Part4 SERTS 05 Electricity

Sustainable Energy and Resources – Technologies and Systems
ELECTRICITY
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Müller-Kirchenbauer

Structure
Electricity – The Most Useful Form of Energy
Fundamentals of Electrical Energy
Conversion from Mechanical Energy into Electricity
Conversion from Other Forms of Energy into Electricity
Electricity | Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Müller-Kirchenbauer | Sustainable Energy and Resources – Technologies and Systems
Page 2
Electricity is Pure Exergy (1/2)
▪ The proportion of exergy in energy is a measure of quality.

▪ Exergy is the capacity of energy to be transformed into any other for of energy, i.e., to do
physical work (for example to overcome a resistance to make an object move).
▪ For heat, which is of a lower quality when transformed into mechanical energy, a part
– depending upon its temperature – represents the low-grade waste heat which cannot be
recovered and used to perform physical work.
▪ An electric heater has a low exergy output since only very little of its heat output can be
subsequently used to perform work.
▪ Electricity is 100 % exergy and is one of the most valuable forms of energy, which is
also indicated by its relatively high price level compared with other forms of energy.
Page 3 Sources: EUROSTAT (2022); Exergy Economics (n. d.)
Electricity is Pure Exergy (2/2)
▪ The proportion of exergy in energy is a measure of quality.

▪ Exergy is the capacity of energy to be transformed into any other for of energy, i.e., to do
physical work (for example to overcome a resistance to make an object move).
▪ For heat, which is of a lower quality when transformed into mechanical energy, a part
– depending upon its temperature – represents the low-grade waste heat which cannot be
recovered and used to perform physical work.
▪ An electric heater has a low exergy output since only very little of its heat output can be
subsequently used to perform work.
▪ Electricity is 100 % exergy and is one of the most valuable forms of energy, which is
also indicated by its relatively high price level compared with other forms of energy.
Page 4 Sources: EUROSTAT (2022); Exergy Economics (n. d.)
Main Technologies of Electricity Generation
Nuclear-plant
Offshore-wind Hydro-plant
Coal-plant
Combined cycle
Onshore-wind Solar-plant plant
Page 5 Image sources: Kernenergie (n. d.), NDR (n. d.), Voith (2016)
Converting Primary Energy into Mechanical and
Electrical Energy
Known from lecture “Energy”
Chemical energy Nuclear energy Solar radiation energy

fossil fuels / biomass Uranium Electromagnetic waves
Gasification Uranium processing
Nuclear fission/
Combustion Absorption
heat transfer
Thermal internal energy of Thermal internal energy of Inner and kinetic energy
the combustion gas the "heat carrier" of the atmosphere
Hydrogen Evaporation and

production Heat transfer condensation of water
Internal
Potential energy of Wind power
combustion
water plant
engine
Heat engine Solar cell

Hydropower
Shaft work (torque)

Fuel cell Subject of
this lecture
Electric generator
Electrical energy
Page 6 Source: Baehr & Kabelac (2012)
Electricity Generation
▪ Electricity, the flow of electrical power, is a secondary energy source generated by the
conversion of primary sources of energy like fossil fuels, nuclear, wind or solar.
▪ Utility-scale generation of electricity is done by rotating electric generators, by
photovoltaic systems or electrochemistry.
Electricity Energy conversion Examples

generation
Generators Kinetic Electrical Coal-fired steam turbine, wind
Generator
energy energy turbine, Gas turbine
Electrochemistry Chemical Electrical Fuel cell in a car, zinc-carbon
Battery, fuel cell
energy energy batteries as power sources
Photovoltaic Electrical Photovoltaic panels
effect Light Solar cell
energy
Page 7
Definition of Terms for Energy Conversion
▪ A power plant has the task of converting primary energy into rotational or electrical
energy.
Heat losses
Gross electrical Net electrical

Heat input Energy conversion system: output output
Power plant
Own consumption
Heat extraction
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) (gross or net) (Point in time)
Electrical output + Heat extraction

Capacity factor = (gross or net) (Period of time)
Heat input (fuel energy)
Page 8
Currently Achievable Conversion Efficiencies
Technical Conversion
Input energy Output energy Conversion
process efficiency
Fuel cell Chemical energy Electrical energy Direct 60 %
Combustion Chemical energy Heat Direct 97 %
Steam power plant Chemical energy Electrical energy Indirect 47 %
Nuclear power plant Nuclear energy Electrical energy Indirect 36 %
Gas power plant Chemical energy Electrical energy Indirect 39 %
Combined cycle plant
Chemical energy Electrical energy Indirect 60 %
(gas/steam turbines)
Battery Chemical energy Electrical energy Direct 50 %
Generator Mechanical energy Electrical energy Direct 98 %
Electric motor Electrical energy Mechanical energy Direct 98 %
Resistance Electrical energy Heat Direct 100 %
▪ In general, forms of energy with a high proportion of exergy, i.e. mechanical and electrical
energy, can also be converted into other forms of energy with a high degree of efficiency.
▪ A high degree of conversion efficiency is not synonymous with high economic efficiency, which
always depends on the degree of technological development, fuel cost and even the
consideration of external effects.
Page 9 Source: Zahoransky (2015)
Structure
Page 10
An Analogy Between Water and Electrical Circuit
Pump Converter/
(Pressure is Pressure “consumer“
increased) decreases (Turbine)
Converter/
Voltage source “consumer“
(Voltage is increased) Voltage drops (Electrical
resistance)
Page 11
What is Electricity?
▪ General term for all phenomena that can + +

be attributed to electric charges, as well
as the charge itself.
- -
▪ Results from the interaction of electrically
charged particles, i.e. electrons with
negative elementary charge and protons - +
with positive elementary charge.
▪ All electrical processes are based on

movements of electrons or ions.
▪ The flow of electric charge is called

electric current.
▪ In metals, electrons are the carriers of

charge. In the case of electrolytic
conduction ions are the carriers of
charge.
Page 12 Sources: BET (2005), Mortimer & Müller (2014)
Key Terms
Electric charge Q in Coulomb [C]
▪ Basic property of the building blocks of matter, distinction between electron (-) and proton (+)
▪ A neutral atom becomes a positive/negaitve ion by addition/elimination of an electron
▪ Ions and electrons are carriers of electric charge
Current (amperage) I in Ampere [A]

▪ Directed movement of charge carriers
▪ Quantity of electric charge flowing through a cross section per time unit
𝑄 𝐶
▪ 𝐼= ; 1𝐴 = 1
𝑡 𝑠
Voltage U in Volt [V]

𝐵
▪ Difference between electrical potentials : 𝑈𝐴𝐵 = ‫𝑠𝑑 ⋅ 𝐸 𝐴׬‬
▪ Maintains the movement of charge carriers
Power P in Watt [W]

▪ Measure for the amount of energy transferred or converted per time unit: 𝑃 = 𝑈 ⋅ 𝐼
𝐽
▪ 1𝑊 = 1
𝑠
Electrical resistance R in Ohm [𝛀]

▪ Charge carriers cannot pass unhindered through the conductor
▪ Some of their electrical energy is transformed into heat, which is due to the conductors resistance
𝑈 𝑉
▪ Ohm's law: Resistance R is constant and not dependent on voltage or current: 𝑅 = ; 1Ω = 1
𝐼 𝐴
Page 13 Image source: Sengpiel (2015)
Overview of Properties and Units
Formula
Property Symbol Unit Unit abbreviation
(examples)
Charge Q Coulomb C
Time T Second s
Voltage U Volt V 𝑈=𝑅∗𝐼
Current I Ampere A 𝐼 = 𝑈ൗ𝑅
Resistance R Ohm Ω 𝑅 = 𝑈ൗ𝐼

𝑊=𝑃∗𝑡
Work W Joule = Wattsecond J = Ws
= 𝑈∗𝐼 ∗𝑡
Power P Watt W 𝑃 = 𝑊ൗ𝑡 = 𝑈 ∗ 𝐼
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency 𝜂 -- -- ൗ𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Page 14
Fundamentals of Electric Flow
▪ Electricity requires the presence of electric charges (both positive and negative). Between positive
and negative charge carriers there is a force effect according to Coulomb's law.
▪ Identical charges repel each other, while opposite charges attract each other. Electrons and protons
serve as charge carriers. If there is a surplus of one of the charge carriers in an object, it is
considered negatively or positively "charged".
▪ The directional movement of charge carriers is called current.
▪ The "technical current direction" is defined as the flow direction from positive to negative pole -
opposite to the "physical flow direction" of the charge carriers in metallic conductors from anode to
cathode.
+I - - - +I
- -
-
Page 15 Source: Kories (2013)
Electromagnetic Fields
Magnetic field
▪ The movement of the charges creates a magnetic field

around a current-carrying conductor. The field lines run
concentrically around the conductor. The resulting
magnetic force therefore always acts along these lines.
Electric field
▪ At the same time an electric field exists between the
points with different potentials (necessary condition for a Concentric
field lines
current flow). This causes a force on charges from one
potential to another. The field lines therefore run parallel Conductor
to the conductor.
▪ Since both fields occur together in moving charges, one
speaks of an electromagnetic field. Electromagnetic field
▪ If the direction of the movement of the charges in a
conductor changes back and forth, the direction of the
fields rotates accordingly.
▪ The convention for the direction of the field lines is
– For the magnetic field: "Right-Hand-Rule”
– For the electric field: from higher to lower potential
Radial field
lines
Concentric field
lines
Conductor
Page 16 Source: DL2KHP (2017)
Inverter and Rectifier
Inverter Rectifier
▪ Basically “chopping off” the direct current and ▪ Rectification of the AC voltage by a bridge
periodic change of polarity by an H-bridge circuit of diodes.
circuit.
▪ Subsequent smoothing of the pulsed direct
▪ Due to very high frequencies of the power current by filters.
electronics, any oscillation form can be
simulated very accurately (mostly sinusoidal
oscillation).
▪ Problem: Harmonic oscillations caused by fast
switching on and off, which have to be
reduced by filters.
Page 17 Sources: elektronik-kompendium (2018); SMA (2018)
Voltage Levels – Basic Principle of Electrical Power
Transmission
I
U P Electric consumer
Transmitted electrical power

(single-phase, without reactive current): P=U·I
Ohm‘s Law: U=R·I

(Implication: The greater the resistance, the less current flows at the same voltage)
With the electrical resistance

"RL" the voltage drop ΔU is: ΔUL = RL · I
2
P
Power loss of the lines (in terms of heat): PVL = ΔUL · I = RL · I =RL·  U 
2
 
or related to the power transferred: PVL RLP
P = U2
Conclusion: Transmission losses decrease quadratically with increasing transmission voltage!
Page 18
Stand-Alone and Interconnected Systems
Stand-alone system (Island) Interconnected system
System 1
Power plant Power line Consumer

G
~ ~
~M
G G
~ ~ G
~
~
~ ~
To system 2 To system n
Page 19 Source: BET(2005)
Technical Structure of a Power Supply System
Corresponds to:
Transmission grid
Extra high voltage grid High way
Neighbour
380/220 kV ~ grid
200…1.600 MW
Distribution grid Federal roads
High voltage grid

60 to 110 kV ~
20…200 MW Energy-intensive
industry; city
Community roads
Medium voltage grid ~

6 to 30 kV 0,5…20 MW Industry; towns
Play streets
Lower voltage grid ~
< 0,5 MW Businesses; households
230 / 400 V
… Transformer … consumer ~ … Power plants (generators) and capacity
Page 20 Source: Own representation according to BMWI (n. d.)
German Extra-High Voltage Grid (220 and 380 kV) and
the Control Areas of the Four TSOs
Page 21 Sources: Federal Government (2017); VDE(2018)
Grid Map of the Interconnected Network of Continental
Europe (2018)
Page 22 Source: ENTSO-E (2018a)
Value Chain of Electricity
Extraction of Grids,
primary Generation transmission & Trading Sale
energy distribution
▪ Power grid: Connection of (spatially separated) generators and consumers via lines
and cables
▪ Fundamental challenges in the network operation:
− Electricity must be generated at the same time as it is consumed
− Fluctuating demand and generation
− Ensuring security of supply and frequency stability
→ Natural monopoly, no competition possible
Page 23 Sources: Leuscher (2014); Schmidt (2014)
Structure
Page 24
Interactions Between Charges and Fields
▪ Motionless charges are not influenced by a

magnetic field, however, they are influenced by
an electric field.
▪ Due to the creation of a magnetic field around
moving charges, those charges are subject to
forces in both electric and magnetic fields.
▪ The resulting force on moving charges in the
magnetic field is called Lorentz force and results
from the interaction between the two magnetic
fields.
▪ To determine the direction of the resulting Lorentz
force on a charge current, the so-called “Right-
Hand-Rule" is applied: Direction of
current
- The direction of the force is perpendicular to
the (technical) current direction and the Magnetic field
direction of the magnetic field.
- The middle finger points in the direction of
the Lorentz force.
Force
Page 25 Sources and image sources: Geusschool (2011), Honina (2008)
Basic Principle of Power Generation
Conversion of mechanical into electrical

energy by induction Basic form of an AC generator
▪ "Reverse" effect of the Lorentz force ▪ Rotation creates voltage with changing
amplitude
▪ Movement of a magnet in a coil induces a
voltage: magnetic field and electrons are in ▪ Circular movement of the coil results in a
motion relative to each other, charges are sinusoidal shape
separated by the Lorentz force
▪ With constant polarity: charges are always
deflected in the same direction → Direct
Current (DC)
▪ With alternating polarity: Charges are
deflected in different directions → Alternating
Current (AC)
Page 26 Source and image source: EEE (n. d.)
Structure
Page 27
Fundamentals of Electrochemistry
▪ Electrochemistry describes:
– The relationship between electrical and chemical processes
– The processes at the boundary surface between an electron conductor (electrode) and an ion
conductor (electrolyte)
▪ Contains Na+ and Cl-

ions as well as H+ and
Atoms OH- ions
▪ The solution is electrically
conductive
Electrons
▪ A substance whose
(aqueous) solution
contains ions is called an
electrolyte
Electrode (Anode, Kathode) Electrolyte

An electron-conducting material (e.g. metal, A chemical compound that is dissociated into ions
carbon, semiconductor) that is brought into in a solid, liquid or dissolved state. In the
contact with an electrolyte in solid or liquid electrochemical cell, the mobile ions take over the
form. charge transport between the electrodes.
Page 28 Source: chemie.de (2016a), Siesler (2010)
Fuel Cell
▪ Fuel cells generate electricity and heat from hydrogen and oxygen ("cold combustion").
▪ A fuel cell consists of two electrodes, the anode (negative pole) and the cathode
(positive pole). They are separated by the electrolyte with a solid, ion-permeable
membrane. Each of the electrodes is coated with a catalyst, e.g. nickel or platinum.
▪ After hydrogen comes into contact with the anode, it splits into electrons and protons.
Electric Current
▪ The free electrons: Usable electric current on
the external circuit.
▪ The Protons: Reach cathode by passing through Oxygen
the electrolyte. At the cathode, oxygen from air

combines with electrons from the external circuit Hydrogen
and the protons. Together they produce water
Water
and heat.
▪ A voltage is now built up between cathode and
anode. If the two electrodes are connected,
Anode Cathode
electrons flow from the anode to the cathode Electrolyte
and thus provide electrical energy. The resulting Reaction:

waste heat can also be used for heating. Cathode: 1Τ2 𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑂2− ; 2 𝐻 + + 𝑂2− → 𝐻2 𝑂
Anode: 𝐻2 → 2 𝐻 → 2 𝐻 + + 2 𝑒 −
Total: 𝐻2 + 1Τ2 𝑂2 → 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Page 29 Source: erdgas.info (2017); Image source: elektronik-kompendium (2008)
Different Types of Fuel Cells
▪ Depending on the electrolyte used, there are different types of fuel cells.
▪ The electrolyte can be either liquid, plastic or ceramic.
▪ The operating characteristics and efficiency of the fuel cells depend on the electrolyte.
Abbreviations: Molten Carbonate; Phosphoric Acid; Proton Exchange Membrane; Solid Oxide; Fuel Cell
Page 30 Source: Universität Leipzig (2013)
Energy Conversion in a Fuel Cell
▪ The conventional conversion of the chemical energy of a fuel into electricity is currently based on the
use of thermal engines.
▪ The fuel cell, which directly converts chemical energy stored in the fuel into electrical energy, is in
competition with the thermomechanical energy conversion which has been used up to now.
Heat engine
Heat Mechanical Energy
Chemical Energy Electrical Energy
Fuel Cell
▪ 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: the efficiency of energy conversion is highest when it is done in a
reversible way. In the case of the combustion path, irreversibility is caused by the uncontrolled
exchange of electrons between the reaction partners during combustion. The electron exchange can
be carried out in a controlled way when the combustion chamber is replaced by an electrolysis cell.
▪ Disadvantage: hydrogen is not a primary energy carrier, so that an additional process step is
necessary: the production of hydrogen is required. Thus, the potential of hydrogen conversion has
so far been seen in the storage of energy. This disadvantage, together with the problem of hydrogen
storage and the high investment costs, has meant that fuel cells have not yet been able to establish
themselves on a larger scale compared to other electricity generators.
Page 31 Sources: erdgas.info (2017), Strauss (2016)
"the other way around" – Hydrogen Electrolysis
Basic equation: Electrolysis

Fuel cell Oxygen Membrane Hydrogen
𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⇔ 𝐻2 + 0,5 𝑂2 ; Δ𝐻0 = +289,5 𝑘𝐽/𝑀𝑜𝑙
Electrolysis
▪ The energy can be supplied as chemical energy, heat,

electrical energy or else.
▪ The electrolytic production of hydrogen is the simplest
process in terms of process engineering and - in relation
to the electrical energy used - a very efficient process.
Acidic Alkaline
▪ Water electrolysis and fuel cell reaction are based on the
same electrochemical principles: by reversing the
direction of current, electrical energy is consumed
(electrolysis) or emitted (fuel cell). HP
Storage of H2: LP HP
▪ Gaseous hydrogen in pressure vessels
▪ Liquid hydrogen in vacuum insulated containers
HP El
▪ Deposition of hydrogen in hybrid metals or carbon LP El
HP = high pressure
LP = low pressure
nanotubes
Development El = electrolysis
Existing electrolysis technologies: High pressure electrolysis:
▪ Alkaline electrolysis (AEL) ▪ System simplification: elimination of troublesome,
maintenance-intensive compressors and buffer tanks
▪ Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis (PEMEL) ▪ Higher system efficiency
▪ High temperature electrolysis (HTEL)

Page 32
Sector Coupling
Page 33 Source: Sterner & Stadler (2019)
References – Literature
▪ Baehr & Kabelac (2012): Baehr, H. D., und Kabelac, S.; „Thermodynamik: Grundlagen und technische Anwendungen ; mit zahlreichen
Tabellen sowie 74 Beispielen“. 16., neu bearb. und erw. Aufl. Springer-Lehrbuch. Berlin, 2016
▪ BET (2005): Technische Grundlagen der Stromversorgung – Physik, Historie und Kraftwerke. BNetzA-Schulung 1x1 der Energiewirtschaft.
Bonn 23. August 2005.
▪ chemie.de (2016a): Elektrochemie. http://www.chemie.de/lexikon/Elektrochemie.html
▪ chemie.de (2016b): Elektromotorische Kraft. http://www.chemie.de/lexikon/Elektromotorische_Kraft.html
▪ chemie.de (2016c): Elektrochemische Spannungsreihe. http://www.chemie.de/lexikon/Elektrochemische_Spannungsreihe.html
▪ chemgapedia.de (2017): Spannungsreihe.
http://www.chemgapedia.de/vsengine/media/vsc/de/ch/11/aac/vorlesung/kap_11/kap11_2/grafik/spannungsreihe.gif
▪ DL2KHP (2017): Elektromagnetische Wellen. http://www.dl2khp.de/elektromagnetische-wellen.html
▪ EEE (n. d.): EEE Interview Tips. 16 Common Interview Questions & Answers on Generators - Part-1.
https://eeeinterviewtips.blogspot.com/2011/07/question-answer-in-generator-part-1.html
▪ elektroauto-news.net (n. d.): Lithium-Ionen-Akku. http://www.elektroauto-news.net/wiki/elektroauto-batterien-akkus
▪ erdgas.info (2017): Funktionsprinzip Brennstoffzelle. https://www.erdgas.info/neue-heizung/heizungstechnik/brennstoffzelle/funktionsprinzip-
brennstoffzelle/
▪ EUROSTAT (2020): Electricity price statistics. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Electricity_price_statistics
▪ Exergy Economics (n. d.): What is Exergy? https://exergyeconomics.wordpress.com/exergy-economics-101/what-is-exergy/
▪ Geuschool (2011): Kraft auf den stromdurchflossenen Leiter. http://physik.geusschool.de/elek/os/mfeld/buch1/p2.htm
▪ Kowal (2017): Skript der Vorlesung „Grundlagen Batterietechnik“ an der TU Berlin.
▪ Kories (2013): Taschenbuch der Elektrotechnik: Grundlagen und Elektrotechnik. Verlag Harri Deutsch.
▪ Mortimer & Müller (2014): Chemie. Georg Thieme Verlag.
▪ Siesler (2010): Naturwissenschaftliche Grundlagen für Maschinenbauer und Wirtschaftsingenieure. https://www.uni-due.de/pc-
sa/lehre/Vorlesung_NWGIWI_131-140-s-w.pdf
▪ Strauss (2016): Kraftwerkstechnik zur Nutzung fossiler, nuklearer und regenerativer Energiequellen. 7. Auflage. Springer Verlag. Berlin.
▪ stromschnell (2016): https://www.stromschnell.de/technik/batterien-in-elektroautos-aktueller-stand-und-perspektiven_5123204_5093776.html
▪ Universität Leipzig (2013): Bruckner, T.: Vorlesung Energiemanagement „Power Plants“.
▪ Zahoransky (2015): Energietechnik – Systeme zur Energieumwandlung. 7., überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Springer Verlag,
Wiesbaden 2015.
Page 34
References – Image Sources
▪ Cepheiden (2016) Li-Ion-Zelle. Wikipedia Commons. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Li-Ion-Zelle_(CoO2-Carbon,_Schema).svg

