based on?
Legal authority is sovereignty "based on law". It depends on belief in the validity of laws
and functional "authority" based on rational rules. Obedience is essential in fulfilling the
duties imposed by law. Legal authority is the sovereignty enjoyed by the contemporary "civil
servant" and all political power holders similar to him in this respect. Legal authority is valid in
official institutions. Weber also added "rationality" to this type of authority. Those who
exercise the authority to give orders are legitimate as long as they act rationally and in
accordance with legal rules. Those who deal with authority obey rational rules (law), not those
 TRANSLATION 72

who have the power to give orders. According to Weber, the legal-rational bureaucracy type is
an advanced form of legal authority.

The Thought of Bureaucracy After Weber

Weber's theory of bureaucracy has been accepted by many researchers and thinkers as a
basis for studies in this field. The evolution of industrial society in the time since the theory in
question has confirmed the validity of a significant part of this theory.

Weber's model has been used for different purposes in countries with different political
and economic systems. In socialist states, Weber's bureaucracy model was greatly benefited
from in the organization of the communist party, army and state organs. In capitalist
countries, the basic elements of the bureaucratic structure such as division of labor,
specialization, hierarchy of authority, jurisdiction, impersonality and professionalism have
been further developed. This bureaucracy model has made significant contributions to the
development of welfare and democracy in the West. In these countries, division of labor,
specialization and professionalism

As a result of orientation, a structure described as "technical structure or technocracy" in

public institutions and private enterprises; A new manager class called "technocrat",
"bureaucrat", "expert", "consultant" and "professional manager" has emerged. With the
emergence of this professional manager class, significant changes have occurred in both
public administration and business management. The relationship between bureaucracy and
politics in public administration has gained a new dimension. In businesses, business
ownership and business management are separated from each other. Thus, those who held
the ownership of the business had to transfer management tasks to professional managers
(Er-y›lmaz, 2008: 65-66).

Evaluate the effects of Weber's theory of bureaucracy.

However, the Weberian bureaucracy model began to be questioned with various studies
conducted in the United States and European countries since the 1930s. Many researchers
have criticized Weberian bureaucracy as a "machine model" because it does not give due
importance to employees and overvalues ​rules and organizational structure; He saw it as the
source of cumbersomeness and inefficiency. The most serious criticism against the
Weberian bureaucracy model came from the "new public management" approach that
emerged in the late 1970s.

The new public management approach opposes the strict hierarchical and centralist
structure of Weber's bureaucracy model, which is excessively fond of rules, attaches
 TRANSLATION 73

importance to formalities; He criticizes its characteristic of valuing procedures rather than

results (outputs). He thinks that the Weberian model is ultimately overwhelmed by red tape
and cannot respond to society's demands for efficiency (Rosenbloom, 1998:148). The
Weberian bureaucracy model prevents managers from taking risks and results in wasting
scarce resources instead of using them effectively and efficiently. The main motivation that
dominates managers in public institutions is not to make mistakes and not to take risks. In
the public sector, innovation and creativity, blindly obeying dangerous rules and not making
mistakes are seen as the best way. According to the new public management approach, the
organizational structure of the public should not be large-scale, but optimally sized, flexible,
with a soft hierarchy, a narrow and few-staffed center, a wide horizontal environment and
decentralized. Employees should be empowered more (Ery›lmaz, 2010:23).

The new public management approach not only criticized the traditional public
administration and the Weberian bureaucracy model, which made significant contributions to
the development of this management approach, but also criticized the traditional public
administration in England in the late 1970s. It was named as the basic management
approach of the restructuring process that started with the reforms made by the right-wing
governments in the USA and the USA, and became the basic reference for reforms in many
countries. Market type mechanisms, flexible and decentralized organizations, privatization,
deregulation, strategic management approach, quality, vision, effectiveness and efficiency,
performance, transparency, governance, focus on results rather than inputs, flexible
Principles and policies such as employment and sensitivity to social demands formed the
basis of the public administration reforms that began to be implemented in the late 1970s
and became increasingly widespread. These reforms reshaped the organizational structure,
functioning and relations of public administration with the society, and thus a post-Weberian
structure, operation and understanding developed. Undoubtedly, the opportunities and needs
of the information society have made a significant contribution to the development of this
structure and understanding.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF BUREAUCRACY

The basic function of public bureaucracies is to implement laws and public policy
decisions and carry out administrative duties. However, in addition to these, bureaucracies
prepare proposals and projects for governments on public policies, and sometimes make
public policy decisions themselves. The first drafts of the draft laws discussed in the
legislative body are prepared within the bureaucracy. In addition, bureaucracies provide
stability and continuity in state administration.

It is possible to categorize the basic functions of public bureaucracies into three main
groups: "management and administration affairs", "preparation of public policy decisions" and
"stability and continuity" in state administration.
 TRANSLATION 74

Shipment and Administration Affairs

The main function of bureaucracy is to implement/execute laws and policies and thus
manage the work of administration. This is why bureaucracy is sometimes referred to as
"administration", whereas the political executive is called "government". This distinction may
mean that a clear line can be drawn between the role of politicians in producing policy or
public policy and the role of bureaucrats in executing policies. As a matter of fact, the
traditional management approach defended the separation of politics and administration.
However, this clear distinction can be misleading in practice. Firstly, the issue of how a public
policy decision will be implemented is often a matter of various details and these
administrative details should not be left to the civil servants. As such, it may give bureaucrats
a wide margin of caution or discretion. Second, the degree of political control over the
bureaucracy varies significantly from state to state. While in some states bureaucrats are
subject to strict control, in others they benefit from wide administrative autonomy. Thirdly,
bureaucrats play a fundamental role in determining many public policies to be implemented
in the future, due to their technical expertise and experience (Heywood, 2007: 513-514).

Preparation of Public Policy Decisions

The political importance of the bureaucracy stems from its role as the main provider of
the information necessary for policy and the consultancy services needed by the government.
The technical knowledge and expertise that governments need is largely provided by the
bureaucracy. In the bureaucracy, this role is generally performed by high-level public officials
rather than middle and lower-level employees. For this reason, the issue of the political and
administrative nature of these roles of senior public administrators is complex. It is not easy
to make a clear distinction between making public policy or policy and providing or preparing
policy advice. Public policy decisions are based on information provided and managed by the
bureaucracy. Most information is produced, stored, evaluated, formatted and served within
the bureaucracy according to the preferences of the bureaucracy. Therefore, the content of
the public policy decision is affected by the nature of the information presented. As
government responsibility increases and public policy becomes more complex, it is inevitable
that politicians will depend on "professional" bureaucrats (Heywood, 2007:514-515).

Where does the increasing power of bureaucracy come from?

This evaluation is not only valid for public policy decisions. The preparation of draft laws,
which are the basic negotiation material of parliaments, is largely carried out within the
bureaucracy. In addition, the preparation and finalization of regulations, called secondary
legislation, are also carried out within the bureaucracy. The "circulars" published by public
institutions and organizations at various times regarding the implementation of laws,
 TRANSLATION 75

statutes, regulations and government programs are very important in the daily functioning of
the administration in countries like ours. When this is considered, it becomes clear how
effective the role of the bureaucracy is in determining the basic rules and policies that form
the basis of administrative work.

Stability and Continuity

The third duty of bureaucracies is to be an element of stability and continuity within the
state administration and political system. Although elections in democratic countries remove
one government from power and bring another to power, public bureaucracies continue to
work by adapting themselves to their new managers (ministers, government) without causing
any disorder. Elections can change not only the governments but also the regime in countries
that have not sufficiently established their constitutional order, but the
administration/bureaucracy and bureaucrats still remain in place and continue to carry out
their work. For this reason, the saying "governments change, administration/bureaucracy
remains in place" has become a cliché. In developing countries where political instability is
common, the existence of a bureaucratic order consisting of educated and experienced
bureaucrats is an important guarantee of the orderly functioning of the state administration.

BUREAUCRACY AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

Today, administrative affairs are carried out together by the bureaucracy, including civil
servants, and the bodies (such as parliament, government and board of directors) formed by
elected political officials. While the bureaucracy should, as a rule, be an organ subordinate to
political administrators and responsible for carrying out their orders and enforcing the laws, it
is noteworthy that from time to time it acquires a quality that influences political
representatives and shares their role. Because of this feature, bureaucracy is seen as the
fourth power after the legislative, judicial and executive bodies. In the struggle for authority
and influence, each side has its own important tools and resources.

Power Sources of Bureaucracy

The power resources of the bureaucracy are "knowledge and expertise", "quick decision-
making power", "continuous and stable status", "autonomous structure", "organizational
ideology", "budgeting and planning". It can be stated as its functions (Ery›lmaz, 2010:96-104).

The most important power source of bureaucracy is knowledge and expertise. The
information needed by political institutions and the technical expertise necessary to interpret
it are in the hands of the bureaucracy.
 TRANSLATION 76

The second source of power in the hands of the bureaucracy is the decision-making
power. Bureaucracies, which have few operational rules on matters such as meetings, free
discussion and voting, can make decisions faster than the legislature in most cases. The
authority to make administrative regulations (such as issuing regulations) that the legislative
body leaves to the public administration has resulted in the bureaucracy exercising more
authority and authority than the parliament.

The third source of power of bureaucracy is that it has a continuous and stable status.
Political administrators change through elections, but civil servants remain in their positions.
Bureaucracies have the advantage of being free from partisan politics. In many societies, the
bureaucracy is in a politically neutral position. The non-political position of the bureaucracy
recalls the strong argument that its decisions are technically superior to those made by
political institutions.

The fourth source of power of the bureaucracy is its autonomous organizational model
outside the ministerial organization. Autonomous organizations are less affected by
government and ministry policies and can protect and develop themselves. Independent
administrative authorities, public economic enterprises and universities can be given as
examples of these institutions.

The fifth source of power of bureaucracy is "organizational ideology". Bureaucratic

organizations often have very developed ideas about what governments should or should not
do. However, these ideas are not general expressions like, for example, in a party program.
These are mostly limited to the institution's narrow area of ​expertise. Organizational ideology
consists of the program, policy, thoughts and understandings developed by an institution in
its field. While bureaucracies work to protect and develop this ideology, they also try to
impose a new set of policies. While these ideologies are used to justify their own status and
activities, they may also aim to influence others.

88
The sixth power source of bureaucracy is planning and budgeting. Planning and
budgeting requires a great deal of technical knowledge, such as detailed mathematical
calculations, accounting techniques and computer operations. Since bureaucrats are experts
in this field, they always have the power to influence politicians.

Power Sources of Political Institutions

The power sources of political institutions can also be examined under the headings of
"legitimacy", "authority to make budgets", "reliance on the public", "creating a counter-
 TRANSLATION 77

bureaucracy", "politicizing the bureaucracy" ( Ery›lmaz, 2010: 105-108).

The most important source of power held by political institutions (government,

parliament, decision-making bodies of local governments, etc.) is their legitimacy. Managing,
operating, directing and supervising the bureaucracy is under the authority of political
institutions. Political institutions derive this authority from democratic principles, the
constitution and laws. Bureaucracies are responsible to political institutions for their actions
and transactions.

The second source of power in the hands of political institutions is money, that is, the
authority to make budgets. The third source of power of political institutions is their reliance
on the people. As it is known, political institutions represent the people. Thus, political
institutions have the opportunity to mobilize their political power through their relations with
voters, political parties and pressure groups. Political institutions can wage an effective fight
against bureaucracy in public opinion through various tools such as investigation,
supervision, election campaigns, debates and discussions in parliament.

Another highly effective tool used by political leaders to control the power of the
bureaucracy is to develop expert staff and information sources outside the bureaucracy. In
short, it means creating counter-bureaucracies. These staff and resources can break the
bureaucracy's monopoly of knowledge and expertise. According to the systems of the
countries, they are employed in presidential offices, prime ministries, ministries, under names
such as consultants, consultants and experts, and work as non-bureaucratic information,
expertise and policy offices. › bureaucracies exist in most democratic countries.

Another method used by political administrators and institutions to have an impact on

the bureaucracy is to politicize the bureaucracy. Politicization is achieved by selecting high-
level bureaucrats from among people who are close to government policy. The most well-
known application of this method is in the USA, under the name "spoils system". When a new
US president takes office, top management staff changes. Approximately 3,000 senior
positions are filled by political appointees. Similar practices are encountered in countries that
attach more importance to the loyalty of bureaucrats than their merit.

To be able to express various definitions regarding the concept of

bureaucracy.
The word bureaucracy is derived from the Latin words "burra" and Greek "kratos". "Burra",
dark fabric used to cover tables; "kratos" means sovereignty and management. Accordingly,
bureaucracy means "the domination of desks or offices". The concept of bureaucracy is used
in various meanings. It is possible to collect these under five headings: "red tape and
 TRANSLATION 78

inefficiency", "rational organization", "public administration", "management by civil servants"

and "large-structured organizations and modern society". .

To be able to summarize theoretical approaches regarding

bureaucracy.
One of the theoretical approaches regarding bureaucracy is Karl Marx's idea of ​
bureaucracy. Marx discussed bureaucracy mostly in the context of power relations within the
state administration. Marx evaluated bureaucracy as a mechanism to support bourgeois
interests and defend the capitalist system. According to Marx, the state does not represent
general interests, but the interests of the ruling class, which is a part of civil society.
Bureaucracy is a tool used by the ruling class to maintain its dominance over other social
classes. The views of liberal thought on bureaucracy were essentially shaped around the
approaches of the English writer John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Mill approached state
interventions and bureaucracy in terms of individual freedoms; He emphasized the dangers
of a growing state and bureaucracy in terms of freedom and defended the thesis of "limited
state" and therefore "limited bureaucracy". According to Mill, the main thing is the
independence of the individual. The aim is to develop one's talent and ensure that one's
efforts are revealed. The state should essentially work for this. Increasing the powers of the
state is, in this respect, detrimental to individual freedoms. Robert Michels developed his
theory called "Bronze Law of Oligarchy" in 1911, based on his research on socialist parties
and labor unions in Europe and especially in Germany. The Bronze Law of Oligarchy is clear.
He states that modern large-scale organizations inevitably display oligarchic
characteristics.According to Max Weber, bureaucracy means division of labor; official
jurisdiction; hierarchy of authority; written rules; filing of correspondence and activities;
impersonality and disciplined structure; It is a form of organization consisting of official
positions based on merit. According to Weber's point of view, the main feature of
bureaucracy is its "rationality" and "legality". What is important for him is that social functions
are carried out by a "rationally" organized organization. Weber added the concept of "legality"
to rationality. The Weberian bureaucracy model was criticized by the "new public
management approach" that emerged in the late 1970s. The new understanding of public
administration opposes the strict hierarchical and centralist structure of Weber's bureaucracy
model, which is fond of rules and attaches importance to formalities; He criticizes its
characteristic of valuing procedures rather than results (outputs). He thinks that the
Weberian model is ultimately overwhelmed by red tape and cannot respond to society's
demands for efficiency. The new public management approach formed the basis of the
public management reforms that began to be carried out in the 1980s and became
increasingly widespread.
 TRANSLATION 79

To be able to list the basic functions of bureaucracy.

The basic functions carried out by public bureaucracies are; It is possible to categorize
them in three main groups: "management and administration affairs", "preparation of public
policy decisions" and "stability and continuity" in state administration. The main function of
bureaucracy is to implement/execute laws and policies and thus manage the work of
administration. Another function of the bureaucracy is to provide the necessary information
and consultancy services needed by the government for public policy. The technical
knowledge and expertise that governments need is largely provided by the bureaucracy. In the
bureaucracy, this role is generally performed by high-level public officials rather than middle
and lower-level employees. The third duty of bureaucracies is to be an element of stability
and continuity within the state administration and political system.

Reading Passage
PERMANENT NATURE OF THE BUREAUCRATIC DEVICE Bureaucracy, once fully
established, is one of the most difficult social structures to eliminate. Bureaucracy is the
main tool for transforming "collective action" into "social action" that has gained rational
regularity. For this reason, bureaucracy, as a tool to "socialize" power relations, has become a
primarily important tool of power for those who control this apparatus. All else being held
constant, a well-planned and directed "social action" is superior to any "mass action" or even
"collective action."

It's Your Turn 5

According to Weber, organizations with a completely bureaucratic structure are capable
of reaching the highest degree of technical efficiency. In other words, bureaucracy is an
organization that best solves the problem of maximizing organizational efficiency.

According to Weber, "The superiority of the fully developed bureaucratic mechanism is

the same as the superiority of machine production over all other non-mechanical forms of
production."

It's Your Turn 6

According to Weber, the legal-rational bureaucracy type is an advanced form of legal
authority. Legal authority is the sovereignty enjoyed by the modern "civil servant" and all
political power holders similar to him in this respect. Legal authority is valid in official
institutions. Weber also added "rationality" to this type of authority. Those who exercise the
 TRANSLATION 80

authority to give orders are legitimate as long as they act rationally and in accordance with
legal rules. Those who deal with authority obey rational rules (law), not those who have the
power to give orders.

It's Your Turn 7

Weber's model has been used for different purposes in countries with different political
and economic systems. Weber's bureaucracy model was greatly used in the organization of
the communist party, army and state organs in socialist states. The bureaucracy model has
made significant contributions to the development of welfare and democracy in the West. In
these countries, as a result of division of labor, specialization and professionalization, a
structure described as "technical structure or technocracy" is formed in public institutions
and private enterprises; A new manager class called "technocrat", "bureaucrat", "expert",
"consultant" and "professional manager" has emerged. Turkey's public administration
structure is divided into two main groups, namely central administration and decentralized
administrations, according to organizational principles.

The central government consists of institutions and organizations that carry out basic
and general services in the country. Central government is also called "general government".
The structure consisting of the central and provincial organizations of ministries and their
affiliated organizations is called central administration. This structure consists of two levels:
the capital organization/central organization and the provincial organization. The provincial
organization of the central government consists of "province", "district", "district" and "regional
organizations".

It is not possible to organize and carry out all public services according to the central
management principle. To ensure effectiveness and efficiency in management, to improve
participation in management and democratic values, to eliminate the disadvantages of
excessive centralization, to respond more effectively to local needs and problems. Reasons
such as producing complex solutions have made it necessary for decentralized institutions to
organize and carry out their activities in a separate structure from the central government.
Decentralized management organizations are among the basic institutions of public
administration in all countries and are widespread. Decentralization organizations in Turkey
consist of institutions such as Local Governments, Professional Organizations Qualified as
Public Institutions, YÖK, universities, Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions, SOEs and TRT.

Structure of Public Administration

Public Financial Management and Control Law No. 5018 classified public institutions
according to their budgets. Accordingly, the public administration organization was called
 TRANSLATION 81

"General Administration" and under this title, public institutions were divided into three:
"Central Administration", "Social Security Institutions" and "Local Administrations".

Central government budget; It consists of the budgets of "Public Administrations within

the Scope of the General Budget", "Special Budget Administrations" and "Regulatory and
Supervisory Institutions".

General budget is the budgets of public administrations included in the State legal entity.
These include the Turkish Grand National Assembly, the Presidency, the Judiciary, the Prime
Ministry, Ministries and public institutions with status affiliated to ministries. Special budget;
It is the budget of public administrations established to carry out a specific public service
under or in relation to a ministry, to which revenues are allocated, authorized to spend from
these revenues, and whose establishment and operating principles are regulated by special
law. Special budget administrations include YÖK, Universities and High Technology Institutes
and other special budget administrations.

CENTRAL (CAPITAL) ORGANIZATION

The central organization of the Turkish public administration includes the President, the
Council of Ministers, the prime ministry and the ministries. In addition, auxiliary organizations
established to assist the central government in its duties, provide consultancy or supervision
are also considered within the central organization.

President›
The President is within the executive branch of the state. In our country, the executive
body consists of the President and the Council of Ministers. Therefore, executive power is
exercised by the two bodies in question. This is called dualistic execution.

The President, as the head of the state, represents the Republic of Turkey and the unity of
the Turkish nation; It oversees the implementation of the Constitution and the regular and
harmonious functioning of State organs.

tastes. This is an issue that is discussed in the literature and the public. According to one
view, keeping the actions taken by the President on his own outside of judicial review is
contrary to the essence of the Constitution and the understanding of the rule of law. It is also
incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights (Gözübüyük, 2005: 70).

The General Secretariat of the President and the State Supervisory Board are two
constitutional bodies that assist the President in exercising his duties and powers.
 TRANSLATION 82

In your opinion, do the duties and powers given to the President by the Constitution
coincide with the parliamentary system? Explain.

Council of Ministers
The Council of Ministers constitutes the politically responsible wing of the executive body
in our country. The Council of Ministers is also called the "government".

The Council of Ministers is composed of the Prime Minister and ministers. The Prime
Minister, who is the head of the Council of Ministers, is appointed by the President from
among the members of the Turkish Grand National Assembly. Ministers are selected by the
Prime Minister from among the members of the Turkish Grand National Assembly or those
who are eligible to be elected as deputies and are appointed by the President. When
necessary, the duty of a minister is terminated by the President upon the recommendation of
the Prime Minister (AY Art. 109). As can be seen, according to our Constitution, the Prime
Minister must be a member of parliament. On the other hand, it is possible for a person who
is not a member of parliament to be appointed as a minister.

The Council of Ministers is established and begins its duty with the appointment of the
President (Özbudun, 2005:322). The program of the Council of Ministers is read in the Grand
National Assembly of Turkey by the Prime Minister or a minister within one week at the latest
after its establishment, and a vote of confidence is applied for (AY article 110). Having
received the vote of confidence from the Turkish Grand National Assembly, the Council of
Ministers begins the necessary work to implement its program.

As the head of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister ensures cooperation between
ministries and oversees the implementation of the general policy of the government. The
Council of Ministers is jointly responsible for the execution of this policy.

Each minister is responsible to the Prime Minister and is also responsible for the affairs
within his authority and the actions and transactions of those under his command.

The Prime Minister is obliged to oversee the performance of ministers' duties in

accordance with the constitution and laws and to take corrective measures.

The Prime Minister presides over the Council of Ministers. The President may also
preside over the Council of Ministers when deemed necessary. This situation is very
exceptional.

The Council of Ministers takes its decisions unanimously; There is no decision making by
majority vote (Gözübüyük, 2006a).
 TRANSLATION 83

The Council of Ministers, as the highest decision-making body of the central government
organization, is responsible for management, economy, finance, social, cultural,
transportation, infrastructure, security, foreign policy, etc., provided that they are not contrary
to the constitution and laws and are based on laws. It has the authority to carry out all
transactions in the fields. The issues decided by the Council of Ministers are many and
diverse. In short, the Council of Ministers is authorized and responsible for taking and
implementing the necessary decisions for the country's domestic and foreign policies at the
macro level.

What are the powers of the Prime Minister over ministers?

Current information about the Council of Ministers and the Prime Ministry can be
accessed at http://www.basbakanlik.gov.tr. Each ministry is headed by a minister. The
Minister is the highest leader of the ministry organization. Ministers carry out their ministry
services in accordance with the legislation, the Government's general policy, national security
policy, development plans and annual programs, and cooperate with other ministries on
matters within the ministry's field of activity. He is responsible for ensuring cooperation and
coordination and is responsible to the Prime Minister.

Each minister is also responsible for the activities and transactions of those under his
command and is responsible for auditing the activities, transactions and accounts of the
central, provincial and foreign organizations of the ministry and affiliated and related
organizations. and is authorized. On 03.06.2011, a status called deputy minister was created
in ministries. Accordingly, a Deputy Minister may be appointed to assist the Minister in
fulfilling the duties assigned to the Minister and the Ministry, reporting to the Minister
(including the Minister of National Defense). Deputy Ministers are responsible to the Minister
for the fulfillment of these duties.

Deputy Ministers serve for a period limited to the term of office of the Government; When
the duty of the government ends, the duty of the Deputy Ministers also ends. Deputy Ministers
may be dismissed, if necessary, before the end of the Government's term of office.

Ministers have political responsibilities towards the parliament. Political responsibility of

ministers is one of the basic rules of the parliamentary system. Ministers are responsible to
the Grand National Assembly of Turkey not only for their own actions and transactions, but
also for the actions and transactions of those working under their command. The sanction of
political liability is not criminal or legal, but only political. The constitutional method that will
reveal political responsibility is the vote of confidence mechanism (Özbudun, 2005:323-324).

The criminal liability of ministers is that they be tried in the Supreme Court, the
 TRANSLATION 84

Constitutional Court, for crimes related to their duties. Criminal liability is revealed through
parliamentary investigation. As a result of a parliamentary investigation, a minister can be
sent to the Supreme Court with the decision of the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Criminal Liability: Liability arising from duty-related crimes.

Ministry Central Organization

The establishment and duties of ministries are regulated by the Law No. 3046 on the
Principles of Establishment and Duties of Ministries. Accordingly, it consists of ministries,
central organization, provincial and foreign organizations and affiliated and related
organizations.

The central organization of the Ministry includes main service units, consultancy and
control units and auxiliary units to ensure the execution of the services for which the ministry
is responsible.

The highest managers of each ministry after the minister are the undersecretaries. In
Law No. 3046, "Undersecretaries are under the command of the minister and are his
assistants, and they provide ministry services on behalf of the minister and in line with the
directives and orders of the minister, in accordance with the objectives and policies of the
ministry." - organizes and executes its plans, development plans and annual programs in
accordance with the provisions of the legislation. For this purpose, it gives the necessary
orders to the ministerial institutions, except the ministry inspection board, and It is stated that
"it supervises and ensures its implementation" (Art. 22). Undersecretaries are responsible to
the minister for the execution of the specified services.

There are also organizations with "affiliated", "related" and "associated" status within the
ministries. The organizations in question are stated separately in the organizational structure
of the ministries.

Affiliated organizations are organizations established by special law under the ministry
to carry out the main services within the ministry's service and duty area. For example, the
General Directorate of Security is an organization affiliated with the Ministry of Internal
Affairs. Subsidiary organizations are organized in a way that they consist of a central
organization and a provincial organization established according to need.

Relevant organizations are State Economic Enterprises (IDT) and Public Economic
Enterprises (KIK), established by special law or statute, and their establishments, partnerships
and affiliates, or those with special legal, financial and administrative status. Of course, they
are organized as decentralized organizations in terms of services. The relations of these
organizations with the Parliament and the government are carried out by the relevant
 TRANSLATION 85

minister.

While the connection of the Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions, which have recently
entered our management system, with a ministry should theoretically be expressed with the
concept of "related organization", some of them are clearly defined as "related" organization
in their laws. There is confusion because it is written as .

Auxiliary Organizations in the Center

There are many organizations established in the capital organization of the central
government to assist the government and ministries by expressing their opinions, making
decisions on a certain issue, or carrying out a certain public service or carrying out
inspections. These organizations, which cover a wide cluster, are located within the central
organization and are described as "auxiliary organizations in the center" (Gözübüyük,
2006a:82).

TAFIRA (ENVIRONMENTAL) ORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL

GOVERNMENT
It is not possible for the central government to carry out all the services it undertakes
throughout the country by being organized only in the capital. For this reason, central
government organizations were also organized in the provinces as an extension of
themselves. The provincial organization of the central government does not have a separate
public legal entity, a separate personnel regime and an independent budget like local
government organizations, and is hierarchically subordinate to the relevant central
government organization.

The provincial organization of the central government consists of provincial, district, sub-
district and regional organizations. According to the Constitution, Turkey, in terms of central
administrative organization, is divided into provinces according to geographical situation,
economic conditions and public service requirements; In the provinces, other gradual
sections are separated (AY art. 126).

Districts and sub-districts are hierarchical subunits of the province. A civil administrator
serves as the head of these. The district governor, who heads the districts, and the sub-
district director, who heads the sub-districts, are the hierarchical subordinates of the
governor, who is the chief administrative officer of the province.
 TRANSLATION 86

Provincial Administration
The basic unit of provincial organization of the central government is the province.
According to our Constitution, the administration of provinces is based on the principle of
broad authority. The establishment and abolition of provinces, and the determination and
change of their names, centers and borders are made by law. Additionally, taking a district
from one province and connecting it to another requires legal regulation.

The governor is the head of the provincial government. The governor is the
representative of the state, the government and each minister in the province and their
administrative and political executive tool. The governor is responsible for the general
administration of the province. In this respect, the governor has duties that are political as
well as administrative. Governors are appointed with the recommendation of the Ministry of
Internal Affairs, the decision of the Council of Ministers and the approval of the President.
Governorship is an exceptional civil servant position and no special qualifications are
stipulated in the law to become a governor. In general, governments appoint people they trust
as governors (Gözübüyük, 2006a:101). When necessary, governors can be placed under
central command (in the status of central governor) and assigned to the tasks assigned by
the Minister of Internal Affairs, with a staff salary, in accordance with the procedure of their
appointment.

The duties and powers of governors in the province are listed in detail in the Provincial
Administration Law No. 5442. A certain number of deputy governors, who come from the
district governor profession and depend on the size and status of the provinces, serve
alongside the governor to assist him in his duties.

In each province, ministries have their own provincial organizations. These are called
"provincial directorates". The managers at the head of the ministry's provincial directorates
are called "provincial directors". Their number and name are closely related to the number and
name of the ministries. Examples of provincial directors in the province are treasurer,
provincial national education director, provincial health director, provincial police chief,
provincial culture and tourism director. Provincial directors work under the command of the
governor and are in close contact with the ministry to which they are affiliated. Provincial
managers are responsible to the governor and the relevant ministry for carrying out the work
within their scope of duty. The governor ensures cooperation and coordination among
provincial directors. Correspondence of provincial directorates regarding their own ministries
is also carried out through the governor.

The Provincial Administrative Board is a board that assists the governor in provincial
general administration. The Provincial Administrative Board, under the chairmanship of the
governor, consists of the legal affairs director, treasurer, provincial national education
director, provincial environment and urbanization director, health director, food, agriculture
 TRANSLATION 87

and animal husbandry director. ›k mu-105 Unit 5 - Structure of Public Administration Civil: It is
a word of Arabic origin. While mulk means "the land of a state, hometown", mulki means
"related to the country". Mulki also means "excluded from the military and ulema". Ministries
have organizations in the districts, such as the district police department, district national
education directorate, district food, agriculture and livestock directorate. Chief among these
are district managers as administrators. District managers work under the command of the
district governor and are responsible to the district governor for carrying out the work related
to their duties. District managers conduct their correspondence through the district governor.

Civil Administration
As in the province, there is a district administrative board to assist the district governor in
district administration. This board is chaired by the district governor and consists of the
editor-in-chief, property manager, government physician, national education director, food,
agriculture and livestock director.

Parish Management
Sub-district administration, the third and smallest of the civil administration departments,
constitutes the last link of the central administration in the provinces. The village
administration, which is a smaller-scale unit than the sub-district administration, is not
included in the hierarchy of the central administration. As will be mentioned later, the village
administration is a local government organization; It has a public legal entity separate from
the state legal entity. According to the Provincial Administration Law No. 5442, the sub-
district; It is defined as an administrative division consisting of towns and villages that have
relations between them in terms of geography, economy, security and local services (TCC, art.
41). Although provinces and districts are established by law, the Ministry of Internal Affairs
decides on the establishment, abolition, determination of the center and changing the names
of sub-districts. and with the approval of the President (TCC, art. 2).

Sub-district administration consists of three bodies: sub-district manager, sub-district

council and sub-district commission. The sub-district director, as the highest government
official in the sub-district, is responsible for the sub-district administration. The sub-district
director is appointed to the governorship by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and his place of
duty is determined by the governor. The duties and powers of the sub-district director are
similar to those of the district governor.

Sub-districts have been going through the actual liquidation process for years. Among
the reasons for this, the failure to appoint new sub-district directors and the transformation of
developing sub-districts into districts can be cited (Gözübüyük, 2006a: 108). In fact, the
 TRANSLATION 88

number of sub-districts, which increased continuously after the establishment of the

Republic, has gradually decreased in recent years due to the fact that many of them became
districts and new ones were not established. Today, it is claimed that it would be appropriate
to abolish the sub-district organization as it has become dysfunctional due to reasons such
as the development of transportation facilities, the increasing relations of villages with
district and provincial centers, and urbanization.

Name the civil administration departments within the provincial

organization of the central government. Compare the governors and
district officials in terms of their powers.

Regional Directorates
Regional directorates actually emerged within the administrative structure of our country
in the 1950s, and were later included in the 1961 and 1982 Constitutions.

Article 126 of the 1982 Constitution stipulated that a central administrative organization
covering more than one province could be established in order to ensure efficiency and
harmony in the provision of public services, and that their duties and powers would be
regulated by law (AY art. 126/3). Let us immediately point out that in the provincial
organization of the central government, there is no regional governorship covering more than
one province. As it is known, the 1982 Constitution envisaged the organization of the central
government in the provinces on a provincial basis. Therefore, it is seen that the 1982
Constitution does not allow the creation of a new level of civil administration above the
provincial administration, in the form of regional governorship (Ery›lmaz, 2011:136).

Law No. 3046 on the Establishment and Duties of Ministries states that ministries and
organizations affiliated with ministries can establish regional organizations covering more
than one province. However, in order to organize at the regional level, this must be foreseen in
the founding law. Based on this legal permission, ministries and their affiliated organizations
can establish regional organizations with the decision of the Council of Ministers (Günday,
2006:201). The basic unit of the provincial management organization of the relevant and
affiliated status organizations is generally the region.

In our management system, the central management organization organized at the

regional level is called "Regional Directorate" and its manager is called "Regional Manager".

When we look at the practice, we see that organizations affiliated with ministries are
more likely to organize regional organizations than ministries themselves.
 TRANSLATION 89

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
We divided the principle of decentralization into two: "geographic decentralization" and
"functional/service decentralization". The principle of geographical decentralization has
created administrative units called "local governments" or "local governments" in all
countries. The principle of functional decentralization is based on the principle of organizing
some public services as a separate legal entity outside the central government and local
government organizations. In this context, decentralized management organizations are
divided into two as "local governments" and "service-oriented decentralized organizations".

Definition of Local Governments and the Values ​They Are Based on

Local governments, in simple terms, refer to administrative structures that belong to a
village, town, city or region and have a legal entity separate from the central government.
These structures are administratively organized according to geographical decentralization
and therefore do not have political sovereignty. They are governed by their own organs.
Decision-making bodies are determined by the election of local people. Local governments
have a universal character because they are included in both unitary and federal state
systems.

Local governments have certain values/principles that enable them to take part in federal
and unitary state systems and make them important. These values;

• Democracy and participation,

Democracy and participation: What is important in a democratic system is that the

people participate in the management of the affairs that concern them, take part in the bodies
established for this purpose, and supervise and influence their managers. There is a strong
emphasis in the literature that local or regional governments are more effective than the
central government in providing opportunities for the people to participate in the political life
of the community they belong to. (Heywood, 2007:231). Local governments are among the
basic institutions of democracy; It increases the people's political and administrative
participation opportunities and thus ensures the development of the society's knowledge and
experience in the field of politics and administration.

Evaluate the City Councils in terms of democracy and participation

in government.
Administrative effectiveness: It is about setting the right goals and achieving them and is
a result-oriented concept. Local government organizations are closer to the public; Due to
 TRANSLATION 90

their position, they have the opportunity to know their problems and needs better and are
more sensitive to society. They can act more quickly and flexibly in determining service
priorities and arranging resources according to these priorities.

Autonomy: It is the right and opportunity of local governments to organize and manage
local affairs in line with the interests of the people through their own organs, within the limits
determined by law. Autonomy includes the ability of local governments to have both freedom
in their decisions (administrative autonomy) and the necessary financial resources (financial
autonomy). Additionally, a third element of autonomy is having their own personnel
(personnel autonomy). As a requirement of autonomy, local governments have public legal
personality.

Freedom: Local governments play an important role in eliminating the drawbacks of an

overly centralized state administration. Local governments spread power in a political system
and thus ensure authority is shared. In addition, it is easier to exercise individual preferences
through local governments. This situation serves to improve individual freedoms. It is stated
that decentralization protects freedom by dispersing the power of government and thus
creates a network of checks and balances (Heywood, 2007.231).

Redistribution: As a concept, redistribution means distributing money, services and other

economic resources among people and institutions according to certain priorities, with a
different method and understanding from the previous sharing, by collecting more taxes from
the rich. -It means to educate. Redistribution has brought about the concept of "social state"
or "welfare state" throughout the country. The reflection of this on the local government level
is expressed by the concepts of "welfare municipalism" or "social municipalism". Social
municipalism means providing economic support to lower income groups and providing them
with significant discounts, conveniences and supports in benefiting from local public
services. Discounted or free use of public transportation for students, the poor, retirees or the
elderly; food, fuel or housing aid etc. to the poor. services are important applications of social
municipality.

Social State: A state that is interested in the social and economic conditions of its
citizens and considers it its duty to provide them with a standard of living worthy of human
dignity.

Local Governments in the Constitution

Local governments are constitutional institutions. All other constitutions, including the
1876 Constitution, included provisions and principles regarding local governments. However,
the 1982 Constitution's regulation regarding local governments is more comprehensive than
other constitutions.
 TRANSLATION 91

The Constitution mentions three types of local governments. These are "special
provincial administration", "municipality" and "village". According to the Constitution, local
governments are administrative decentralized institutions.

Article 127 of the Constitution regulates local governments. According to this regulation,
the characteristics of local governments can be outlined as follows (Ery›lmaz,
2009:138;Gözler, 2009:103-104). These constitutional principles are in great agreement with
the principles in the "European Local Governments Autonomy Charter", which has become a
part of our domestic law. It is parallel to some extent (Gözübüyük, 2008:179).

The Constitution orders that the decision-making bodies of local governments be

determined by elections. It did not require that the executive bodies (mayor, governor and
headman) other than the decision-making bodies be determined by election.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS

In our country, there are three types of local government units: "special provincial
administration", "municipality" and "village". The oldest of these and the one based on our
own traditions is the village administration. Special provincial administration and municipality
were established by taking France as an example during the Westernization process
(Gözübüyük, Ak›ll›o¤lu, 1992:97).

Special Provincial Administration Special provincial administration is a local government

unit operating in the administrative geography called "province". In this geographical area, in
addition to cities, towns and villages, there are places such as vineyards, gardens, fields,
forests, streams, roads and mountains. In this respect, the special provincial administration is
a "regional" local government organization (Gözler, 2009:104-105 • Youth and sports, health,
agriculture, industry and trade;

• Environmental plan of the province (except for Metropolitan Municipalities whose

municipal borders are provincial borders), public works and settlement, soil protection,
erosion prevention, culture, art, tourism, social services and aid, micro-credit to the poor,
kindergartens and orphanages; • These are services related to the provision of land,
construction, maintenance and repair of buildings and meeting other needs of primary and
secondary education institutions. Special provincial administrations, provided that they are
outside the municipal borders, zoning, roads, water, sewerage, solid waste, environment,
emergency aid and rescue, support of forest villages, trees- It is responsible and authorized to
provide services related to landscaping, parks and gardens.

Among the investments related to the duties and services carried out by the central
government, those deemed appropriate by the relevant ministry can also be made by the
 TRANSLATION 92

special provincial administration.

In addition, the special provincial administration has the authority to issue licenses and
inspect non-sanitary establishments and public rest and entertainment places outside the
municipal borders.

With the abolition of the General Directorate of Rural Services in 2005, the provincial
organizations of this general directorate were connected to the special provincial
administrations, and thus, services for the villages became among the basic duties of the
special administrations. It took place in.

The Special Provincial Administration has three bodies: "provincial general assembly",
"provincial council" and "governor". Provincial Council The provincial council is a body that
carries out preliminary examination of the issues to be decided in the provincial general
assembly and has functions mostly related to "consultation" and "execution". The provincial
council, under the chairmanship of the governor, consists of the general secretary, three
members to be elected by the provincial general assembly from among its members every
year, and two members to be elected by the governor from among the unit chiefs every year.

The provincial council is chaired by the governor or, in his absence, by the general
secretary. The agenda of the council is prepared by the governor. Council members can
propose agenda items.

The council meets at least once a week on a predetermined day and time. The president
may call the council to a meeting in emergency situations.

Governor
The governor is the head of the special provincial administration, the representative of its
legal entity and the executive body. In this capacity, it implements the decisions taken by the
provincial general assembly and the provincial council, directs and manages the special
provincial administration organization; Appoints the special provincial administration
personnel.

The governor uses district governors to carry out the services of the special provincial
administration in the districts. In districts, a district special administration organization
reporting to the district governor may be established to carry out special administrative
affairs.

The activities of the governor are supervised by the provincial general assembly. The
provincial general assembly, audit commission exercises the authority to obtain information
 TRANSLATION 93

and audit through questions, general discussion and evaluation of the activity report.

Municipal Administration
The most important local government organizations are municipalities. Approximately
83% of Turkey's population lives within municipal borders.

The municipality is a public legal entity with administrative and financial autonomy,
established to meet the local common needs of the residents of the town and whose
decision-making body is elected by the voters (BK art. 3).

Town refers to a settlement with a municipality. Municipalities outside the provincial and
district centers are called "town municipalities".

The municipality has a history of approximately 150 years within our management
system. Municipality, like special provincial administration, is one of the local government
units transferred from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic. Municipality Law No. 1580, which
was accepted in 1930

Strategic Plan: The plan that includes the medium and long-term goals of public
administrations, basic principles and policies, targets and priorities, performance criteria,
methods to be followed to achieve them and resource allocations.

• Preservation, maintenance and repair of cultural and natural assets, historical texture
and places and functions related to urban history, • Wholesale and retailer markets, bus
terminal, fairground, marina and slaughterhouse services. In order to establish a municipality
in a place, the required population criterion has been increased from 2,000 to 5,000 with the
new law. It is mandatory to establish a municipality in provincial and district centres.

The municipal administration has three bodies: "city council", "municipal council" and
"mayor".

City council
The municipal council is the decision-making body of the municipal administration.

The municipal council meets in the first week of each month on a predetermined date,
except for a one-month holiday to be determined by the municipal council.

The council meetings are presided over by the mayor, or in case he is unable to attend,
 TRANSLATION 94

the deputy mayor of the council. Meetings of the municipal council are, as a rule, open to the
public. The municipal council may establish specialized commissions consisting of at least
three and at most five members.

The duties of the municipal council are listed in detail in the Law (BK art. 18).

Municipal Council
The municipal council is the executive and advisory body of the municipality. The
municipal council consists of a certain number of members to be elected by the municipal
council every year from among its own members, and a certain number of people to be
chosen by the mayor from among the unit chiefs, one of whom is the financial services unit
chief. . Accordingly, the municipal council is formed by elected officials (council members)
and unit chiefs (managers). The council is chaired by the mayor, and in meetings where the
mayor cannot attend, the vice-chairman or a council member appointed by the mayor. The
council meets at a predetermined day and time, not less than once a week. Metropolitan
municipality: whose borders are provincial civil borders and which provides coordination
between district municipalities within its borders; Having administrative and financial
autonomy, fulfilling the duties and responsibilities given by law and using the powers; It refers
to the public legal entity whose decision-making body is elected by the voters.

Mayor
The duties and powers of the metropolitan municipality and district municipalities are
regulated in detail in the Metropolitan Municipality Law No. 5216 (BBK art. 7). Accordingly,
services throughout the metropolis (strategic plan, master zoning plan, transportation master
plan, water and sewerage, public transportation, environmental health, central heating) , fire
brigade, passenger and freight terminals, construction of main roads and streets, etc.) to the
metropolitan municipality; granting licenses for construction, construction of secondary
roads and squares, garbage collection, street cleaning, creation of green areas and sports
facilities; social services etc. for the elderly, disabled, women, youth and children. Municipal
services of this nature are also left to district municipalities.

Apart from the ones mentioned above, the metropolitan municipality is responsible and
authorized to resolve disputes between district municipalities, inspect the zoning practices of
the municipalities, and ensure harmony and coordination in terms of the provision of
municipal services.

The metropolitan municipality of the city in which it is established; District municipalities

also bear the names of the districts. The bodies of both municipal governments are similar to
 TRANSLATION 95

each other. However, the organization style and powers of these bodies are different. The
bodies of district municipalities are as specified in the Municipality Law.

The bodies of the metropolitan municipality consist of the "Metropolitan Municipality

Council", the "Metropolitan Municipality Committee" and the "Metropolitan Municipality
Mayor".

Metropolitan Municipality Council

The second body of the metropolitan municipality administration is the metropolitan
municipality council. The council consists of five members to be elected by the municipal
council by secret ballot for a year, under the chairmanship of the metropolitan mayor or, when
absent, the general secretary, and the mayor, one of whom is the financial services unit chief.
It is formed every year with the participation of five members chosen from among the unit
heads. The duties and powers of the metropolitan municipal council are the same as those
given to the municipal council of classical municipalities subject to the provisions of the
Municipality Law.

Metropolitan Municipality Mayor

The third body of the metropolitan municipality is the Metropolitan Municipality Mayor.
The president is the executive body, the head of the metropolitan municipality administration
and the representative of its legal entity; It is directly elected by the voters within the
metropolitan municipality borders according to the majority method.

The duties of the metropolitan mayor are regulated in Article 18 of Law No. 5216.

Neighborhood Management
Every city and town consists of neighborhoods expressed by various names. According
to the Municipality Law, neighborhood "refers to an administrative unit within the municipal
border, whose needs and priorities are similar and whose residents have neighborhood
relations" (BK art. 3). Establishing, abolishing, merging, dividing neighborhoods within the
municipal borders, determining or changing their names and boundaries, decision of the
municipal council and opinion of the district governor. It is done with the approval of the
governor.

Is the neighborhood a local government unit?

 TRANSLATION 96

With the Municipality Law No. 5393, the neighborhood became a part of the municipality.
In this context, to provide the necessary in-kind assistance and support within the budget
possibilities to meet the needs of the municipality, the neighborhood and the headman's
office and to solve their problems; It is the duty of taking into account the common wishes of
the neighborhood in its decisions and ensuring that the services are carried out in
accordance with the needs of the neighborhood.

The bodies of the neighborhood administration are the "headman" and the "board of
elders". The board of elders consists of four members. The election of the neighborhood
headman and the council of elders is held together with the elections of the local government
bodies. The duties of the neighborhood management are regulated in the "Law on the
Establishment of Neighborhood Headmen and Councils of Elders in Cities and Towns"
numbered 4571, adopted in 1944. Various duties were assigned to the neighborhood
management by other laws.

Village Management
The third local government unit is the village. Village Law No. 442 (KK) defines the village
in terms of "population", "common goods and other immovable properties". According to the
law, settlements with "a population of less than 2,000" are villages. In addition, "people living
in collective or scattered houses with common goods such as mosques, schools, pastures
and coppices form a village with their vineyards, gardens and fields" (KK art. 2). .

Village Law No. 442 grouped village works into two groups: "mandatory" and "optional".

The management of villages consists of three bodies: "headman", "village association"

and "village council of elders".

The headman is the head of the village administration and the representative of the state
in the village. The headman is elected by the village association for a period of five years.
Political parties cannot nominate candidates in the headman election.

Since the headman is the executive body of the village legal entity, his duties regarding
the village are; Since it is the representative of the state in the village, it has functions related
to the state. Although the headman is an elected local administrator, he receives his salary
from the state instead of the village budget.

The village association is the general decision-making body of the village legal entity and
consists of the voters in the village. All voters in the village can directly participate in the
village administration, albeit in a limited way, through the village association.
 TRANSLATION 97

The village council of elders is the executive, supervisory and decision-making body of
the village administration. The council of elders consists of two types of members: "elected"
and "natural". Elected members are determined by the village association through a single-
stage majority election. The number of elected members varies depending on the population
of the village.

The principal of the village school and the village imam are natural members of the
council of elders. The village budget is prepared by the headman and the council of elders
and comes into force with the approval of the district governor or governor. Villages have
come to expect almost all services from the state due to insufficient income sources. With
the new regulations made recently, the special provincial administration has become the
primary responsible and executor of services for the village.

DEPLOYMENT MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS

In all countries governed by democracy, in addition to the central government and local
governments, there are also autonomously organized public institutions. These are called
"service decentralization organizations" or "service organizations" in our country; They
constitute the third group of administrative units after the central government and local
government organizations.

Decentralization organizations are spread across various areas. Just as there are service
decentralization organizations operating in the commercial and industrial fields, there are
also organizations providing services in the fields of education, culture, technology, social
assistance and publishing. These are institutions, each specialized in a separate public
service. The institutions in question are organized under various names such as general
directorate, institution, board, chamber, office and presidency. Universities, TRT, public
economic enterprises, bar associations, chambers of commerce and industry are some of
these. Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions, which have recently entered our management
system, are structures that emerged according to the principle of functional decentralization
(Ery›lmaz, 2011:226).

The main features of service decentralization organizations are as follows (Ery›lmaz,

2011:211-212;Gözübüyük, 2008:228-229

Public Economic Enterprises

Economic and commercial enterprises of the state are called public economic
enterprises. Economic and social necessities have brought about changes in the functions of
the state. The classical state approach, which consisted of ensuring internal and external
 TRANSLATION 98

security, was replaced by the Welfare State or "service state" or "social state", which included
economic and social services among its duties after the 1930s. has gone up. Thus, the state
also participated intensively in economic and commercial activities as an entrepreneur.
However, since the early 1980s, public economic enterprises began to cease to be owned or
managed by the state within the framework of privatization policies.

Public economic enterprises are divided into two main groups: "state economic
enterprises" and "public economic enterprises". Public SOEs are public legal entities and are
subject to a separate property and personnel system. SOEs are subject to administrative law
in terms of their establishment, internal structure and relations. SOEs are organizations with
autonomous budgets. Audits are carried out jointly by the Court of Accounts and the Turkish
Grand National Assembly (Gözler, 2009:133-134). The Court of Accounts carries out the audit
on SOEs on behalf of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.

SOEs are managed by their own bodies. They are subject to tutelage supervision of the
relevant ministry.

The management structure of public economic enterprises consists of two bodies. These
are "board of directors" and "head office".

The board of directors is the highest level authorized and responsible decision-making
body of public economic enterprises. The board of directors of the enterprises consists of a
chairman and five members. The second body of public economic enterprises is the general
directorate. The general directorate consists of the general manager, deputy general
managers and affiliated subunits.

Professional Organizations as Public Institutions

Professional organizations that are public institutions are also called "professional public
institutions" or "public professional organizations". These are constitutional organizations and
are conceptualized in the Constitution as "professional organizations that have the nature of
public institutions" (AY art. 135).

The 1982 Constitution regulated these institutions in detail in Article 135 under the name
"professional organizations that have the nature of public institutions" within the
"administration". It is envisaged that those who practice professions such as lawyers,
doctors, trade and industry, engineering, architecture and pharmacy will be organized under
separate roofs, each based on the principle of compulsory membership. The professions in
question are activities that are effective in social life, such as social, economic, commercial,
health, technical and law, and require special management and supervision. Professional
public institutions bring together all members of each profession and supervise them;
 TRANSLATION 99

represents the profession in question before public authorities; conveys the common
problems of its members to the relevant parties and shares them with the public; In a way, it
acts as a "bridge" between its members and the state; Thus, they actively participate in the
political and administrative decision-making process (Ery›lmaz, 2011: 218).

Professional organizations that are public institutions are very diverse. Chambers of
commerce and industry, chambers of medicine, chambers of pharmacists, chambers of
agriculture, chambers of architects and engineers and bar associations are some of them.

Professional organizations, which are public institutions, have two basic duties: towards
the State and towards the profession. Its duty towards the State is to represent the
profession before the State. Professional public institutions carry out activities to discuss
issues related to their profession and express their problems and solution proposals before
public authorities. Their duties regarding the profession are to ensure the internal discipline
of the profession. Professional organizations try to fulfill this duty through their powers of
regulation, supervision of the conduct of the profession, and discipline (Gözler, 2009:143).

The main features of professional organizations that are public institutions are as
follows (Gözübüyük, 2008:289;Ery›lmaz, 2011:218;Gözler, 2009:141-142).

Regulatory and Supervisory Bodies

These institutions, which are based on the Anglo-Saxon tradition and date back to the
19th century, are referred to in the literature as "independent administrative authorities",
"independent regulatory institutions", "superior boards", "regulatory boards". Concepts such
as ", "autonomous institutions" and "regulatory and supervisory institutions" are used. In our
country, these institutions are officially called "regulatory and supervisory institutions". The
emergence, spread and development of these institutions in the world are based on the
transformation process in the economy that started at the end of the 1970s. As liberal
policies gained importance in the economy, the separation of the regulatory and operational
functions of the state came to the fore. They are the product of the abolition of monopolies,
the privatization of public enterprises and the understanding that the state should assume
only a regulatory and arbitration role. These institutions were essentially established to
ensure that the market economy operates according to the rules of the game.

Why did regulatory and supervisory institutions emerge? Evaluate.

Regulatory and supervisory institutions emerged in our country after 1980. These
institutions are as follows, in order of their establishment dates: Capital Markets Board 1981
Institution (2002).
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Common features of regulatory and supervisory institutions can be listed as follows

(Ery›lmaz, 2011:226-227;Sezen, 2003: 143-144):

• They were established by law and have legal personality, administrative and financial
autonomy. In the laws of some regulatory and supervisory institutions, the terms
"administrative and financial autonomous" are defined, in some they are described as
"independent", and in others they are described as "impartial and autonomous". • Duties and
powers; Persons and persons involved in permitting, rulemaking, monitoring-supervision,
sanctioning, informing the public, expressing opinions/consultancy, resolving disputes,
research-development and training. It is in the form of requesting information from
organizations. • Their budgets are within the scope of the central government budget and
therefore they are subject to the preparation, negotiation and enactment process of the
central government budget and the procedures and principles under its control. • Their
income is largely covered by the sector they are involved in, and they make their expenses
from their own income. • Organizational structures; It consists of "board" as the decision-
making body, "presidency" and "service units" as the executive body. • The legality of
decisions and transactions is determined by administrative judicial authorities.

To explain Turkey's administrative structure. Turkey has a unitary state structure. Unitary
state means the unity and unity of legislative, executive and judicial functions throughout the
country and within itself. In the unitary state system, organization occurs in two forms: central
management and decentralized institutions. In the federal system, there is a triple structure:
central government (federal government), state (federal states) and local governments.
Turkey's public administration structure is divided into two main groups, namely central
administration and decentralized administrations, according to organizational principles. The
central government consists of institutions and organizations that carry out basic and general
services in the country. The basic organizational unit of the central government is the
ministries. The structure consisting of the central and provincial organizations of ministries
and their affiliated organizations is called central administration. This structure consists of
two levels: the capital organization/central organization and the provincial organization. The
provincial organization of the central government consists of "province", "district", "district"
and "regional organizations". Decentralized management organizations are divided into two:
geographically decentralized organizations and service/function decentralized organizations.
Local governments emerged according to the principle of geographical decentralization.
Service decentralization organizations are numerous in terms of their types and numbers.
There are provincial organizations. The senior managers at the head of the ministry's
provincial directorates are called "provincial directors". District administration is also
organized parallel to the provincial administration. The district governor is the head of the
district administration. The third level civil administration structure after the district is the
sub-district. In addition, in our management system, there are provincial organizations at the
regional level covering more than one province, these are called "regional directorates".
 TRANSLATION 101

To list the values ​on which local governments are based and their
characteristics in the 1982 Constitution
Local governments have certain values/principles that enable them to take part in federal
and unitary state systems and make them important. These values; "democracy and
participation", "administrative efficiency", "autonomy", "freedom" and "re-sharing". What is
important in a democratic system is that the people participate in the management of the
affairs that concern them, take part in the bodies established for this purpose, and supervise
and influence their managers. Effectiveness is about setting the right goals and achieving
them and is a result-oriented concept. Local government organizations are closer to the
public, have the opportunity to know their problems and needs better due to their location,
and are more sensitive to the society. . In addition, local governments have the right and
opportunity to organize and manage local affairs in line with the interests of the people
through their own organs, within the limits determined by law. Autonomy includes the ability
of local governments to have both freedom in their decisions (administrative autonomy) and
the necessary financial resources (financial autonomy). It is stated that in the West, and
especially in the Anglo-Saxon tradition, local governments play an important function in
protecting individual freedoms against the possible negativities of the central government.
Redistribution has brought about the concept of "social state" or "welfare state" throughout
the country. The reflection of this on the local government level is expressed by the concepts
of "welfare municipalism" or "social municipalism". In the 1982 Constitution, local
governments are regulated in Article 127 under the title of "local administrations". According
to the Constitution, local governments: have public legal personality; Its establishment, duties
and powers are regulated by law in accordance with the principle of decentralization; Decision
making bodies are determined by election. The central government has administrative
tutelage authority over local governments.

To summarize the types of local government organizations, their

duties, responsibilities and bodies
In our country, there are three types of local government units: "special provincial
administration", "municipality" and "village". The special provincial administration is the local
representative of the people of the province.

To be able to explain the types and qualities of service management

organizations
In all countries governed by democracy, in addition to the central government and local
governments, there are also autonomously organized public institutions. These are called
 TRANSLATION 102

"service decentralization organizations" or "service organizations" in our country.

Decentralization organizations are spread across various areas. Just as there are service
decentralization organizations operating in the commercial and industrial fields, there are
also organizations providing services in the fields of education, culture, technology, social
assistance and publishing. These are institutions, each specialized in a separate public
service. Universities, TRT, public economic enterprises, bar associations, chambers of
commerce and industry are some of these. Regulatory and Supervisory Institutions, which
have recently entered our management system, are structures that emerged according to the
principle of service/functional decentralization. Service decentralization organizations have
legal entities, their own assets, income sources and budgets. They have a certain degree of
autonomy. They are governed by their own organs. They are established by law or based on
the authority granted by the law. They operate within the integrity of public administration.
Service subjects are limited to certain functions; They are generally single-purpose
organizations and are based on the principle of expertise. They work for the public benefit.
One group of service decentralization organizations consists of public economic enterprises.
Economic and commercial enterprises of the state are called public economic enterprises.
Public economic enterprises are divided into two main groups: "state economic enterprises"
and "public economic enterprises". Regulatory and supervisory institutions constitute another
group among service decentralization organizations. The organizations in question were
established by law and have legal personality, administrative and financial autonomy. Duties
and powers; Regarding its sector, granting permits, making regulations, monitoring-
supervising, imposing sanctions, informing the public, expressing opinions/consultancy,
resolving disputes, research-development and training. , in the form of requesting information
from relevant persons and organizations. They take their decisions in the form of a
committee.

ENTRY
Public policy is among the basic issues that public administration deals with. Public
policy is a process and analyzing and examining this process is an important activity. If public
policy is accepted as a whole, it is necessary to divide it into parts in order to understand this
whole, to reveal the details by examining the parts or parts, thus to have an idea about the
whole. It is called public policy analysis. Decision making is one of the most frequently
performed activities in the public policy process. Perhaps the most important stage of the
public policy process, which is prepared by taking into account the propositions of many
scientific disciplines and the combination of many elements, is decision-making. The
decision-making mechanism, which is nourished by the recommendations and qualified
information of the policy analysis made with the use of technical and analytical methods at
the highest level, also includes many social, cultural, political and administrative dimensions.
In fact, decision making is the activity of determining what a service is, how it will be done and
to whom it will appeal. Decision makers who can operate this triple mechanism correctly can
 TRANSLATION 103

produce more accurate public policies. In this section, public policies, analysis models and
decision making, which is a sub-process, will be discussed.

PUBLIC POLICY AND RELATED CONCEPTS

Public policy, in general, is the emergence of society's demands regarding public
services, the ways in which these demands are conveyed to the state, and whether the
system takes action according to these demands and makes a regulation or not, the
implementation of the determined regulation and the subsequent It is a set of activities that
are evaluated as feedback and include returning to the beginning of the process again. This
process is shaped according to the needs, expectations and demands of society in
democratic countries. Many institutions and individuals play a role in this process.

Definition and Characteristics of Public Policy

The word "politics", a concept we use in our daily life, has two meanings in Turkish. In the
first one, politics is used in the sense of politics. The word politics here is the equivalent of
the English concept "politics". Secondly, politics; It means the path, method and program
followed and is used as the equivalent of the concept of "policy". Security policy, health policy

Public Policy
In and similar uses, policy is used in its second meaning. Sometimes, the word "politics"
in Turkish is also used in this second sense. Those interested in political science and public
administration have brought different definitions to the question of what public policy is.
Some of these are very general and comprehensive definitions: "Public policy is the
relationship of a public institution with its environment" (Eyestone, 1971:18). "Public policy is
everything that the public administration (government) chooses to do or not to do" (Dye,
1987:3). In these definitions, all kinds of transactions and activities that public institutions
choose to do or not to do are evaluated within the scope of public policy.

Rose defines public policy as "a long series of more or less interconnected activities and
the consequences of these interconnected activities for the parties concerned" ( Rose, 1969:
x). This definition of public policy tells us that policy is a set of activities and not just deciding
to do something. A similar but slightly more comprehensive definition is given by Anderson:
"Policy is a set of purposeful actions followed by a number of organizations or individuals to
solve a problem." (Anderson, 2003:3) What are the main features of public policy?

Jenkins, on the other hand, thinks of public policy as something more than simple
 TRANSLATION 104

administrative outputs. Policy problems, decision-making, implementation of decisions,

actors determining public policy and similar features distinguish public policy from other
administrative activities (Jenkins, 1978:34). At this point, Hogwood and Gunn (1984:19-24)
gave the most comprehensive definition by listing the features of public policy. According to
this:

• Policy is a process that is broader than the decision and includes it.

• Politics is not something that can be separated too much from management.

• Policy covers behaviors as well as intentions (goals).

• Politics includes both positive action and standing still.

• Public policies have consequences that may or may not be predicted. As a result, public
policies are not policies that emerge suddenly. They are activities that consist of a series of
actions developed and implemented by governments and public institutions. Public policy is a
process that includes activities such as making decisions, passing the laws that form the
operational form of these decisions, and their implementation. However, it should be
emphasized here that these complex events do not occur in a spontaneous order. Public
policies can be shaped, formulated and implemented by different methods depending on
whether the countries are developed or developing, democratic or totalitarian, and the level of
socio-economic development.

Concepts Related to Public Policy

In order to better understand public policy, it may be useful to define some basic
concepts and look at the content of the meanings attached to these concepts. Public Policy
Demands: When a problem or need arises in society, the demands or requests of civil or
official individuals and groups from decision makers who create public policy constitute
public policy demands. Purposeful pressures placed on governments, especially by non-
governmental organizations or citizens, occur in line with certain demands. In a democratic
country, voices from society have an impact on decision makers in the formation of public
policies.

Actors Playing a Role in Public Policy: Voters, pressure groups, bureaucrats, political
parties, government and parliament who have a direct or indirect contribution to the process
of decision-making or creating public policies regarding public policy. They are called those
who play a role in it. Public Policy Decisions: These are the decisions made by public officials
regarding the creation and implementation of public policy to direct public policy activities
and regulate their content. Decisions taken regarding legal regulations and implementation
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regulations that need to be made, decisions taken to give administrative instructions, and
decisions regarding the interpretation of laws can be counted as this type. However, it should
be noted that these are different from the routine decisions taken on a daily basis.

Discourses Related to Public Policy: Official discourses and opinions regarding public
policy. Discourses of public officials, court decisions, laws passed by the parliament, decrees
and instructions issued by the executive, administrative practice regulations and directives
that point to the aims and objectives of the government or public institutions are examples of
these.

Public Policy Outcomes: These are the concrete symptoms that emerge as a result of the
implementation of decisions and discourses regarding public policy. All kinds of services
provided, such as taxes collected, road construction, social security payments, health
services, can be considered as output. Public Policy Outcomes: Intended or unintended
effects of public policy outcomes on society are seen as the results of the policy. While
outputs are easy to measure, results are more difficult to measure.

ACTORS PLAYING A ROLE IN THE PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS

There are two areas that the public policy process covers. The first of these is the efforts
of some pressure groups to influence and bargain with the state regarding policies, and the
second is the efforts of both elected and appointed politicians, bureaucrats and others. These
are the activities carried out within the state (Hill, 1997:110). There are those who call these
two areas official actors and informal actors (Birkland, 2001). In addition, there are those who
distinguish the groups (institutions) within the state that play a role in public policy as policy
networks and the social groups within society as policy communities ( Smith, 1997). In this
context, in a democratic country, on the one hand, voters, pressure groups and the media
within the society play a role in the public policy process, while on the other hand, political
parties, government, parliament and the judiciary, together with the elected and appointed
bureaucracy, play a role. . Finally, it is possible to add international actors to the actors that
play a role, especially today when globalization has become a universal phenomenon, and say
that they also play important roles (Çevik, 2003). Here, official and civil (unofficial) actors and
international actors will be discussed separately.

How many types of actors are there in the public policy process?

Official Actors
Official actors are mostly used to refer to institutions and individuals within the state or
 TRANSLATION 106

with ties to the state. In the process of creating public policies, parliament, judicial
institutions, executive (government and public institutions and public institutions) (Birkland,
2001;Kraft and Furlong,2007;Munger,2000;Dye, 2002, Gupta, 2001Kingdon, 2003). ).

Parliament
In a developed modern society, if a need, problem or expectation in any field comes to
the agenda of the society and if this is permanent, it is conveyed to the state, in other words
to the government or public institutions, by intermediary official or civil institutions. The
government puts the issue on its agenda and starts working with the relevant bureaucrats to
find solutions. If the issue requires a legal regulation, the government prepares the issue as a
bill and brings it to the parliament's agenda, as it must be brought to the agenda of the
parliament. In most countries, parliaments are bicameral and consist of senates and the
house of representatives.

Information about the activities of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (GNAT), which is
an important actor in the public policy process, can be accessed at www.tbmm.gov.tr.

Judicial Institutions
In the modern state, there is a theoretical balance between the legislature, executive and
judiciary in accordance with the principle of separation of powers. In reality, rather than such
a balance, there may be situations where sometimes the legislature, sometimes the
executive, and sometimes the judiciary are effective. Judicial control over the executive and
legislature is important. A policy programmed and shaped by laws or regulations by the
legislative or executive body during the public policy making process cannot come into force
if it is canceled by the judiciary. Therefore, if the issue comes before the judiciary and the
regulation is annulled, the relevant public policy is ignored.

Government and Public Bureaucracy

In the modern state, administratively, the structure and functioning of all kinds of public
institutions are included in the executive body. Therefore, the most important role in creating
public policies is played by the government and public bureaucracy (military and
administrative). When we look at the emergence process of public policies, politicians and
public officials as well as society have an important contribution, especially at the point
where social problems come to the agenda (Çevik, 2007). .
 TRANSLATION 107

Civilian (Unofficial) Actors

In the public policy process, as well as the official state-owned individuals and
institutions described above, individuals and institutions that do not have any connection with
the state, referred to as civilian actors, also play a role in policy formulation, implementation
and evaluation. In modern society, organization is very developed and individuals come
together and contact the state or government or the relevant public institution in the broadest
sense, both as individuals and as groups that have formed a unity of purpose, on public
policies that concern them. Thus, they try to obtain results that suit them by influencing the
regulations or practices in the relevant field (Birkland, 2001;Kraft and Furlong, 2007;Munger,
2000;Dye, 2002, Gupta, 2001Kingdon, 2003). As civil actors playing a role in the public policy
process, political parties, individuals (voters-citizens), pressure groups-non-governmental
organizations and the media are the most important ones that attract attention.

Political Parties
Political parties are indispensable institutions of democracy. Especially in pluralistic
democracies, political parties are representatives of the spectrum of political preferences in
society. Political parties are democratic institutions that provide the opportunity to engage in
politics by bringing together people with the same political views. On the other hand, political
parties are institutions that aspire to govern the state. Therefore, although they originate from
society, they continue their lives in the parliament or executive. Apart from this, in cases
where they cannot be elected, they do not take part in either the parliament or the government
and continue to live completely within the society. In this context, political parties are
institutions that were established by society but later took their place within the state. In this
respect, political parties are institutions that are strictly regulated and supervised by special
laws regarding their organization, work, operation and other matters. The role of political
parties is very important in the public policy-making process. Because both opposition and
ruling parties are directly involved in the process. While the party in power plays the main role
in determining public policies, opposition parties within or outside the parliament try to
influence the ruling party in this process. Both parties think that they are doing this on behalf
of society.

Individuals (Voters-Citizens)
The difficulty (impossibility) in the applicability of direct democracy has given rise to the
alternative of representative democracy in today's modern society. In this respect, the most
applicable method for using political power in countries with pluralistic democratic
government is representative democracy. In this context, the basic starting point in both
direct and representative democracy is that this system is based on the people, in other
 TRANSLATION 108

words, the citizens of the country have the right to use and manage political power. is. In this
respect, it can be assumed that the citizens of a country have full influence and control over
the governance and management mechanisms of that country, albeit in a theoretical sense.
Here, the roles of citizens with voter status become especially important.

In fact, it may not be a realistic approach to think that each individual will have a lot of
influence on public administration and public policies. The biggest problem here is that, since
elections are held at regular intervals in representative democracies, the control and guidance
opportunities on the elected political power that governs the country are almost non-existent.
In order to change or warn a government elected for four or five years, it is necessary to wait
for the next election. Moreover, voters often do not have sufficient information about the
political, administrative and other processes through which public policies are implemented.
In this respect, they can only be aware of the issue as it reflects on them. In modern
democratic societies, the solution to this has been found by individuals organizing and
forming pressure groups. Thus, individuals try to overcome many issues that they cannot
achieve alone through these social groups.

As a result, although today's representative democracies are seen as systems in which

the government is based on the people, there are doubts about their applicability. Especially
the holding of general or local elections in certain periods and the fact that these periods are
long makes the influence of voters as individuals on public administration and policies
almost non-existent. In this respect, considering that individual contribution is only in the
form of voting during the election period, it is seen that representative democracies are based
on the people and governments are governed according to the demands of the people.

Pressure Groups - Non-Governmental Organizations

Pressure groups are organized social organizations that play an important role in the
formulation and implementation of public policies. In parallel with the form of organization in
modern society, pressure groups lead the way in conveying citizens' demands, needs and
problems to the state. However, the effectiveness of pressure groups is closely linked to the
democratic cultures of the countries. The administrations and parliaments of countries with a
democratic understanding of government have to create policies according to the wishes of
the citizens.

It is known that pressure groups are very effective in Western democracies and play
important roles in shaping public policies by applying serious pressure on governments. For
example; In a country with a pluralist democratic government like the United States, pressure
groups such as unions representing workers, employer unions representing businessmen,
and agricultural unions are very effective on the management (Anderson, 2003:44).
 TRANSLATION 109

What is the importance and role of non-governmental organizations

in the public policy process in democratic countries?
Organized or unorganized unions (pressure groups) may vary according to their areas of
interest, size, organization types, number of members and types of activities. Worker
organisations, employer organisations, organizations in the field of agriculture and commerce
and all kinds of social organizations can form pressure groups. They are in contact with the
administration in line with their own areas of interest.

Media
Today, the media is considered the fourth power after the legislature, judiciary and
executive. The main reason for this is that visual and written media completely surround daily
life. Today, the publications made by the media are very effective on both the public and the
administration (government and bureaucracy). A free press can be considered one of the
most important requirements of modern pluralist democracy. This freedom can be extended
to all forms of communication and media, visual and other written. Thanks to such a free
media, a healthy communication and information flow will be possible between the rulers
(government-public administration) and the governed (citizens-public). In this communication,
the media provides important assistance to the government by informing the public about
what the government does. On the other hand, it helps the public by conveying the people's
demands and needs to the management. At this point, the most important issue is whether
the media is impartial while playing such an important communication role and presenting
the news to the society.

Why is the media so influential on the state and government today?

In Turkey, the influence of the media has increased greatly in recent years and it has
almost begun to be referred to as the fourth estate. In fact, the power of the media is quite
high in democratic countries. If the media has a biased and misleading attitude, the demands
of the society regarding public policies in that country may be reflected on the state
according to the interests of the media.

Public administration
Democratic government is a form of government in which political power is exercised by
elected people who are representatives of the people in pluralistic democracies.
 TRANSLATION 110

International Actors
Not only national actors play a role in the formulation and implementation of public
policies. It is worth noting that, as one of the results of globalization recently, powerful
countries or international organizations and organizations (international actors) have an
impact especially on developing countries. International actors are not included in the
literature on public policy. Considering that the USA, England, Germany and other developed
countries generally direct international organizations, it is the developing countries, not these
developed countries, that are affected by these organizations. Therefore, international actors
are not taken into consideration when considering actors in studies in these countries. But
this is not valid for countries like Türkiye. For example, due to the agreements made between
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Turkey after the economic crises, the IMF can
influence the economic policies in Turkey. In this respect, international actors cannot be
ignored.

How do international organizations and institutions affect the

domestic policies of countries?
International actors play a role in all areas, from social public policies to economic
policies, from foreign policy to security policies. Especially after the September 11 attack in
the USA, efforts for cooperation and solidarity between countries and common policy
production in the fight against terrorism have increased. In addition, the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the International Bank are involved in the creation
and implementation of policies that can overcome the economic problems experienced by
developing countries such as Turkey. Organizations such as the International Organization
(ILO) are influential. Many international organizations, such as UNICEF, are involved in the
formation and implementation of policies in social areas. Apart from these, associations or
organizations formed by countries also play a role in national policies. The European Union,
the Arab League, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and NATO
can be counted among these. As a result, when considering actors in public policy studies, it
is not enough to examine only national actors. Especially if the country under investigation is
a developing country, international actors should also be taken into consideration.

PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS AND ANALYSIS MODELS

Public policy analysis is defined as being able to describe (qualify) the policy issue being
studied, analyze it and explain the public policy as a result. When viewed from a holistic
perspective on public policy; In addition to qualifying and explaining the relevant policy
elements, researching and revealing the results of the steps taken by the decision-making
mechanism and the reasons that led to these results. › is also necessary (Dye, 2002:3).
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Policy analysis requires the use of many different activities together and/or sequentially.
In this regard, policy analysis methods are used at almost every stage of the public policy
process. According to Kraft and Furlong (2007: 95), policy analysis; It includes the stages of
collecting the necessary data to reveal the causes of the effects of public problems,
processing the data and producing and interpreting qualified information. Beyond this, it
reveals the possible consequences on society and decision makers of implementing a policy
proposal or, in comparison, another policy alternative.

It can also be referred to as kartmak. However, detailing a public problem to the extent
that it can be addressed at the policy level requires the use of economics, sociology,
psychology, philosophy, political science and many other disciplines together (Weimer and
Vining, 2005). ;Kraft and Furlong, 2007: 95).

What is public policy analysis and what are the benefits of doing it?
The main goal in policy analysis is to produce qualified information for the decision-
making mechanism. The current government tries to decide on a new policy by taking many
sequential actionable steps within the decision-making mechanism. In this respect, effective
policy analysis can be made by using appropriate/integrated scientific methods together with
the capacity to make political judgments. Ultimately, the decision-making process ends with a
law, a regulation, a project or an output in other formats. Measuring the impact of a policy on
society and observing the change it brings about in society is also examined in depth under
the name of policy evaluations.

Public Policy Analysis Models

The use of model(s) in public policy is becoming widespread. Simplifying and
understanding analyzes consisting of many operational and analytical steps is possible with
conceptual models (Çevik and Demirci, 2008). Depending on the skills of policy analysts,
different models can be used together and/or appropriately. When viewed from this
perspective; The model developed to identify or solve each new public policy problem can be
a unique model. Public policy analyzes are also built on these originally developed models.

Analyzing and evaluating current public policies is an especially important activity,

especially in the context of feedback. For governments and public administration, correcting
the mistakes made and making the relevant corrections depends on the lessons learned.

Some approaches have been developed to analyze public policy (public programs). Of
these, the institutional approach is the most classical analysis model. In addition, the system
approach that emerged when David Easton (1957) applied the general system approach to
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the political system and public administration, and finally divided public policy into stages.
There is also a functional process approach that aims to make it understandable. Each of
these approaches can be used separately or sometimes together to analyze any public policy
area.

Corporate Approach
The institutional approach is the most classical model that has been used since the
beginning of the 20th century, when management science began to emerge. This approach is
generally concerned with defining the more formal and legal aspects of administrative
institutions and the relations between them. In fact, in today's modern state and bureaucracy,
formally examining the relevant institutions responsible for the implementation of public
policy separately gains special importance. Because institutional features play an effective
role in the implementation of policies. However, institutional analysis alone may not be
sufficient to examine public policies.

System Approach
The system model or political system approach was conceptualized by David Easton
(1957. In this approach, the political system is considered as a whole with its environment. In
this sense, public policy is the separation of the political system from the environment. It is
seen as a response to rising expectations and demands. Easton defines the political system
as the interrelated institutions and workers in a society that make administrative decisions
that bind that society together and protect social values. It defines it as a compromise of
consensus. According to this model, public policy is determined as an outcome of the
political system. Some concepts have gained special importance in the system model. These
are , political system, inputs (requests and supports), outputs (decisions and studies) and
finally the environment. The environment includes all events that occur outside the
boundaries of the political system. and includes conditions.

More comprehensive information about the political system approach can be obtained
from the book Political System and Bureaucracy (Istanbul: Der Yay›nlar›, 1997) written by
Cemil Oktay.

Demands for the political system come from groups or individuals. Individuals or groups
are given support when they obey the law, pay their taxes, and agree with election results and
generally accept public policy decisions. Inputs are taken into the political system and
outputs are produced and given out. Thus, outputs (public policies) can change the
environment and demands. This directs the system to produce new policy outputs, and this
activity continues as a cycle. In other words, this process can be seen as 'the never-ending
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flow of public policy' (Anderson, 2003: 19).

Therefore, a public policy area to be analyzed is accepted as a functioning system within

the context of this approach and analysis is made according to the elements of the system. In
this context, a researcher who wants to analyze can distinguish both the public
administration system itself, its inputs and outputs, and finally its environment (which is
generally the society itself) and the connection between them. He carries out his research by
going further. For example; David Easton's system approach was used by Cemil Oktay (1997)
to analyze the Turkish political system and bureaucracy.

Which model is more useful in public policy analysis?

Functional Process Model

This approach is an analysis model that aims to focus on the stages in this process,
considering that public policy is a process. Harold D. Lasswell gave a sequence of rational
stages that includes seven categories of functional analysis (Lasswell, 1956). This approach
divides public policy into stages. In fact, such a distinction, although not very clear in practice,
makes public policy more understandable by dividing it into some rational sections for the
purpose of analysis. At this point, it is said that there are various activities in the stages of
public policies and these stages are discussed in detail in the process model. The roles and
activities of voters, interest groups, legislature, bureaucrats and other political actors gain
importance here. One of the main aims of this approach is to make the most realistic
analysis of public policy by making the stages understandable. Although these stages are
handled differently in different sources, they are generally

It is stated as follows (Lasswell: 1956;Jones: 1984;Dye: 1987;Anderson: 2003;Hogwood

and Gunn:1984;Hill, 1997 reporting the outputs of the programs. The target in society and
Evaluating the effects of non-target programs. Recommending changes and corrections.
According to the functional process approach, decision making for public policy can be seen
as a series of political and administrative activities. This approach to public policy analysis It
is not specific to certain institutions and political arrangements and is suitable for
comparative analysis in policy shaping.The process approach is useful for those dealing with
public administration, political science and social policy in making public policy decisions. It
enables them to work on the process of adoption and implementation. However, it can be
said that the process model ignores the impact of environmental variables in the stages and
the politics of policy shaping. This is the perspective that the process approach focuses on.
Although its perspective is narrow, this approach helps us understand the various activities
that take place in the process of public policy formation.
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Public Policy Analysis Stages

The more multidimensional and in-depth knowledge one has about the policy problem
being studied in policy analysis, the more accurate the decision-making rate can be. However,
this situation also requires a complex analysis and the use of advanced analytical methods. It
is possible to use many ways and methods in policy analysis. Essentially, two elements in
policy analysis should never be overlooked: 'the customer (individual or institution) who has
the policy analysis done' and 'correct determination of the research question'.

Public policy analysis stages have been examined by some researchers (Bardach,
2000;Weimer and Vining, 2005). In the first stage, what the problem is, where it occurs, who
or what is affected by this problem, what were the main factors that caused this problem to
emerge. It should be determined how these elements may be affected by a possible
actionable policy step. In the second stage, the answer to the question of what policy options
can be considered to cover the dimensions of the current problem should be sought. In the
third stage, determining the most appropriate evaluation criteria for alternative policies
developed for the current problem, calculating the cost of each, what their possible effects
are, and their social and economic feasibility. Detailed criteria need to be developed. In the
fourth stage, policy alternatives should be evaluated in terms of the applicable criteria
determined in the previous stage. In the final stage, it is necessary to determine the most
appropriate and most desirable among the existing policy alternatives within the current
social, economic, political and cultural conditions.

Public administration
Government program: It is a document that outlines the approach of the council of
ministers, which constitutes the political wing of the executive body, to national and
international issues and contains the basic policies that it aims to implement.

DECISION MAKING MODELS IN THE PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS

One of the most important functions in public administration and public policy process is
decision-making. Decision making is the activity of determining what a service is, how it will
be done and to whom it will be provided. In this respect, decision-making mechanisms
operating in public institutions are important. There are basically several different approaches
and models for explaining the decision-making function. The first of these is the rational
model, the second is the additive model and finally the mixed model that provides a
compromise between these two.
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Rational Approach
The rational approach is one of the best approaches to explain public policies and
decision-making, which is an important part of it. According to this approach, a public policy
aims to achieve maximum results. A rational public policy is the policy that achieves
maximum social gain.

The features of the rational model are as follows: (Leach, 1982:6). Some criticisms have
been directed to the rational decision-making theory. These criticisms were generally put
forward by Charles E. Lindblom (1965Lindblom ( , 1968Lindblom ( , 1979). In summary, the
important points of these criticisms are as follows. Too many demands and demands from
public administrators who create public policies and make decisions. There is an expectation.
However, decision makers often do not have such opportunities. Moreover, it should not be
thought that it is very possible to determine and establish separate and priority targets for
alternative policies.

In particular, due to both the lack of information and the possibility that the decision
makers' options regarding options are limited, decision makers may often not be able to set
many goals and objectives, and in general, they may not be able to do the job. They can quit.
Another criticism is the difficulty of fully investigating profits and losses from the very
beginning. In the first place, it may be impossible to develop an adequate method for making
the assessment. Because most of the time, what the cost will be and what difficulties will be
encountered cannot be calculated from the beginning. In addition, decision-making cannot be
explained realistically without taking into account the system of values ​that can directly
affect the decision-making activity and the behavioral realities within and between
organizations.

However, the models proposed in public policy analysis may not be effective and
competent on their own. An important feature of the rational model that should not be
overlooked is that it presents policy alternatives as simply as possible.

Incrementalism Approach
It can be said that the additive approach in decision-making emerged as a reaction to
rationalism. This method was put forward by Charles E. Lindblom as an alternative approach
(Lindblom, 1965(Lindblom, 1968Braybrooke and Lindblom, 1963). In this approach, public
policy includes the activities of previous governments. It is seen as continuation with
adjustments. According to this approach, decision making requires considering only marginal
changes in the boundary. A problem is continually redefined by the decision maker. The
decision maker develops a new solution. It starts with the policies currently in force rather
than the ideal goal.The additive approach tries to create a continuous and reciprocal
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relationship between ends and means, but, as in the traditional rational model, it uses the
means according to the ends. Lindblom (1968) also emphasizes that a truly rational actor
cannot be created in the public policy-making process and that it is not even desirable to
create one. In this respect, being the best according to rational criteria is important. It should
be considered that the "incrementalist" model can be more effective in decision-making
mechanisms by proposing acceptable but marginal changes that are a solution to the current
problem (Cooper et al., 1998: 166).

In the additive approach, the selection of the target or objectives and the experimental
movement analysis required to combine them are intertwined instead of being separate from
each other. However, in the rational approach, goals and objectives can be considered and
examined separately. Thanks to this approach; When dealing with a problem, the decision
maker considers only some of the alternatives, not all of them. These alternatives will differ
from existing policies only in the context of additions (marginal additions). Only a limited
number of "significant" outcomes will be evaluated for each alternative.

The problem facing the decision maker is constantly being redefined. The additive
approach allows endless adjustments of ends-means and means-ends that have the effect of
making social problems easier to manage and cope with.

In the additive approach, there is no single decision or right solution to a problem. It

essentially has a corrective feature in additive decision-making. This decision-making model
is geared towards improving existing concrete social deficiencies rather than improving
future social goals. One of the most important benefits of this approach is that it is easier to
reach a consensus when making a decision about a problem, even in the political sense, as
the only effort will be to make additions to the policies implemented.

The additive decision-making model is more limited than the rational approach and can
be used more effectively and widely in making applicable and acceptable decisions.

Mixed Models in Decision Making

While the criticisms of the rational model summarized above are generally accepted, it
has also been claimed that the additive approach has some shortcomings. For example,
when making decisions within the framework of this model, the interests of powerful and
organized groups in society may be reflected in the decision, while the interests of
unorganized groups may be ignored. Moreover, concentrating on short-term and only limited
changes to existing policies may lead to social innovations being ignored. For this reason,
mixed models using both approaches have been developed as an intermediate method (Dror,
1964;Etzioni, 1967).
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Amitai Etzioni (1967:388) introduced the mixed decision-making model in this context.
This approach divides decisions into two: major decisions and additional or minor decisions.
Key decisions determine basic policy direction. War, launching the space program and similar
general and new decisions are radical and fundamental decisions. Therefore, this approach
takes into account both the additional processes that enable basic decisions to be made and
the additional decisions to be taken in the implementation of the decisions reached. The
mixed decision-making model allows decision makers to use both the rational model and the
additive approach in different situations.

According to Yehezkel Dror (1964: 153), the decision-making method that Lindblom calls
additionism is an attempt to ideologically reinforce laziness and opposition to innovation.
Dror states that such an approach will only work if current policies are sufficient and
satisfactory and society does not encounter any new problems. According to Dror, this
method, which actually works in some areas, will be helpless in the face of increasing
problems in societies where conditions change frequently.

According to Dror, the alternative to this is not a rational decision-making model. The
model that Dror presents as an alternative is an average model that combines realism and
idealism. In general terms, this model uses both rational and extra-rational elements in
decision making. Extra-rational elements include thinking, value judgments, creative invention,
brainstorming, and other approaches. Rational elements include reviewing options and
clarifying goals and objectives.

G. D. Smith and D. May (1997) say that the debate between rationalist and additive
decision-making models is unrealistic. In fact, Smith and May (1997) stated that the
rationalist approach gives prescriptions about what should happen or is expected, while the
additive model gives explanations about what happens, and that the mixed model is the third
way. They indicate that it can play a unifying role.

As can be seen, mixed decision-making models are a kind of compromise that combines
the use of additiveism and rationalism. However, there are doubts about how successful it
will be in practice. Because it is not clear how decision makers will decide on using both
approaches. Moreover, a rational approach may often seem easier to public administrators
responsible for decision-making. What will be done, especially if the new bureaucrats do not
favor the ways and methods used in the past? Therefore, people who have to make decisions
in public administration are not independent of their environment, they have their own values ​
and they often carry these to the management and It should be taken into consideration that
these have a great impact on the decisions they make.

Moreover, in public administration, some decisions are made for the first time, while
others are made continuously. At this point, there is no such thing as best or most correct. It
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is mandatory for the manager who has to make a decision to make an evaluation based on
environmental, personal and environmental conditions. Therefore, there are not many
standards that can be put forward when making decisions in public administration. Because
standard setting will be influenced by preferences and understandings. Especially at this
point, it should be considered that some values ​direct the behavior of the decision maker. In
this respect, who is involved in the decision-making activity and who takes part and plays a
role in the policy-making process becomes important. It is a process in which a set of
activities for public policy purposes is carried out and consists of at least four stages. These
are the emergence of the policy problem, the formation of the policy as the response of the
political system to this problem, the implementation of the policy and finally the evaluation
phase as feedback. The main concepts we encounter in public policy are society's demands
from the state and the government, actors playing a role in public policy (official, civil and
international institutions, organizations and individuals), policy decisions. , policy discourses,
outputs and results. Demands are the needs, expectations and wishes of individuals and
society. Actors, as the name suggests, are all kinds of people, institutions and organizations
that play a role in the process. Decisions refer to all kinds of decisions regarding the
formulation and implementation of policy. Discourses are the styles and expressions used by
the government and public institutions in the relevant field of public policy. While outputs are
net service amounts, results are the long-term effects of these outputs on the environment
and society.

To be able to identify institutions and individuals that play a role in

the public policy process.
Individuals or institutions that play a role in the formulation and implementation of public
policy can be grouped into three categories: Official (state-owned), civil (society-owned) and
international actors. Official actors can be listed as primarily the parliament, the government,
public institutions and organizations, and judicial institutions. Civil actors are political parties,
pressure groups-non-governmental organizations, media and voters. International
organizations can be counted among international actors. The European Union and the
United Nations are the most effective.

QUALITY OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Approaches to human resources management have entered a period of rapid change,
especially since the 1980s. The adoption of a human resources approach in management
instead of a personnel management approach emerged in the 1980s, triggered by
developments in economy, politics, management approach, communication technologies and
globalization. is. The human resources approach essentially started with studies, analyzes
and developed methods in the private sector and then moved to public administration.
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Definition of Human Resources Management

Human resources management constitutes a sub-branch of management. The concept
of human resources management can be discussed in two ways. Human resources
management is, first of all, a "functional" concept; Secondly, it is a field of study and
"discipline". Human resources management has a perspective that includes, but is not limited
to, the classical personnel management function. As it is known, personnel management as a
functional concept; Human Resources Management includes activities related to the
recruitment, classification, promotion, financial and social rights, training, disciplinary
procedures, referral and management of personnel. Personnel management, as an academic
discipline, is a sub-branch of management that examines these issues theoretically and
practically. Human resources management can also be defined in two ways: function and
discipline. As a function, human resources management includes classical personnel
management activities, but in addition, it includes the continuous development of employees'
knowledge and skills, their motivation, improvement of their working environments, and
measurement of their performance. It is a broader concept that also includes evaluation and
authorization.

In other words, human resources management also carries out classical personnel
management functions, as well as the motivation of employees, performance evaluation,
prevention of conflicts, development of relationships between individuals and groups, It
covers many policies and practices, from creating a change-oriented corporate culture to the
training and development of employees (F›nd›kç›, 2001: 13). As an academic discipline,
human resources management is a field aimed at understanding, analyzing and developing
these policies and practices and is included in management science.

Human resources management deals with the human element in organizations from
three perspectives: 1. Selection, classification, placement, training, regulation of powers and
duties, promotion and wages of the personnel needed by the organization. It deals with
technical issues such as performance evaluation and disciplinary procedures. 2. Ensuring the
harmony of the personnel recruited within the organization, developing the spirit of
cooperation, protecting their material and moral interests, motivating them for the job and
contributing to the success of the organization. It works to increase the limit. 3. It takes
necessary precautions to ensure the occupational safety of the recruited personnel and to
protect their social existence. These general definitions on human resources management
are valid in both the public and private sectors. When it comes to human resources
management in the public sector, we mean the management specific to the personnel
employed in public institutions, in short, the state; Activities and academic studies related to
human resources management in the private sector and the management of employees in
private enterprises are explained. Although there are some similarities and differences
between human resources management in these two segments, it can be said that the
similarities are gradually increasing compared to the differences.
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Development of Human Resources Management Human resources management is

based on a certain management approach and philosophy. Developments in human
resources management are closely related to transformations in the field of management.
Thoughts, structures and practices regarding management have been greatly influenced by
the development processes of civilizations and the relationships between production factors
in these processes. Regarding civilizations, a triple classification is made in the form of
"agricultural society", "industrial society" and "information society" stages. The management
idea, structures, society-state relations, qualifications and status of employees and the roles
of managers were different in each stage.

In the stages of civilization, there have been significant changes in the nature of land,
capital and labor. The dominant production factor and source of wealth in the agricultural
society was land. Those whose lands were large and fertile were considered rich. Therefore,
large landowners were also politically powerful people and had a significant influence on the
administration of their countries and cities. The aristocracy in Europe is a product of this
period.

The industrial revolution, which emerged in the second half of the 18th century, brought
significant changes in the economic, social, political and cultural fields, with the use of a
number of technological innovations in the field of production. brought about changes.
Production began to shift from land to factories, and therefore the source of wealth became
the tools and equipment used in production such as money, facilities, machinery and
equipment, called capital.

The Industrial Revolution was not limited to the establishment of factories and mass
production; From family structure to settlement pattern, from employee-employer relations to
social relations; It had significant effects on a wide range of life, from feudal government to
nation state, from traditional structures to modern structures and relations. The Industrial
Revolution continued its dominance throughout the 19th century and until the last quarter of
the 20th century. After the Second World War, capital accumulation increased significantly,
became liquid, and therefore ceased to be a scarce resource.

What impact did industrial society have on human resources

management?
Just as the industrial society highlights the business and its management as the center
of business, it has also made bureaucracy and bureaucrats an important center of power in
public administration. Thinkers such as Max Weber, Karl Marx, F. Taylor, Henri Fayol, and
Woodrow Wilson developed their theories on management during this period. During this
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period, important studies and research were carried out to increase the efficiency and
effectiveness of employees in institutions and at the workplace. F. Taylor's analyzes and the
methods he developed to increase the productivity of industrial workers were put into
practice and played a fundamental role in creating the wealth of the welfare state. Since the
late 1920s, thoughts and practices regarding personnel management began to benefit from
the data of psychological science. Elton Mayo's research and analysis of human needs have
revealed that in order to increase the productivity of employees in institutions, their
psychological aspects should be valued more. is. This period was marked by the "human
relations movement". Thus, the concept of "a happy employee is an efficient employee" has
developed. However, this approach has a one-dimensional view of human relations; It has
been observed that it started to lose its influence starting from the 1970s because it did not
give due importance to the team, participation in management, flexible working styles,
business processes, standards and rules.

The third radical change in the history of civilization, after the industrial society, has
emerged with the widespread use of computers in all areas of life and rapid developments in
communication technologies. . These developments; It has had an accelerating and
improving effect on information production, transmission and processing capacity; It has led
to the birth of the phase that some call "post-industrial society" and others call "information
society". At this stage of society, information has become the fundamental dynamic of
development, diversity, innovation and efficiency. As capital ceased to be a scarce resource
and became more fluid with globalization, the main factor that creates difference and
provides competitive advantage in businesses has become knowledge and the people who
produce it. Human resources have become a strategic advantage for businesses. The aim of
the concept of human resources is to present a human-centered approach in working life; To
train and develop people and enable them to apply their knowledge to business life. In short, it
is to benefit more from knowledge workers who constantly learn and internalize learning. The
area of ​interest of businesses has shifted from physical resources and capital to information,
which is "intellectual capital", and the people who produce and use it.

When businesses started to produce "customer-centered" strategies instead of "product-

centered" thinking in the late 1970s, they entered the process of designing the business
according to customers' tendencies, preferences and situations; listening to customers more
and 151 Unit 7 -Human Resources Management

They tended to understand. Accordingly, the concept of "total quality" developed. Until
then, quality remained in the background in management functions as a matter of control and
compensation for errors, but in the 1980s, "total quality", such as service quality, work quality
and human relations quality, was introduced. " has left its mark on business life (Düren, 2000:
17). All these developments make the human element, as a source of intellectual capital,
stand out as an important factor in the success of organizations, the development of the
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participatory management approach, It ensured that employees were treated as internal

stakeholders in the decision-making process, and companies began to further develop this
resource. As an economy develops from the industrial to the post-industrial phase and
becomes increasingly dependent on knowledge and highly skilled workers, the discretionary
power delegated to employees increases, as does the need for human resources. The need
to improve it also becomes more important.

These developments in the private sector in human resources management have also
been largely reflected in public administration. Many concepts and methods applied in the
private sector, such as total quality management, strategic management, performance
management, flexible working styles, and performance-related wages, have begun to be
implemented in public institutions as well. In our country, especially in the reforms made in
the 2000s, it is seen that changes have been made in the direction of transition from the
personnel management approach to the human resources management approach. Indicators
of this transition are summarized below:

• Change in the understanding of "citizen" in the provision of public services, • Seeing

employees as an internal stakeholder, • Initiation of strategic plan and performance program
implementation in public institutions, • Developing result-oriented approaches in management
instead of input-centered thinking, • Giving more importance to in-service training, •
Introducing flexible working styles, • Implementing performance-related wages in some areas
and contracted personnel instead of civil servants. Tendencies to popularize human
resources, • Particularly in local governments, the names of the units in the form of
"personnel department" or "personnel directorate" are legally changed to "human resources
department" or "human resources". transformation into a "directorate" (Ery›lmaz, 2010:258-
262).

Characteristics of Human Resources Management Human resources management is a

field shaped by the basic values, understanding, policies, structures, methods and practices
related to management in general. Therefore, it is an internal element of management. Taking
into account general developments regarding management, the features of human resources
management can be listed as follows:

• Human resources management believes that there is a close relationship between

organizational development and the individual and group development of employees. It aims
to continuously improve the creativity, knowledge and experience levels of its employees in
order to prevent information from becoming obsolete in a short time and to catch innovations
in a timely manner. • Human resources management focuses on results rather than inputs. It
focuses on the performance of personnel and its impact on the efficiency of the institution,
rather than the number of personnel, their working hours and wages. • Human resources
management sees employees as internal stakeholders; He thinks that it would be beneficial
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to determine the goals and objectives of the institution and to actively participate in other
decision-making processes.

• Human resources management tries to make a "we"-centered culture dominant in the

institution instead of a "me"-centered approach. • Human resources management, in the face
of the rise of a form of authority based on knowledge and expertise, instead of a type of
authority based on hierarchy in the institution, mutual cooperation and respect for expertise.
Being aware of business and teamwork, it tries to meet the requirements and conditions of
this cooperation. • Human resources management includes the simplification of business
and transaction processes, the reduction and simplification of legislation, a flat and flexible
structure of organizations, flexible working styles, performance-related › defends the wage
and employment regime. • Human resources management represents a paradigmatic break
from classical personnel management. While in classical personnel management, the
employee is seen as a passive element of the institution, in human resources management,
the employee is viewed as "equity capital". • Human resources management is based on the
idea of ​making maximum use of employees; For this purpose, it attaches importance to an
alternative use policy by providing training for employees in more than one job in addition to
the job they are currently doing. • Finally, human resources management is a dynamic process
and requires sensitivity to developments. In this respect, it tries to contribute to the
development of a change-oriented corporate culture so that the institution can constantly
adapt itself to innovations and developments (Ery›lmaz, 2010:262-265).

Human Resources Management in the Public and Private Sector

There are some similarities and differences in human resources management in public
and private enterprises. The similarities are related to the convergence between public
administration and private management approaches. The differences arise from the unique
characteristics of both sectors.

Similarities
Similarities in human resources management in the public and private sectors can be
summarized in six points: 1. In both sectors, human resources management is related to the
human aspect of the organization. Every organization, regardless of the field it focuses on,
needs to develop its human resources in order to be successful. 2. In both sectors, there is a
structure, norm and order of relations that includes some elements such as division of labor,
hierarchy, written rules and impartiality. This is called the "bureaucratic" element. 3. Since
management is a group activity based on "cooperation" to achieve certain goals, the aim of
every organization, regardless of its type, is to improve this cooperation and coordination. 4.
In human resources management in both sectors, values ​and principles such as quality,
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efficiency, effectiveness, career, honesty, performance and professionalism have gained

importance. 5. Regarding human resources, the tendency to focus on outputs and results
rather than inputs has begun to dominate in all segments of society. 6. In both sectors,
human resources are seen as the "equity capital" of the institution, and the investment made
in it is not considered as a cost.

Differences
There are some fundamental differences in the understanding and practices of human
resources management in the public and private sectors. These can be listed as follows: 1. In
general, public services consist of activities that concern everyone and where the idea of ​
"public benefit" prevails rather than "profit". The purpose of jobs in the private sector is
directly aimed at "profit".

Merit
The words "merit" and "worthy" are terms frequently used in daily speech. It is possible to
define merit briefly as the power, competence and competence to perform a task
successfully. The word worthy means being entitled to achieve something with one's
qualities, actions and behaviors. The concept of merit (competence) in human resources
management is used in two ways: "narrow" and "broad". Merit in the narrow sense is the
selection of the most talented and suitable personnel for public duties. "Talent" here includes
both knowledge, manners, culture and skill. The most appropriate means of realizing this
principle are "open competitive exams" that anyone with suitable application qualifications
can take.

In a broad sense, merit means entry into public office and promotion within the service
are linked to "suitability for the job" or "performance" criteria, and the wages and other
working conditions applied are dependent on the effectiveness and continuity of the service.
It is a personnel system that contributes to In this sense, merit gains importance not only in
employment but also in other stages of the human resources management process. In other
words, advancements and promotions within the service are directly associated with ability
and degree of success (Ery›lmaz, 2010: 267).

Career
The word career is used to describe the process of devoting oneself to a specialization or
ascending through a series of interrelated tasks. This concept also symbolizes the gradual
progress of a person in a job he undertakes or his degree of success in life. More specifically,
 TRANSLATION 125

career is the professional life that a person normally enters at a young age with the hope of
advancement and continues until retirement.

The meaning of a career in the public sector is to make civil service a profession based
on promotion opportunities. Career in the civil service profession refers to the phenomenon
of gaining and maintaining a position-related expertise status. The purpose of career is to
attract talented people suitable for the job, to keep them in service and to provide them with a
stable status.

Classification
Classification is the bringing together of the same or similar units from service groups
with hierarchical connections and grouping them.

In human resources management, class, due to its characteristics, can be used in

recruitment, wages, training, promotion, disciplinary procedures, etc. It refers to service
groups consisting of similar works that should be subject to the same conditions. The
common goal of the classification systems applied in various countries is to connect human
resources management to some rational principles.

Classification provides some benefits in the conduct of personnel transactions. The first
of these benefits is the ease of commissioning. Classification determines the type and
characteristics of the services to be performed by the state and the qualifications required for
the people who will perform these duties. Thus, it allows standardization and the application
of the adequacy principle at entry into service. Second benefit; It helps to establish a fair,
adequate and regular wage regime. Thirdly, a good classification is a prerequisite for the
establishment and development of the career system and the formation of professions.
Public administrations ensure that public duties are carried out efficiently and successfully
with a well-planned classification, that personnel rights, obligations, and service conditions
are regulated and that personnel They can complete their education (Ery›lmaz, 2010:268).

Classification in the public sector is made according to different procedures and

principles in each state. Differences in the management approach and social and economic
structure of each state reveal various forms of classification. However, it is also possible to
divide these different forms of classification into two main groups in terms of common
principles. This distinction is made on the basis of "staff" and "rank". selection is made.
Therefore, the system requires the organization of affairs. Arrangement of work; It is based
on determining the skills required for tasks, responsibilities and tasks. To do this, we first
start with a job description based on the necessary job analysis and specifying the
appropriate qualifications. The process of defining the job; It is accomplished by determining
the title of the job, required duties, responsibilities, and job-related qualifications. Let's take
 TRANSLATION 126

the job of "secretary" for example. Regarding secretarial work; Job descriptions such as
writing reports, keeping records, answering telephones, organizing meetings and conferences
on behalf of the top manager, and performing other assigned duties are stated in detail. Then,
in the field of secretarial work, qualifications such as a college diploma or equivalent
document, the ability to type forty words in one minute on the computer, and two years of
secretarial experience may be required. Organizations use staff classification for various
reasons (Denhardt and Denhardt, 2009:295):

Staff (Position) Classification

• Creating and maintaining objective staff inventories, • Ensuring equality between similar
jobs, • Establishing a connection between the skills and tasks required to perform the jobs, •
Working in the same jobs To provide standards in the evaluations to be made on people. This
system is most widely implemented in the United States. The system is built on a basis that is
in line with the understanding of state and management in the USA, individualist philosophy,
liberal economy and the relations of the private sector with the government and public
administration. The system is based on "specialization" for each job. Specialization is
envisaged not within broad service groups, but rather within narrow task limits. Each of these
narrow specialization units represents a staff (Ery›lmaz, 2010:268).

Rank Classification
The starting point of this classification is priority; These are not duties, duties and
responsibilities, but the individual qualities of the people who will fulfill these duties and
responsibilities. The most important of these qualities are the person's education and
professional formation. This classification is also called "personnel classification" because it
focuses on more employees than on duty.

In rank classification, public services are grouped according to a two-dimensional scale:

vertical and horizontal. Distinguishing public services from each other according to certain
expertise, skills and disciplines constitutes vertical division; Separation of services according
to different degrees of education and professional experience also indicates horizontal
division. Thus, the class is a cluster formed by the vertical and horizontal division of services
and consists of people who have the same education or experience in the same
specialization and profession.

One of the most important aspects of the classification system in human resources is
the division of classes into certain levels of authority and responsibility. In other words, it
means determining a rank order in each class. Each rank in the rank system indicates a
certain level of authority and responsibility. As the ranks increase, authority and
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responsibilities also increase. On the other hand, a person who has reached a certain level
can, as a rule, be assigned many different tasks, provided that they are at the same level. This
is one of the most important features of the rank system.

The civil service system implemented in our country is in accordance with rank
classification (Ery›lmaz, 2010, 268-269).

In which classification group does the civil service regime in our country fall within the
cadre and rank classification?

Performance
Performance is a concept that determines or describes what is achieved as a result of a
planned activity. Quantitatively and qualitatively determining the extent to which an
institution, person or group has achieved the intended goal regarding its work is expressed by
the concept of performance. Performance, as well as the level of achieving the intended
target, also tells how efficiently, effectively and sparingly the resources are used, and how
correct the work is (Ery›lmaz, 2010: 269).

Performance is attempted to be measured and evaluated within the framework of a

program. The performance program is divided into two: corporate performance program and
individual performance program. Corporate performance program is a document that
specifies the activities that an institution should carry out within the scope of the strategic
plan in a financial year, performance targets and indicators, and financial resource needs.

Individual performance is a concept used to measure employees' level of success at

work. It is the determination of the level at which a person working within the framework of a
certain job and task definition performs his job or duty efficiently, effectively, with high quality
and economically, within a certain targeted time period.

Performance evaluation of personnel is carried out for various purposes (Shafritz, Russell
and Borick, 2009: 418).

Impartiality
Public personnel should not grant privileges to anyone while performing their duties; It
means not making discrimination based on language, religion, philosophical belief, political
thought, race, gender and similar reasons and acting impartially towards everyone. Public
personnel are expected to do their job in accordance with the law, public interest and service
requirements, and to stay away from all kinds of arbitrariness. Special importance is given to
 TRANSLATION 128

the principle of impartiality in all personnel regimes, and this principle is included in detail in
personnel laws.

PRINCIPLES AND FEATURES OF HUMAN RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT IN TURKEY
Today's understanding of the state has changed from the understanding of the "welfare
state" or "service state", which sees itself obliged to provide services to the society in many
areas, to the understanding of the state, which concentrates on classical state functions, is
close to the society, and is a stakeholder of its administration. It is transforming into a
structure that sees itself as a partner in decision-making processes and tries to fulfill the role
of arbitrator and catalyst in the market. In parallel with this transformation of our
contemporary state, the role of public personnel who will run public institutions has also
changed. Issues such as the responsibility of public personnel towards the public, their
sensitivity towards the elected officials, their qualifications, performance and approach to
services have come to the fore.

Principles of Human Resources Management in Turkey

The basic law regulating human resources management in our country is the Civil
Servants Law No. 657. The law in question has determined three basic principles regarding
human resources management: "classification", "career" and "merit". There are degrees within
each specified class. Degree is the name given to each of the hierarchical levels from 1 to 15
within each class. Civil servants start their careers at one of these levels, depending on their
educational background. For example, those who have completed secondary school start
working at the 2nd stage of the 14th degree, and those who have completed a 4-year college
start working at the 1st stage of the 9th degree. Educational background determines the
highest degree to which individuals can be promoted, depending on their seniority.

Classification
Grade is the advancement step in the salary of the officer within the grade, without
increasing the importance or responsibility of the task. In order for the civil servant to be
promoted, he must have worked at the current level for at least one year and must have a level
where he can advance to the current level.

There are indicator figures that will form the basis for calculating the salaries of all
grades and levels. These are called monthly indicators.
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What are the cadres, grades and levels in the civil service?
Career Career is the phenomenon of turning civil service into a profession. This principle
provides civil servants with the necessary information for the services they perform and in
accordance with the training conditions. • Judicial supervision of public personnel is subject
to special rules: In this regard, taken from France The "administrative justice" system and the
requirement to obtain "permission" from the administration in order to be tried for certain
crimes have played an important role in the development and shaping of human resources
law (Ery›lmaz, 2010:272-273).

DEFINITION AND TYPES OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS

Public officials are also called "public service officers" and "public personnel". Generally,
the concept of public officer is intended to mean personnel working in the public sector. Due
to the different statuses of public institutions and various forms of employment, the issue of
who can be considered a public official and who cannot be considered a public official is
subject to various definitions.

Definition of Public Officials

Public officials are defined in two ways: "narrow" and "broad". The concept of public
officials in a narrow sense is defined in Article 128 of the 1982 Constitution. Accordingly,
personnel who carry out the essential and permanent duties required by the public services
that the State, public economic enterprises and other public legal entities are obliged to carry
out in accordance with the general administrative principles constitute public officials in the
narrow sense. These are "civil servants" and "other public officials". Civil servants are subject
to the Civil Servants Law No. 657. Those who work in a position that has a public law
relationship with the administration and can be considered as a primary or permanent
employee of the service are "other public servants". University faculty members, judges and
prosecutors, military personnel, who have their own special personnel laws and are partially
subject to DMK No. 657, and "contracted personnel" who work under administrative service
contracts, other public personnel. They are evaluated within the concept of officials.
According to the definition stated in the Constitution;

• Civil servants and other public officials are employed by the state, public economic
enterprises and other public legal entities. • Civil servants and other public officials serve in
public services that must be carried out in accordance with general administrative principles.
• Civil servants and other public officials work in essential and permanent jobs.
 TRANSLATION 130

Define the concept of public officials in a broad sense.

The concept of public servants in a broad sense includes all personnel working in the
public sector and having different legal statuses. Accordingly, everyone who works or serves
in the public sector, from the President to the employee, is a public official in this sense. In
other words, everyone working in the legislative, judicial and executive bodies of the state is
considered a public official.

Employment Forms in Public Institutions

According to the Civil Servants Law, public services are provided by "civil servants",
"contracted personnel", "temporary personnel" and "workers".

Officer
Civil servants constitute the focal point of public officials. The primary and permanent
members of the state administration are civil servants. According to DMK, "Those who are
assigned to perform essential and permanent public services carried out by the State and
other public legal entities in accordance with general administrative principles, regardless of
the current form of establishment" are considered civil servants. In addition, those who are
assigned and authorized to perform tasks such as general policy determination, research,
planning, programming, management and supervision in institutions other than those defined
above are also considered civil servants (Art. 4/A). With some special laws enacted starting
from the 1980s, various public institutions and organizations have been excluded from the
possibility regulated in Article 4/B of the DMK No. 657 mentioned above. It is also possible to
employ contracted personnel. All contracted personnel employed in the public sector,
including personnel with contracted status employed in public economic enterprises, are
considered within the scope of public servants (Gözler, 2009: 351-352).

Contracted Personnel

Temp
Contracts for positions decided by the Council of Ministers based on the opinions of the
State Personnel Presidency and the Ministry of Finance, indicating that the service is less
than a year or seasonal, and within the specified wage and quantity limits. People who are
employed by the company and are not considered workers are included in the temporary
personnel group.
 TRANSLATION 131

Constitutional Principles
The Constitution accepts entering public services as a "right". According to Article 70 of
the Constitution, which regulates the "Right to Enter Public Services", "Every Turk has the right
to enter public services. There is no discrimination other than the qualifications required by
the position in employment." cannot be observed". This regulation of the Constitution sets
forth three basic principles for entry into public services. These are:

• Freedom • Equality • Qualifications required by the task. It states that entry into public
services, excluding compulsory obligations such as liberalization and military service,
depends on the free will of the person. No one can be made a civil servant by force.

It is the right of Turkish citizens to enter public services. Language, religion, race, gender,
political thought, etc. No distinction can be made between citizens for various reasons.

When being recruited into public service, qualifications other than those required by the
position cannot be sought. The qualifications required by the job are the merit of the person
that determines his suitability for the job in question. The general and special conditions
required for entry into the civil service do not harm this principle.

What are the basic principles for entering the public service according to the
Constitution?

General and Special Conditions for Entry to Civil Service According

to DMK
The Civil Servants Law (Art. 48) determines the general and special conditions to be
sought for those who want to become civil servants.

General conditions are collected on topics such as citizenship, age, education level,
health, restrictions and military service status.

Apart from these general conditions, some special conditions may also be required for
those who want to become civil servants. These conditions are related to the requirements of
a particular task. For example, in order to become a district governor, one must graduate
from the Faculties of Political Sciences, Law and Economics and Administrative Sciences;
Conditions such as having a foreign language certificate for research assistants and a
lawyer's license for lawyers are within this scope. DMK mentioned two special conditions on
this issue. The first is to have received the necessary diploma for the class to be served, and
the second is to meet the conditions required by the special law or other legislation of the
institutions.
 TRANSLATION 132

Exam for Entrance to Civil Service

Civil service is carried out depending on a staff. Staff is the class, number and quality of
civil servants determined by a law by the legislative body. Non-permanent civil servants
cannot be employed. In order for the administration to recruit a civil servant, there must be a
vacant position.

The examination is essential for entering the civil service for the first time. Civil service
exams have the feature of "qualification" or "both qualification and competition". If the
number of applicants for civil service is equal to or less than the announced number of vacant
positions, the exam is a proficiency exam. In this case, an attempt is made to measure the
merits of the candidates. There is no obligation to accept all candidates. If the number of
people applying for civil service is more than the number of vacant positions, the exam has
the features of both qualification and competition.

The exams for those who want to work as civil servants in public institutions and
organizations for the first time are held centrally by the State Personnel Presidency under the
name of Public Personnel Selection Examination (KPSS) throughout the country. It is carried
out by the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) under the initiative of the Student
Selection and Placement Center. In order to be considered successful in this central
examination system, it is mandatory to get at least 70 points out of 100 full points. Exam
requirements are not applied for those with compulsory service and for entering some
services (such as exceptional civil servants).

Nomination
Those who are successful in the exams held for civil service are appointed as civil
servant "candidates" by their institutions according to the order in the success list and
according to the number of announced positions. Civil servants are tested and trained during
their candidacy period.

According to the personnel law applied in our country, the candidacy period is at least
one year and at most two years. During this period, the civil servant works only in his own
institution and cannot be transferred to other institutions.

Appointment to Principal Civil Servant

Candidates who are successful in their education during the candidacy period are
 TRANSLATION 133

appointed to "principal" civil servant positions, effective from the date of approval, upon the
proposal of their disciplinary superiors and the approval of the chief authorized to appoint.
Civil servants take the "oath of loyalty" within one month at the latest after being appointed to
the "primary civil service".

Duties and Obligations of Civil Servants

The duties and obligations of civil servants are stated in detail in the DMK. These; These
are matters such as loyalty, impartiality and devotion to the state, behavior and cooperation,
obeying orders, being at work, protecting state property and reporting property. . Loyalty: Civil
servants are obliged to faithfully adhere to the constitution and laws and to implement the
laws faithfully in the service of the nation.

Impartiality and Loyalty to the State: Civil servants cannot be members of political
parties, and cannot engage in any behavior that aims to benefit or harm any political party,
person or group; They cannot discriminate based on language, race, gender, political thought,
philosophical belief, religion and sect while performing their duties; They cannot make any
statements or actions for political or ideological purposes or participate in these actions. Civil
servants are obliged to protect the interests of the State in all situations.

Behavior and Cooperation: Civil servants must demonstrate, through their behavior in and
outside of service, that they are worthy of the respect and trust required by their official titles.
must. In addition, it is essential for civil servants to continue their work in "cooperation".

Complying with Orders: Civil servants are responsible to their superiors for the execution
of their duties well, correctly and in accordance with the legislation. If the officer deems the
order he received from his superior to be against the law, he does not carry it out and reports
this violation to the person who gave the order. If the superior insists on his order and renews
this order in writing, the officer is obliged to carry out this order. However, the responsibility
arising from the execution of the order belongs to the person giving the order. An order that
constitutes a crime cannot be fulfilled under any circumstances and the person who carries it
out will be held responsible.

What is an illegal order?

Being at work: Civil servants must be at work during daily working hours. Daily working
hours and lunch break times of institutions are determined by the Council of Ministers at the
center and by governors in the provinces, according to the characteristics of the regions and
the service. The weekly working hours of civil servants are generally forty hours. This period
is arranged with Saturdays and Sundays as holidays.
 TRANSLATION 134

Protecting State Property: Civil servants not only fulfill their duties carefully and diligently,
they are also obliged to take the necessary precautions to protect the state property handed
over to them and keep it ready for service at all times. If the administration has suffered
damage as a result of intentionality, negligence, fault and imprudence of the civil servants,
the principle of paying this damage at the market value by the relevant civil servant has been
adopted.

Declaring Assets: Another duty that civil servants are obliged to do is to declare their
movable and immovable property, receivables and debts belonging to themselves, their
spouses and children under their custody. To declare goods in the Property declarations must
be renewed by the end of February at the latest for years ending in (0) and (5). The purpose of
declaring assets is to fight against bribery and corruption, in short, to take precautions
against unfair acquisition of property.

Returning Official Documents, Tools and Equipment: Civil servants cannot take official
documents, tools and equipment related to their duties out of their authorized areas or use
them for their private work. Civil servants are obliged to return duty-related documents, tools
and equipment when their duties end. This obligation also passes on to the officer's heirs.

Dress Code: With an article added to the Civil Servants Law in 1982, civil servants were
obliged to comply with the dress codes stipulated by laws, statutes and regulations. The
dress code obligation specified in the law was regulated in detail by a regulation issued on
15.10.1982. This regulation covers all officials working in public institutions.

Disciplinary Penalties
Legal and administrative measures and practices that concern the professional life of
public personnel and their behavior while on duty and aim to ensure that public services
operate in accordance with legal rules and the public interest constitute the disciplinary
regime in a country. It creates. Disciplinary penalties are measures that direct public
personnel to perform their duties carefully and to carry out public services in an orderly and
impartial manner by complying with laws and administrative regulations. Sanctions imposed
against the behavior of personnel working in an institution that disrupt the order and rules of
the institution are called "disciplinary penalties".

DMK has listed the behaviors that require disciplinary punishment and the disciplinary
penalties that will be applied to these behaviors. Disciplinary penalties are listed as follows
according to their severity:

Warning: It is a written notification to the officer that he needs to be more "careful" in his
duty and behavior.
 TRANSLATION 135

Reprimand: It is a written notification to the officer that he is "defective" in his duty and
behavior.

Deduction from Salary: It is a deduction between 1/30 and 1/8 from the gross salary of
the civil servant. Suspension of Progression in Rank: It is the suspension of advancement of
the civil servant in his current rank for 1-3 years, depending on the severity of the act.

Dismissal from Civil Servant: Dismissal from civil service with the intention of never being
appointed to civil service again.

According to DMK, the superiors authorized to impose disciplinary punishment are

determined as "disciplinary chief", "chief authorized to appoint" and "disciplinary board". The
identity of the disciplinary superiors is regulated by the regulation, taking into account the
opinion of the State Personnel Presidency and the characteristics of the institutions.

Penalties of warning, reprimand and loss of salary are imposed by disciplinary superiors,
and penalties of suspension of grade advancement are imposed by superiors authorized to
appoint, after the decision of the disciplinary board of the institution to which the officer is
affiliated. is given.

The penalty of dismissal from civil service is given by the decision of the high disciplinary
board of the institution to which the civil servant is affiliated, upon the request of the
superiors.

TRAINING OF OFFICIALS
Training the personnel working in public institutions in general culture, vocational
training, and improving relations between the institution and its environment is one of the
most important issues of human resources management.

DMK has regulated the principles regarding the training of civil servants in articles 214-
218. According to DMK, in-service training to be implemented in order to ensure the training
of civil servants, increase their productivity and prepare them for further duties will be carried
out by the State Personnel Presidency in cooperation with relevant institutions. It is carried
out within the scope of the regulations to be prepared together. An "education unit" is
established in each institution, which is responsible for organizing, carrying out and
evaluating training activities. In addition, DMK envisaged the preparation of a "Civil Servants
Training General Plan" to guide in-service training; He also assigned the task of guiding the
preparation and implementation of training programs, ensuring coordination and supervising
training activities to the State Personnel Presidency. Civil servants can be trained abroad as
 TRANSLATION 136

well as in the country.

"General education" refers to the general and professional training of personnel in

schools and universities before entering service; The training of a person in the institution
where he/she works after being put into service is called "in-service training" or "training". In-
service training is aimed at ensuring the "vocational" training of personnel within the
framework of a specific training plan and program at different stages and times of the service
after entering the service.

What is general education and in-service training?

The Importance of In-Service Training

In the past, most institutions or businesses either neglected training for personnel
training or did not allocate the necessary resources because their perspective on this was
negative. Thirdly, some knowledge and skills were acquired only after they entered service. is
being earned. For example, duties such as police officer, customs and tax officer, district
governor and postal officer are learned better after entering the public service.

Fourthly, those working in public institutions always want to renew themselves. The
desire of the personnel to improve themselves and to work at higher levels is another
important factor that requires in-service training.

Fifthly, in-service training is, in a way, on-the-job training. In this training, it is thought that
civil servants will learn their jobs better by "doing" and "experiencing" them under the
supervision and control of their superiors (Ery›lmaz, 2010:299-300).

In-Service Training Program

The in-service training program consists of different stages. The first stage begins with a
training needs analysis regarding what type of training the staff needs. The second stage is
to organize the training program based on the training needs analysis. The third stage is the
implementation of the created training program. The last stage is the development of the
applied training programs using measurement and evaluation methods.

What are the main stages of the in-service training program?

The in-service training program generally consists of training conducted around three
 TRANSLATION 137

main topics. These are:

• Vocational competency training • Vision/thought training • Values ​and principles

training Vocational competency training is the professional and technical training of civil
servants for the qualifications required by the service and increasing their knowledge.
purposes. It is mostly related to the routine functioning of public services, such as computer
programs, legislation information, filing and archiving system, accounting information and
correspondence techniques.

Vision training is aimed at improving the officer's perspective and thinking regarding his
job and preparing him for the future. Vision is about creative imagination. Seeing beyond our
current reality, creating, inventing what does not exist yet, what we want to achieve, what we
want to achieve, are expressed by the concept of vision (Covey, 2004:113-114). Vision is a
future-oriented concept and understanding.

Values ​and principles training aims to teach and develop the basic values ​and principles
that are given importance in working life and social life and on which institutions are based
and targeted. Principles and values ​such as efficiency, effectiveness, economy, quality,
justice, equality, ethics/morality, human rights, democracy, law, participation in management,
accountability and transparency are fundamental principles in public life in all countries. and
they have become values.

These in-service training subjects are aimed at improving the professional, intellectual,
moral/ethical and vision-related understandings, values ​and skills of public personnel. It is not
possible to apply the mentioned training subjects with the same emphasis for personnel at all
levels. For example, while vocational and technical competence training is more important for
lower-level personnel, thought/vision, values ​and principles training are more prioritized for
senior personnel and experts. Human resources management can be defined in two ways:
function and discipline. As a function, human resources management includes classical
personnel management activities, but in addition, it includes the continuous development of
employees' knowledge and skills, their motivation, improvement of their working
environments, and measurement of their performance. It is a broader concept that also
includes evaluation and authorization. Human resources management as a discipline is an
academic field aimed at understanding, analyzing and improving the policies and practices in
question. Developments in human resources management are closely related to
transformations in the field of management. Thoughts, structures and practices regarding
management have been greatly influenced by the development processes of civilizations and
the relationships between production factors in these processes. Regarding civilizations, a
triple classification is made in the form of "agricultural society", "industrial society" and
"information society" stages. The management idea, structures, society-state relations,
qualifications and status of employees and the roles of managers at each stage were
 TRANSLATION 138

different. As information has become the fundamental dynamic of development, diversity,

innovation and efficiency in the information society stage, human resources have become a
strategic advantage for businesses. Therefore, the area of ​interest of businesses has shifted
from physical resources and capital to information, which is "intellectual capital", and the
people who produce and use it. These developments today make the human element, as a
source of intellectual capital, stand out as an important factor in the success of
organizations, the development of the participatory management approach, and the It
ensured that employees were treated as internal stakeholders in the decision-making
process, and companies began to further develop this resource. Human resources
management considers that there is a close relationship between organizational development
and the individual and group development of employees. Human resources management
focuses on the performance of personnel and their impact on the efficiency of the institution,
rather than the number, working hours and wages of personnel. Human resources
management sees employees as internal stakeholders. Human resources management tries
to ensure the requirements and conditions of cooperation in the institution. Human resources
management includes the simplification of business and transaction processes, the
reduction and simplification of legislation, a flat and flexible structure of organizations,
flexible working styles, performance-related wages and defends the employment regime.
Human resources management sees employees as "equity capital". Finally, human resources
management is a dynamic process and requires sensitivity to developments. There are some
similarities and differences in human resources management in public and private
enterprises. The similarities are related to the convergence between public administration
and private management approaches. The differences arise from the unique characteristics
of both sectors.

In-Service Training Methods

To be able to explain the basic concepts in human resources management. Human
resources management in the public sector is based on certain principles and values ​such as
merit, career, classification, performance and impartiality. Merit in the narrow sense is the
selection of the most talented and suitable personnel for public duties. Merit in a broad sense
means that entry into public duties and promotion within the service are linked to the criterion
of "suitability for the job" or "performance", and the wages and other working conditions
applied are dependent on the effectiveness and continuity of the service. It is a personnel
system to which he contributes. The word career is used to describe the process of devoting
oneself to a specialization or ascending through a series of interrelated tasks. Career in the
civil service profession refers to the phenomenon of gaining and maintaining a position-
related expertise status. Classification is the bringing together of the same or similar units
from service groups with hierarchical connections and grouping them. Performance, on the
other hand, is the quantitative and qualitative determination of the extent to which an
institution, person or group can achieve the intended goal regarding its work. Impartiality
 TRANSLATION 139

means that public personnel do not give privileges to anyone while performing their duties;
language, religion, philosophical

It means not making discrimination based on belief, political opinion, race, gender and
similar reasons and acting impartially towards everyone.

To list the basic principles and features that determine the human resources regime in
our country. The basic law regulating the human resources regime in our country is the Civil
Servants Law No. 657. The said Law has determined three basic principles regarding human
resources management: "classification", "career" and "merit". According to the classification
principle, public employees are classified in terms of the qualifications and professions
required by the job. Career is the phenomenon of turning civil servant status into a
profession. Merit is a principle based on knowledge, manners and diploma in entering a job
and progressing within the service. The characteristics of today's human resources regime,
resulting from laws, policies and practices, can be listed as follows: Civil service is based on
the idea of ​a closed career. General education is essential for entering the civil service. Entry
into service is carried out through a central examination system. Seniority and education level
are the determining criteria for promotions. Salaries and wages are arranged on the basis of
class and degree. Civil service is a secure status. The civil service regime is regulated by law.
Judicial supervision of public personnel is subject to special rules.

To be able to define the concept of public servants and to determine

the types of employment in the public sector.
According to Article 128 of the 1982 Constitution, public servants are the personnel who
carry out the essential and permanent duties required by the public services that the State,
public economic enterprises and other public legal entities are obliged to carry out in
accordance with the general administrative principles. These personnel are "civil servants"
and "other public officials". Civil servants are subject to the Civil Servants Law No. 657.
University faculty members, judges and prosecutors, military personnel who have their own
special personnel laws and are partially subject to DMK No. 657, and "contracted personnel"
who work under administrative service contracts, other public personnel. They are evaluated
within the concept of officials. According to the Civil Servants Law, public services are
provided by "civil servants", "contracted personnel", "temporary personnel" and "workers";
therefore, there are four types of employment in the public sector.

To be able to explain the civil servant regime in our country within

the framework of entry into the civil service, the rights and duties of
civil servants, and the prohibitions imposed on civil servants.
 TRANSLATION 140

The status of the civil servant profession in our country is determined by the Civil
Servants Law No. 657. The Constitution and the Civil Servants Law have determined some
principles and principles regarding entry to public services. According to Article 70 of the
Constitution, "Every Turk has the right to enter public services. No discrimination other than
the qualifications required by the duty can be made in employment." The Civil Servants Law
determines the general and special conditions to be sought for those who want to become
civil servants. The examination is essential for entering the civil service for the first time. The
duties and obligations of civil servants are stated in detail in the DMK. These; loyalty,
impartiality and devotion to the state, behavior and cooperation, obeying orders, being at
work, protecting state property, declaring property and These are matters such as clothing
order. In addition, civil servants are prohibited or restricted from engaging in certain activities
both within and outside the service. The Civil Servants Law also defines disciplinary penalties
and the behaviors that require these penalties in detail. There are five types of disciplinary
punishments depending on the situation of the act. These are warning, reprimand, cut off
from salary, suspension of promotion and dismissal from civil service.

To summarize the issue of training civil servants.

Training public employees in general culture, vocational training, and improving relations
between the institution and its environment is one of the most important issues of human
resources management. According to DMK, in-service training to be implemented in order to
ensure the training of civil servants, increase their productivity and prepare them for further
duties will be provided by the relevant State Personnel Presidency. It is carried out within the
scope of regulations to be prepared together with the institutions. Civil servants can be
trained abroad as well as in the country.

Let's Test Ourselves Answer Key

3. Commitment to ethical behavior: Audit and surveillance encourage public
administrators and public employees to exhibit correct and proper behavior. 4. Performance
commitment: Provides improvement in the quality of public services (Dubnick, 2005). In
summary, audit and accountability mechanisms aim to prevent unlawfulness, corruption and
mismanagement in public administration.

In democratic societies, multidimensional and different control mechanisms have been

established to ensure the accountability of public administration. Accountability in public
administration is achieved through both internal and external mechanisms. These
mechanisms are not alternatives to each other. These are tools that exist simultaneously and
complement each other. Audit types are named according to the nature of the bodies
performing the audit. We can list these as political control, administrative control,
 TRANSLATION 141

ombudsman, public control and judicial control. However, it should be noted that every
control mechanism has serious limitations and many areas of discretion of the public
administration may remain out of control.

POLITICAL CONTROL
One of the main methods used to supervise public administration is political control.
Political control is the supervision and control authority that political institutions and
individuals have over public administration. As it is known, in democracies, the real owner of
sovereignty is the people. In parliamentary democratic systems, the people transfer their
sovereignty to the parliament by electing their representatives (deputies) through elections. A
government with a parliamentary majority is established to implement laws and public
policies from within the parliament. The government implements laws and public policies
through public administration.

In democracies, public administration is a device that carries out the decisions of

political bodies. As can be seen, the first link in this chain of representation is the public as
voters, while the last link is the public administration. In democratic theory, this form of
relationship is explained as the "principal-agent relationship". In this chain of representation,
accountability works as follows: Public administration is responsible to the government; The
government is also responsible to the parliament; Parliament is also responsible to the
people. The public's control of the performance of political bodies occurs at the ballot box.
The relationship between the parliament and the government is based on trust. The
government's ability to remain in office depends on the vote of confidence of the parliament.
In other words, the parliamentary majority can terminate the government with a vote of no
confidence.

As can be understood from this general statement, the powers exercised by the public
administration do not belong to it. These powers are given to them by laws and political
bodies. Since the real authority is the political bodies that represent the nation, the fact that
these bodies have the authority to supervise public administration is one of the essential
elements of democracy. Since political control is essentially carried out by the legislative
body, this section will focus on the supervision of the Turkish Grand National Assembly
(GNAT), which holds the legislative authority, over public administration.

Audit of the Legislative Body

In representative democracies, the legislative body has three basic functions: "making
laws", "supervising the government" and "adopting the state budget". The legislature's control
over public administration is essentially non-direct and Ba-179 Unit 8 - Supervision of Public
 TRANSLATION 142

Administration Corruption: For financial gain (e.g. bribery) or for specific non-monetary
purposes. Illegal exercise of public power (e.g. nepotism).

It is an indirect control carried out through the Council of Ministers or ministers. In other
words, the main interlocutor in the political control of the parliament is the government.
Moreover, in parliamentary systems, ministers, as the highest administrators of the ministry
they head, are liable to the parliament not only for their own actions and transactions, but also
for the actions and transactions of those working under their command. is responsible.

The GNAT's control over public administration is achieved through various means. The
establishment and functioning of public administration in all respects are regulated by law.
Public administration cannot operate in an area that has not been previously regulated by the
legislative body, and administrative transactions and actions cannot be against the law. As
can be seen, the law-making power of the Turkish Grand National Assembly itself has
significant effects on public administration. In this context, during the discussion of laws
related to public administration, Assembly members have the opportunity to express their
opinions and criticisms regarding the functioning of the administration. In particular, budget
discussions and voting are one of the important tools used by the legislative body in
monitoring the executive body and public administration.

Detailed information on the information acquisition and audit activities of the Turkish
Grand National Assembly can be accessed at www.tbmm.gov.tr.

In addition, members of parliament who become aware of the inadequacies and

disruptions in the functioning of public administration through their voters bring these issues
to the agenda in the Parliament and play a role in supervising the administration by conveying
the issue to the relevant minister. Indeed, the most well-known and traditional way used by
citizens who have complaints and demands regarding public administration is through
elected representatives. Deputies allocate a significant part of their time to activities called
"constituency service". In our country, voter services are among the tasks that MPs spend the
most time on. The clearest indicator of this is the number of visits to the Parliament. For
example, 413,000 people visited the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in the 1st and 2nd
Legislative Years of the 24th Term (12 June 2011-4 July 2012). When considered as a
working day, an average of 2,350 people visited the Parliament daily. On some days, the
number of visitors reached 7,000 (TBMM, 2012).

Apart from these, important audit powers have been given to the Parliament with the
regulations stipulated in Articles 98, 99 and 100 of the Constitution under the title of "Turkish
Grand National Assembly's ways of obtaining information and auditing". In addition,
specialized commissions established in the Turkish Grand National Assembly, such as the
Petition Commission, the Human Rights Investigation Commission, and the Equal
 TRANSLATION 143

Opportunities Commission for Men and Women, are other important and effective
mechanisms in the supervision of public administration.

Name the specialized commissions established in the Turkish Grand National Assembly.

Ways of Obtaining Information and Inspection by the Grand National

Assembly of Türkiye
According to our Constitution, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey has the authority
to audit the Council of Ministers and ministers through questions, Parliamentary
investigations, general discussions, interpellations and Parliamentary investigations (AY Art.
98/2). The manner in which proposals regarding questions, Parliamentary research and
general discussion are submitted, their content and scope, and the methods of answering,
discussing and researching are regulated in the Internal Regulations of the Assembly. A
question is to request information from the Prime Minister or ministers to be answered
verbally or in writing on behalf of the Council of Ministers. The question is divided into two as
oral question and written question, depending on the nature of the desired answer. Both
written questions and oral questions are asked as written proposals. Oral questions are
answered orally by the Prime Minister or the relevant minister from the Parliament rostrum.
The answers to written questions are submitted to the Presidency of the Parliament by the
Prime Minister's Office or the relevant ministry (Özbudun, 2005:298).

Parliamentary Investigation

General Meeting
General discussion is the discussion of a certain issue that concerns society and state
activities in the General Assembly of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (AY article 98/4).
Opening a general debate may be requested by the government, political party groups or at
least twenty members of parliament through a motion, as in the case of a Parliamentary
inquiry. The General Assembly of the Parliament decides whether to open a general debate or
not. At the end of the general meeting, no vote is taken and no decision is taken to reveal the
political responsibility of the government.

Interpellation
Interpellation is a general discussion held in the Turkish Grand National Assembly with
the aim of removing the government or a minister from office. Therefore, interpellation is a
 TRANSLATION 144

control tool that leads to the political responsibility of the Council of Ministers or a minister.
The interpellation process is regulated in detail in the Constitution (AY, art. 99). Accordingly, a
motion of no confidence is submitted on behalf of a political party group or with the
signatures of at least twenty members of parliament. Whether or not the motion of censure
will be included in the agenda is decided in the General Assembly of the Parliament after a
preliminary meeting. If the decision to put it on the agenda is made, the interpellation will be
discussed in the General Assembly of the Parliament. The reasoned motions of no
confidence submitted by the members or groups during the interpellation meetings or the
confidence request of the Council of Ministers are voted on after one full day has passed. The
removal of the Council of Ministers or a minister is possible with the absolute majority of the
total number of members; Only votes of no confidence are counted in the voting (AY Art. 99).
Only two of the 219 motions of no confidence submitted in Turkey between 1961 and 1991
were accepted. This clearly shows that in the parliamentary system, the political power does
not operate the mechanisms that would enable the legislative body to effectively control the
executive by mobilizing the majority in the parliament (Ery›lmaz, 2002:181). Indeed, in
parliamentary systems, the removal of the Council of Ministers or a minister is a very rare
occurrence. If it does happen, it usually has little to do with auditing public administration.
However, it may happen that a minister who feels responsible for an administrative action
criticized by the parliament resigns without being forced by the parliament (Örnek, 1992:252).

Parliamentary Investigation
Parliamentary investigation is an audit tool that enables the investigation of the criminal
responsibilities of the Prime Minister or ministers, who are on duty or have left office,
regarding their duties (Özbudun, 2005: 301). An investigation may be requested against the
Prime Minister or ministers upon the motion of at least one tenth of the total number of
members of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. If it is decided by secret ballot to open
an investigation, an investigation commission of fifteen people will be established, in which
the political parties in the Parliament will be represented in proportion to their strength. The
Commission submits the report it prepared as a result of the investigation to the Parliament.
If the General Assembly of the Turkish Grand National Assembly deems it necessary, it refers
the person concerned to the Supreme Court. The decision to refer to the Supreme Court can
only be taken by secret vote of the absolute majority of the total number of members.
Political party groups in the Parliament cannot hold discussions or make decisions regarding
the Parliamentary investigation (TCC Art. 100).

Public administration
 TRANSLATION 145

Oral Questions

The Right to Apply to the Turkish Grand National Assembly with a

Petition and the Petition Commission
Political audit is not limited to the audit carried out upon the request and application of
the members of the Turkish Grand National Assembly. In addition, there are also mechanisms
that take action upon citizens' applications. According to Article 74 of the Constitution,
"Citizens and foreigners residing in Turkey, provided that the principle of reciprocity is
observed, may submit their wishes and complaints regarding themselves or the public to the
competent authorities." and has the right to apply in writing to the Grand National Assembly
of Turkey. The outcome of their applications will be notified to the petitioners in writing
without delay." Thus, citizens initiate Parliamentary control over the administration by
applying to the GNAT in writing with their wishes and complaints about the administration.
The decisions taken by the Parliament upon application with a petition are not legally binding
on the government and the administration. These decisions do not have a binding nature like
judicial decisions (Gözübüyük, 2006:328). Therefore, it can be said that the main function of
the Commission is to create a bridge between citizens and the executive. The number of
applications made to the GNAT Petition Commission and the action taken on them are
announced to the public on the GNAT corporate website. Additionally, the stage of the
petitions submitted can be followed from the "Petition Query" link.

GNAT Human Rights Investigation Commission

Another important and effective Commission owned by the Turkish Grand National
Assembly in the supervision of public administration is the Turkish Grand National Assembly
Human Rights Investigation Commission, which was established in 1990 by Law No. 3686.
Two duties of the Commission directly related to audit attract attention. The first of these is
that it examines applications regarding human rights violations and reports the situation to
the relevant authorities if deemed necessary, and the second is that it has the authority to
examine public and private institutions and organizations and request information. In
addition, the Commission informs the public by preparing a report covering the work done and
the results obtained every year. The fact that the GNAT Human Rights Commission was
established by law and not by the internal regulations of the Parliament makes it possible for
it to effectively use its powers, such as requesting information from the relevant authorities
and summoning the relevant authorities, in its work. It is stated that it is beneficial.
(http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komsyon/insanhaklari/bilgi.htm) The Commission also conducts
research on matters it deems necessary upon applications made to it or without any
application. can do. In addition, various issues may be brought to the agenda for examination
 TRANSLATION 146

by the Commission members. The Commission handles the applications made to it within the
framework of the establishment law and the Law on the Exercise of the Right to Petition; It
informs the petitioners about both the action taken and the result. The Human Rights
Investigation Commission principally bases its work on on-site investigations, other than
routine petitions. The purpose of on-site investigations is to reveal the subject examined
objectively and clearly. Investigation is an impartial and systematic process aimed at
resolving the alleged violation. Among on-site inspections, inspections in places such as
prisons and orphanages are generally carried out without prior notice to the authorities. The
Commission carries out on-site inspections through sub-commissions formed among its own
members. Subcommittees prepare reports at the end of their on-site inspections and submit
them to the Commission. The reports accepted by the Commission are submitted to the
Presidency of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Reports are sent to the Prime Ministry
and relevant ministries by the Presidency of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.

When we look at the activities of the Commission in the 23rd Term (22 July 2007-7 April
2011), it is seen that 30 Sub-Commissions were established and 51 reports were accepted.
As mentioned above, the Commission also examines allegations of human rights violations,
in accordance with its establishment law. 10,011 applications were made to the Commission
in the 23rd Period. In these applications, complaints about the actions and decisions of the
judicial authority ranked first, and complaints of detainees and convicts about the practices
and conditions in prisons ranked second.

Turkish Grand National Assembly Equal Opportunities Commission

for Women and Men

Effectiveness of Political Control

The legislature's supervision of public administration may not always be effective.
Because in Turkey, the principle of separation of powers is not fully in force between the
legislature and the executive. The political party or parties in the government also have the
majority in the legislative body. In addition, factors such as the inadequate development of
intra-party democracy in our country, the existence of strong party discipline and the very
powerful positions of political party leaders prevent MPs from acting differently from their
own political parties. Therefore, since the legislative and executive bodies are under the
control of the same political power, there may be difficulties in the legislature's operation of
the mechanisms to supervise the Council of Ministers and ministers. "There have been
periods when almost all of the general debate, parliamentary inquiry, interpellation and
parliamentary investigation motions submitted by the members of the Turkish Grand National
Assembly were rejected by the parliamentary majority of the ruling party. In such periods,
 TRANSLATION 147

opposition parties used the parliament's control mechanisms. They were not successful in
mobilizing the people" (Polato¤lu, 2001:92).

Additionally, two factors can be mentioned that make it difficult for the Parliament to
effectively supervise public administration. The first of these is that the audit of the
legislative body is an audit carried out ex post facto. If a certain period of time passes
between a decision being taken and it being audited, it reduces the effectiveness of the audit.
The second factor is the fact that public administration has become a profession that
requires technical and expertise because it requires an advanced level of division of labor,
that is, the phenomenon of technocracy. Members of parliament cannot have any hierarchical
authority when technical expertise is required (Gözler, 2006:43). For example, the governor,
who is the head of the provincial administration, does not have the authority to impose
disciplinary punishment on a personnel working in that provincial municipality. Because the
municipal government has a separate legal entity.

Guardianship Audit
Guardianship supervision is the supervision of decentralized institutions by the central
government within the limits prescribed by law. Since decentralized organizations have a
separate legal entity from the state legal entity, they are autonomous and outside the
hierarchical control of the central government. For this reason, tutelage supervision is a tool
developed to ensure that public administration organizations work in harmony as a whole, in
accordance with the principle of integrity of administration. In this context, the central
government has the authority to audit and supervise decentralized institutions in order to
eliminate some of the drawbacks of decentralization. Guardianship supervision is regulated in
the 1982 Constitution. Accordingly, "The central administration operates over local
administrations in order to ensure that local services are carried out in accordance with the
principle of the integrity of the administration, to ensure unity in public duties, to protect the
public interest and to meet local needs." "It has the authority of administrative tutelage within
the framework of the principles and procedures specified in the law, in order to ensure that
the

Although hierarchical supervision is a general authority, tutelage supervision is an

exceptional authority. In other words, the autonomy of decentralized institutions is the basic
rule, and tutelage control over them is the exception. For this reason, the central government
cannot exercise tutelary control over decentralized institutions unless expressly provided for
in the law. Therefore, guardianship supervision must be used in cases and in the manner
clearly stipulated by law. In other words, tutelage authorities and their areas of authority must
be clearly stated in the law (Günday, 2006:35).

Guardianship supervision takes place over the organs and operations of decentralized
 TRANSLATION 148

institutions. Guardianship control over the bodies or officials of decentralized organizations

often appears in the form of selection, appointment, and temporary suspension of the bodies
or officials of these organizations. The supervision of tutelage authorities over the
transactions of decentralized institutions is carried out by means such as approving
transactions and decisions, canceling them, delaying their implementation, correcting them,
returning them and applying to the administrative judiciary. For example, according to the
Metropolitan Municipality Law No. 5216 (BBK), "Decisions of the metropolitan municipal
council and district municipal council are sent to the highest local administrative authority
within seven days from the date of their finalization. To the local administrative authority."
"Decisions that are not sent do not come into force." (BBK, art. 14). Likewise, according to
Article 15 of the Special Provincial Administration Law, "The full text of the decisions taken by
the provincial general assembly is sent to the governor within five days at the latest. The
governor deemed it unlawful." "The following decisions may be returned to the provincial
general assembly for re-negotiation within seven days, stating the reason. Council decisions
that are not sent to the governor do not come into force." Thus, the governor, who is the
representative of the central government in the province, was given certain powers as a
tutelage authority over the decisions taken by the decision-making bodies of local
government organizations. This is a tutelage control authority. However, tutelage authorities
do not have the authority to replace decentralized governance institutions and make
decisions on their behalf. For example, according to the Village Law No. 442, the district
governor can overturn the decisions of the village headman that are not in the interest of the
villagers. However, the district governor does not have the authority to make decisions on
behalf of the headman. This authority belongs to the headman (Gözübüyük, 2006:325).

Public administration
Custodial Supervision: These are the powers of the central government over
decentralized administrations, clearly stipulated by law, in order to ensure integrity in public
administration.

What are the similarities and differences between hierarchical

supervision and tutelage supervision?

Audit Performed Through Audit Boards

While examining the managerial audit methods, it is also useful to mention the audit
carried out by the audit boards. In the Turkish public administration system, there are
institutions whose duty is only auditing, such as the Court of Accounts and the State Audit
 TRANSLATION 149

Board. The auditing of public institutions and organizations by these auditing bodies is a form
of external auditing.

State Supervisory Board

The 1982 Constitution also gave the President a role in supervising public administration.
The President fulfills this role through the State Supervisory Board. The State Supervisory
Board is an examination, research and supervision board that reports directly to the
President. The members of the State Supervisory Board and its Chairman among its
members are appointed by the President from among persons with qualifications specified in
the law. According to the Constitution, the purpose of the State Supervisory Board is to
ensure that the administration complies with the law and is carried out and improved in an
orderly and efficient manner. Upon the request of the President, the State Supervisory Board
shall appoint, upon the request of the President, all public institutions and organizations and
any organization in which more than half of the capital is participated by these institutions
and organizations. It carries out all kinds of examinations, research and inspections in
professional organizations within its power, professional organizations of workers and
employers at all levels, and public associations and foundations (AY Art. 108). As can be
seen, the Board's mandate is not limited to public administration. Professional organizations
of workers and employers, public associations and foundations that are not included in the
administration are within the scope of the Board's duties. On the other hand, the Armed
Forces and judicial bodies are outside the jurisdiction of the State Supervisory Board.

Inspection Boards
There are inspection boards in all ministries and public institutions and organizations of a
certain size. Inspection boards, which have a long history, have an important place in the
Turkish public administration audit system. A structure in the form of an inspectorate is
parallel to the French example. Inspection and audit units are established by Law No. 3046 on
the Establishment and Duties of Ministries and the organizational laws of the administrations.
The working procedures and principles of the inspection and audit units are determined by
the statutes and regulations issued based on the provisions of the organizational laws. For
example, the Inspection Board of the Ministry of Internal Affairs is regulated in Article 15 of
the Law No. 3152 on the Organization and Duties of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Inspection
boards include a board chairman, chief inspectors, inspectors and assistant inspectors.
Inspection boards report directly to the minister or general manager. Board inspectors are
responsible for auditing, examining and investigating all activities and transactions of the
ministerial organization and its affiliated and related institutions, on behalf of the minister or
general manager, upon the order or approval they receive.
 TRANSLATION 150

Audit through Supervisory Boards

With the recent reforms, new mechanisms with oversight and control authority over
public administration have been created. External oversight mechanisms include the Public
Servants Ethics Board and the Turkish Human Rights Institution.

Freedom of expression, freedom of association and freedom of press are important

prerequisites. It is also necessary to have a pluralistic and strong civil society that monitors
the activities of the administration, carefully monitors the budget and expenditures, asks
questions and demands reforms. In addition, the fact that press and other mass media tools
are developed, have a competitive structure, and work independently and impartially, raises
public awareness. are other important factors that determine the effectiveness of the audit.
Another important development that can be evaluated within the scope of public control was
the governance reforms that intensified in the 2000s and the efforts to make public
administration more open, transparent, accountable and participatory. r. In this context,
providing citizens with the right to obtain information, creating new accountability
mechanisms through which they can convey their opinions, suggestions and complaints
about themselves or the public, and ensuring participation in decision-making processes.
Making regulations is the first thing that comes to mind.

It is a fundamental principle in democratic countries that public administration be open

and transparent. The most important thing to do to make public administration more open
and transparent is to grant people the right to information. An important element of
accountability is the existence of mechanisms that allow citizens and non-governmental
organizations to access the management's information and decisions. The right to
information is aimed at ensuring this. Management abuse of power flourishes and comes to
life in secret and dark environments. In environments where management's transactions and
actions are transparent, visible and open to examination, it is possible to prevent corruption,
and to reveal and control it when it occurs. Therefore, citizens should have the right to legally
access all activities and decisions of the administration that do not violate national security
and privacy.

The right to information is a human right that is gradually gaining importance and has
become a fundamental element of democratic governance. Based on this right, the individual
has the right to request information and access information and documents by applying to
the administration on certain issues. With the recognition of this right, it becomes clear that
unilateral information disclosures by the administration are not considered sufficient, and
under certain conditions, it is democratic for the administration to meet individuals' requests
for information. It is accepted that it is a requirement for a transparent management style
(Sözen and Algan, 2009).

In Turkish public administration, important regulations have recently been made

 TRANSLATION 151

regarding the administration's informing the public. The most important of these is the Law
on the Right to Information No. 4982 (BEHK), which was accepted on 09.10.2003 and came
into force on 24.04.2004. In addition, regulation no. 2004/7189, which regulates the principles
and procedures regarding the implementation of this law, came into force on 27.04.2004.
According to the law, all public institutions and organizations and professional organizations
that have the nature of public institutions are designated as obligors of the right. In Article 4
of the Law, it is stated that everyone has the right to information. The law stipulates that the
provisions of this law will be applied in all public institutions and organizations and
professional organizations that qualify as public institutions, without making any distinction
between any public institutions (BEHK art. 2). Public institutions and organizations are
required to provide all kinds of information or documents, other than the exceptions specified
in the Law, to the benefit of the applicants and to finalize their applications for information
effectively, quickly and accurately. They are obliged to take administrative and technical
measures (BEHK, art. 5). As can be seen, the right to information is a right for the individual
and an obligation for the administration.

JUDICIAL REVIEW
In a democratic state of law, public administration must be bound by the law and act in
accordance with the rules of law. One of the most basic methods used to ensure the
accountability of public administration is that individuals have the right to appeal to the
courts against the actions and transactions of the administration.

Supervision of the actions and transactions of public administration by independent

judicial bodies is called judicial supervision. Judicial control of the administration is one of
the important conditions of being a state of law. Because in a democratic state of law, public
administration is bound by the law. To ensure this, the management is under judicial control.
Our Constitution has constitutionally guaranteed the supervision of the administration
through the judiciary with the provision that "Judicial remedies are open against all kinds of
actions and transactions of the administration" (TCC Art. 125).

Judicial review differs from non-judicial auditing methods in some aspects. The purpose
of judicial review is to prevent the administration from harming citizens' rights by ensuring
that it acts in accordance with the rules of law while carrying out its activities, and thus to
protect citizens' rights against the administration. By not complying with the law while
carrying out its activities. In case it negatively affects their rights and situation, citizens apply
to the judiciary and request that judicial review take action. In other words, in this type of
control, citizens take administrative actions and actions before the judge (sue) in order to
force the administration to comply with the law. )) In short, judicial review is mobilized by the
citizens. Judicial review differs from other audit procedures in that the functioning process is
subject to certain and strict procedures. For example, judicial control does not take action
 TRANSLATION 152

after a certain period of time. Finally, the result of judicial control is different from other audit
results because this type of control eventually exists. The result (judicial decision given) has
the nature of a final judgment and requires all state organs to comply with it" (Örnek,
1992:262-263). In addition, judicial bodies can only audit the actions taken by the
administration in terms of legality, but not in terms of propriety. This situation is expressed as
follows in our Constitution: "Judicial power is limited to the control of the legality of
administrative actions and transactions. It has the power to restrict the execution of
executive duties in accordance with the forms and principles specified in the law." "No judicial
decision can be made in the nature of an administrative action or transaction or in a way that
removes the discretionary power" (TCC Art. 125/4).

Compare judicial control of management with non-judicial controls

and reveal the differences.
The way judicial control over management is implemented varies from country to
country. There are two types of systems in judicial control: judicial unity and administrative
jurisdiction. Since there is a judicial system in some countries such as England and the United
States, the administration's adherence to the law is supervised by the courts of justice. On the
other hand, in many countries, including Turkey, and especially in Continental European
countries such as France, an administrative justice system has been established separately
from the judicial judiciary in order to ensure judicial control of public administration. . In this
system, administrative transactions have a unique legal regime (administrative regime). In the
administrative justice system, citizens who are harmed by the actions and actions of the
administration apply to the administrative judicial bodies. In the administrative jurisdiction,
there are the Council of State, Regional Administrative Courts, Administrative Courts and Tax
Courts.

There are essentially two types of cases in administrative jurisdiction, one of which is an
annulment case and the other is a full jurisdiction case. An annulment lawsuit is an
administrative lawsuit filed for the annulment of administrative procedures because they are
against the law. An annulment case is a type of case specific to administrative jurisdiction. As
can be understood from the definition, the subject of the annulment case consists of
administrative transactions. An annulment lawsuit is filed on the grounds that an
administrative action is against the law. The purpose of the annulment lawsuit is to ensure
the annulment of the administrative action. An annulment lawsuit is filed by those whose
interests have been violated. Another type of administrative case is the full jurisdiction case.
A full jurisdiction lawsuit is a lawsuit filed by people whose rights have been violated due to
administrative actions and transactions, filed before the administrative court to request
compensation for the damage they have suffered. The subject of the full jurisdiction lawsuit
consists of both administrative procedures and administrative actions. The purpose of this
 TRANSLATION 153

type of lawsuit is to fulfill a right and compensate for the damage suffered. A full jurisdiction
lawsuit is a subjective case because it investigates whether a personal right has been
violated. In order to file a full jurisdiction lawsuit, a personal right must be violated (Günday,
2006:272-274). At the end of the substantive examination, the Constitutional Court decides
whether the applicant's right has been violated or not. Violation. If a decision is made, it is
decided what needs to be done to eliminate the violation and its consequences. However,
appropriateness control cannot be made and no decision can be made in the nature of
administrative action or transaction.

Limitations of Judicial Oversight

Although judicial review has an important place in ensuring the accountability of public
administration, it has serious limitations. We can summarize them as follows:

• Most administrative decisions are not subject to review by the courts.

• Judicial review is only available for the decisions and practices of the administration;
Situations where the administration refrains from action and remains inactive remain outside
judicial control. Essentially, judicial review exists not to require managers to use their powers,
but to prevent excesses of authority. • The number of administrative decisions is so high that
even a small part of these decisions are subject to the detailed and slow procedures of the
judiciary. Subjecting it to this process will result in the management process stopping. • Since
the cost of applying to the judiciary is very high, many people do not apply to the judiciary. On
the one hand, the court fees and attorney fees are very high, and on the other hand, ordinary
citizens are often subject to unfair actions of the administration due to the fact that it is not
possible to predict how long the case will last and what the outcome will be. he endures and
the principle of "rule of law" remains just a meaningless word for him. • Judicial review does
not provide a meaningful legal remedy for most administrative decisions. • Many types of
administrative decisions cannot be reviewed by courts due to legal provisions or due to the
courts' self-limitation. This limits the scope of judicial review. • Since most administrative
decisions have a highly technical nature, it becomes difficult for judges who are not experts in
the subject to make decisions regarding the case (Simon et al., 1968:484-486).

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