THEORIES OF SAMPLING

 Concept of population and sample

 Random sampling & its methods: Simple random sampling, stratified and systematic Sampling methods.
 Sampling and non-sampling errors
 Pilot Study
 Importance of Probability sampling
 Sample size calculation

POPULATION:

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A complete enumeration of all items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.

SAMPLE

A sample is a small representative segment of a population

To get inferences applicable to universe with minimum resources

Sample is a part of population but it is true representative of whole.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample design as under: (a) Sample
design must result in a truly representative sample.

(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.

(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.

(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.

(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence

SAMPLING METHODS

1. Probability sampling 2. Non probability sampling

 Simple Random Sampling  Convenience

 Stratified Random Sampling  Judgmental

  Systemic Random Sampling  Quota

 Cluster Random Sampling- multistage  snowball

& multiphase

  Volunteer

 Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design,
every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
 Simple Random Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling
 Systemic Random Sampling
 Cluster Random Sampling- multistage & multiphase

1. Simple random sampling: Simple random sampling gathers a random selection from the entire population, where
each unit has an equal chance of selection. This is the most common way to select a random sample.

To compile a list of the units in your research population, consider using a random number generator. There are several
free ones available online, such as random.org, calculator.net, and randomnumbergenerator.org.

METHODS: lottery method, computer generated,

Example: Simple random sampling: You are researching the political views of a municipality of 4,000 inhabitants. You
have access to a list with all 4,000 people, anonymized for privacy reasons. You have established that you need a sample
of 100 people for your research. Writing down the names of all 4,000 inhabitants by hand to randomly draw 100 of them
would be impractical and time-consuming, as well as questionable for ethical reasons. Instead, you decide to use a
random number generator to draw a simple random sample. If the first number generated by the program is 1735, this
means that resident #1735 on your list should be selected to be part of the sample. You continue by matching each
number with the respective resident on the list.

Advantages: The advantage of simple random sampling lies in its simplicity and ease of use, especially when only a
small sample is taken.

Disadvantages: Simple random sampling does, however, require a complete list of all population units as each unit needs
to have a unique number associated with it to enable random selection. This sampling scheme also becomes unwieldy for
large sample sizes and can be expensive if the sample is spread over a wide geographic area.

2. Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling collects a random selection of a sample from within certain strata, or
subgroups within the population. Each subgroup is separated from the others on the basis of a common characteristic,
such as gender, race, or religion. This way, you can ensure that all subgroups of a given population are adequately
represented within your sample population.

Example: Stratified sampling

You are investigating why young people choose to play basketball. You want to know if children from urban areas are
more likely to play than children from rural areas. As you look at a list of all the youth players in your state, you notice
that there are 32,000 children from urban areas and 8,000 children from rural areas. If you take a simple random sample,
children from urban areas will have a far greater chance of being selected, so the best way of getting a representative
sample is to take a stratified sample. First, you divide the population into your strata: one for children from urban areas
and one for children from rural areas. Then, you take a simple random sample from each subgroup. You can use one of
two options: Select 100 urban and 100 rural, i.e., an equal number of units or Select 80 urban and 20 rural, which gives
you a representative sample of 100 people

Then, you can continue with your data collection (e.g., ask them to fill in a questionnaire). If you choose an equal number
of units, keep in mind that you need to weigh the results in order to draw conclusions for the population as a whole. In
this case, since children from urban areas form 80% of the population, you will have to weigh their results four times
more than those of the children from rural areas.

3. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling draws a random sample from the target population by selecting units at regular intervals starting
from a random point. This method is useful in situations where records of your target population already exist, such as
records of an agency’s clients, enrollment lists of university students, or a company’s employment records. Any of these
can be used as a sampling frame.

To start your systematic sample, you first need to divide your sampling frame into a number of segments, called intervals.
You calculate these by dividing your population size by the desired sample size. Then, from the first interval, you select
one unit using simple random sampling. The selection of the next units from other intervals depends upon the position of
the unit selected in the first interval.

Note: The selection of a unit within the first interval is random, but the selection of units from the next intervals depends
on the first selection you made. For this reason, systematic sampling design is sometimes viewed as a mixed design.

Let’s refer back to our example about the political views of the municipality of 4,000 inhabitants. You can also draw a
sample of 100 people using systematic sampling. To do so, follow these steps:

Determine your interval: 4,000 / 100 = 40. This means that you must select 1 inhabitant from every 40 in the record.

Using simple random sampling (e.g., a random number generator), you select 1 inhabitant.

Let’s say you select the 11th person on the list. In every subsequent interval, you need to select the 11th person in that
interval, until you have a sample of 100 people.
Note: For this to work, you must be completely sure that there is no hidden pattern or hierarchical order in the sampling
frame, as this can bias your results.

For example, suppose you have a list of all the employees in an organization divided by department. If each department
list is also organized by seniority (starting with the most senior person and ending with the most recent hire), you run the
risk of only selecting the more senior or junior employees, depending on what number you set as your interval.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is the process of dividing the target population into groups, called clusters. A randomly selected
subsection of these groups then forms your sample. Cluster sampling is an efficient approach when you want to study
large, geographically dispersed populations. It usually involves existing groups that are similar to each other in some way
(e.g., classes in a school).

There are two types of cluster sampling:

a) Single (or one-stage) cluster sampling, when you divide the entire population into clusters

Example: Single-stage cluster sampling: You are researching the perceptions of high school seniors about higher
education. It is not feasible to get a list of all high school seniors in your state, but you are able to access your city’s data
following required privacy protocols. Clusters are pre-existing groups, so each high school is a cluster, and you assign a
number to each one of them. Then, you use simple random sampling to further select clusters. How many clusters you
select will depend on the sample size that you need. Next, you contact the principal of each selected high school and ask
them to collaborate with you by disseminating your questionnaire to their senior students.

b) Multistage cluster sampling, when you divide the cluster further into more clusters, in order to narrow down the sample
size. Multi-stage sampling is a more complex form of cluster sampling, in which smaller groups are successively selected
from larger populations to form the sample population used in your study.