▪ EEE (n. d.): EEE Interview Tips. 16 Common Interview Questions & Answers on Generators - Part-1.
https://eeeinterviewtips.blogspot.com/2011/07/question-answer-in-generator-part-1.html
▪ elektronik-kompendium (2008): https://www.elektronik-kompendium.de/sites/bau/bilder/13080511.gif
▪ Geuschool (2011): Kraft auf den stromdurchflossenen Leiter. http://physik.geusschool.de/elek/os/mfeld/buch1/p2.htm
▪ Honina (2008): https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5263714
▪ Kernenergie (n. d.): http://www.kernenergie.de/kernenergie-wAssets/img/kernkraftwerke/kkg-grafenrheinfeld-atw2009.jpg?viewmode=blank
▪ NDR (n. d.): https://www.ndr.de/media/kraftwerkrostock2_v-contentgross.jpg
▪ Sengpiel (2015): http://www.sengpielaudio.com/ohms-law-illustrated.gif
▪ Voith (2016): http://www.voith.com/de/presse/bildmaterial/energie-20358.html
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Sustainable Energy and Resources – Technologies and Systems

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Joachim Müller-Kirchenbauer

Electricity – The Most Useful Form of Energy

Fundamentals of Electrical Energy

Conversion from Mechanical Energy into Electricity

Conversion from Other Forms of Energy into Electricity

▪ The proportion of exergy in energy is a measure of quality.

▪ The proportion of exergy in energy is a measure of quality.

Chemical energy Nuclear energy Solar radiation energy

Gasification Uranium processing

Hydrogen Evaporation and

Heat engine Solar cell

Shaft work (torque)

Electricity Energy conversion Examples

Gross electrical Net electrical

Electrical output + Heat extraction

Generator Mechanical energy Electrical energy Direct 98 %

Electric motor Electrical energy Mechanical energy Direct 98 %

Resistance Electrical energy Heat Direct 100 %

Electricity – The Most Useful Form of Energy

Fundamentals of Electrical Energy

Conversion from Mechanical Energy into Electricity

Conversion from Other Forms of Energy into Electricity

▪ General term for all phenomena that can + +

▪ All electrical processes are based on

▪ The flow of electric charge is called

▪ In metals, electrons are the carriers of

Current (amperage) I in Ampere [A]

Voltage U in Volt [V]

Power P in Watt [W]

Electrical resistance R in Ohm [𝛀]

Voltage U Volt V 𝑈=𝑅∗𝐼

Current I Ampere A 𝐼 = 𝑈ൗ𝑅

Resistance R Ohm Ω 𝑅 = 𝑈ൗ𝐼

▪ The directional movement of charge carriers is called current.

▪ The movement of the charges creates a magnetic field

Transmitted electrical power

Ohm‘s Law: U=R·I

With the electrical resistance

Conclusion: Transmission losses decrease quadratically with increasing transmission voltage!

Stand-alone system (Island) Interconnected system

Power plant Power line Consumer

Distribution grid Federal roads

High voltage grid

Medium voltage grid ~

… Transformer … consumer ~ … Power plants (generators) and capacity

Electricity – The Most Useful Form of Energy

Fundamentals of Electrical Energy

Conversion from Mechanical Energy into Electricity

Conversion from Other Forms of Energy into Electricity

▪ Motionless charges are not influenced by a

Conversion of mechanical into electrical

Electricity – The Most Useful Form of Energy

Fundamentals of Electrical Energy

Conversion from Mechanical Energy into Electricity

Conversion from Other Forms of Energy into Electricity

▪ Contains Na+ and Cl-

Electrode (Anode, Kathode) Electrolyte

the electrolyte. At the cathode, oxygen from air

and thus provide electrical energy. The resulting Reaction:

Heat Mechanical Energy

Chemical Energy Electrical Energy

Basic equation: Electrolysis