Example: Multi-stage sampling: You are investigating workplace-related stress in an ed-tech company. You want to draw
a sample of employees to survey. In the organizational chart, you see that the company consists of 9 departments, and
each department consists of 2 to 4 units, resulting in 17 different units in total.

First, you take a simple random sample of departments. Then, again using simple random sampling, you select a number
of units. Based on the size of the population (i.e., how many employees work at the company) and your desired sample
size, you establish that you need to include 3 units in your sample.

Once you have made your selection, you ask every employee working in the selected units to fill in your questionnaire.

In stratified sampling, you divide your population in groups (strata) that share a common characteristic and then select
some members from every group for your sample. In cluster sampling, you use pre-existing groups to divide your
population into clusters and then include all members from randomly selected clusters for your sample.

 Non-probability sampling is a sampling method that uses non-random criteria like the availability, geographical
proximity, or expert knowledge of the individuals you want to research in order to answer a research question. In non-
probability sampling, each unit in your target population does not have an equal chance of being included. Here, you can
form your sample using other considerations, such as convenience or a particular characteristic.

1. Convenience sampling is primarily determined by convenience to the researcher.

This can include factors like: Ease of access, Geographical proximity, and Existing contact within the population of
interest.
Example: You are investigating the association between daily weather and daily shopping patterns. To collect insight into
people’s shopping patterns, you decide to stand outside a major shopping mall in your area for a week, stopping people as
they exit and asking them if they are willing to answer a few questions about their purchases.
2. In quota sampling, you select a predetermined number or proportion of units, called a quota. Your quota should
comprise subgroups with specific characteristics (e.g., individuals, cases, or organizations) and should be selected in a
non-random manner.

There are two types of quota sampling:

a) Proportional quota sampling: is used when the size of the population is known. This allows you to determine the quota
of individuals that you need to include in your sample in order to be representative of your population.

Example: Proportional quota sampling: Let’s say that in a certain company there are 1,000 employees. They are split into
2 groups: 600 people who drive to work and 400 who take the train.You decide to draw a sample of 100 employees. You
would need to survey 60 drivers and 40 train-riders for your sample to reflect the proportion seen in the company.

b) Non-proportional quota sampling: is used when the size of the population is unknown. Here, it’s up to you to determine
the quota of individuals that you are going to include in your sample in advance.

Example: Non-proportional quota sampling: Let’s say you are seeking opinions about the design choices on a website, but
do not know how many people use it. You may decide to draw a sample of 100 people, including a quota of 50 people
under 40 and a quota of 50 people over 40. This way, you get the perspective of both age groups.

Note that quota sampling may sound similar to stratified sampling, a probability sampling method where you divide your
population into subgroups that share a common characteristic.

3. Self-selection (volunteer) sampling: Also called volunteer sampling; relies on participants who voluntarily agree to be
part of your research. This is common for samples that need people who meet specific criteria, as is often the case for
medical or psychological research.
Example: Self-selection sampling: Suppose that you want to set up an experiment to see if mindfulness exercises can
increase the performance of long-distance runners. First, you need to recruit your participants. You can do so by placing
posters near locations where people go running, such as parks or stadiums.
Your ad should follow ethical guidelines, making it clear what the study involves. It should also include more practical
information, such as the types of participants required. In this case, you decide to focus on runners who can run at least 5
km and have no prior training or experience in mindfulness.
Keep in mind that not all people who apply will be eligible for your research. There is a high chance that many applicants
will not fully read or understand what your study is about, or may possess disqualifying factors. It’s important to double-
check eligibility carefully before inviting any volunteers to form part of your sample.

4. Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is used when the population you want to research is hard to reach, or there is no existing database or
other sampling frame to help you find them. Research about socially marginalized groups such as drug addicts, homeless
people, or sex workers often uses snowball sampling.

To conduct a snowball sample, you start by finding one person who is willing to participate in your research. You then
ask them to introduce you to others. Alternatively, your research may involve finding people who use a certain product or
have experience in the area you are interested in. In these cases, you can also use networks of people to gain access to
your population of interest.

Example: Snowball sampling: You are studying homeless people living in your city. You start by attending a housing
advocacy meeting, striking up a conversation with a homeless woman. You explain the purpose of your research and she
agrees to participate. She invites you to a parking lot serving as temporary housing and offers to introduce you around.

In this way, the process of snowball sampling begins. You started by attending the meeting, where you met someone who
could then put you in touch with others in the group.

When studying vulnerable populations, be sure to follow ethical considerations and guidelines.

5. Purposive (judgmental) sampling

Purposive sampling is a blanket term for several sampling techniques that choose participants deliberately due to qualities
they possess. It is also called judgmental sampling, because it relies on the judgment of the researcher to select the units
(e.g., people, cases, or organizations studied).

Purposive sampling is common in qualitative and mixed methods research designs, especially when considering specific
issues with unique cases.

Note: Unlike random samples—which deliberately include a diverse cross-section of ages, backgrounds, and cultures—
the idea behind purposive sampling is to concentrate on people with particular characteristics, who will enable you to
answer yours research questions.

SAMPLING AND NON SAMPLING ERROR

Sampling error: Sample surveys do imply the study of a small portion of the population and as such there would
naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the information collected. This inaccuracy may be termed as sampling
error or error variance. In other words, sampling errors are those errors which arise on account of sampling and they
generally happen to be random variations (in case of random sampling) in the sample estimates around the true
population values. The meaning of sampling error can be easily understood from the following diagram: