JKUAT-EEE2210 ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS II

EEE2210 ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS II

Small signal Amplifiers: analysis of small signal amplifiers at medium frequencies using equivalent
circuits of bipolar transistor and field effect transistors (FETs),low frequency, performance voltage,
current and power gain, input and output impedance, determination of h parameters. Design of amplifier
to meet given design specifications. Feedback: feedback effect on amplifier characteristics and
performance. Power devices: operation of silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), uni-junction transistors
(UJT),triac, gate turn off switch (GTO) and diac. Design of simple firing control circuits.

Here are three excellent reference books for EEE2210 Analog Electronics II:

1. "Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory" by Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky
This comprehensive book covers the analysis and design of small signal amplifiers using bipolar
transistors and FETs, as well as the characteristics and performance of feedback in amplifiers. It also
delves into the operation of power devices such as SCRs, UJTs, triacs, GTOs, and diacs, providing a
solid foundation for understanding and designing firing control circuits.

2. "Microelectronic Circuits" by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith

This textbook provides a detailed exploration of small signal amplifiers, including the analysis and
design of amplifier circuits using bipolar transistors and FETs. The book also covers feedback effects
in amplifiers, as well as the operation and design of power devices like SCRs, UJTs, triacs, GTOs, and
diacs. It offers a strong theoretical understanding and practical insight into the subject matter.

3. "Electronic Principles" by Albert Malvino and David Bates

This classic textbook offers a thorough treatment of small signal amplifiers, including the analysis
and design of amplifier circuits with bipolar transistors and FETs. It also covers the impact of feedback
on amplifier characteristics and performance. Furthermore, the book provides an introduction to power
devices such as SCRs, UJTs, triacs, GTOs, and diacs, along with the design of firing control circuits.

These reference books should provide you with comprehensive coverage of the topics included in
EEE2210 Analog Electronics II, offering both theoretical explanations and practical examples to aid
your understanding and application of the material.

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EEE2210 Analog Electronics II

Week 1-2: Small Signal Amplifiers
Overview:
In this section, we will delve into the analysis of small signal amplifiers at medium frequencies using
the equivalent circuits of bipolar transistors and field-effect transistors (FETs). We will focus on low-
frequency performance, voltage, current, and power gain, input and output impedance, and
determination of h parameters.
Lecture 1: Introduction to Small Signal Amplifiers
- Definition and purpose of small signal amplifiers
- Importance of small signal analysis in electronic circuits
- Basic concepts of amplification and gain
Lecture 2: Bipolar Transistor Small Signal Analysis
- Review of bipolar transistor operation in the small signal model
- Derivation and application of small signal equivalent circuit
- Calculation of small signal parameters such as voltage gain, current gain, and input/output impedance
Lecture 3: Field Effect Transistor (FET) Small Signal Analysis
- Overview of FET operation and characteristics
- Small signal equivalent circuit of FET
- Analysis of FET small signal parameters and comparison with bipolar transistors
Lecture 4: Design of Small Signal Amplifiers
- Design specifications and requirements for small signal amplifiers
- Selection of amplifier configuration based on design specifications
- Calculations and design considerations for achieving desired performance
Week 3-4: Feedback
Lecture 5: Introduction to Feedback in Amplifiers
- Definition and types of feedback in electronic circuits
- Positive and negative feedback and their effects on amplifier characteristics
- Importance of feedback in amplifier design and performance
Lecture 6: Feedback Analysis in Amplifiers
- Analysis of feedback effects on amplifier gain, input/output impedance, and stability
- Calculation and interpretation of feedback factor and loop gain
- Design considerations for achieving desired feedback characteristics

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Week 5-6: Power Devices

Lecture 7: Introduction to Power Devices
- Overview of power semiconductor devices: SCR, UJT, triac, GTO, and diac
- Operating principles and characteristics of power devices
- Applications of power devices in electronic circuits
Lecture 8: Design of Firing Control Circuits
- Design considerations for firing control circuits using power devices
- Analysis of triggering methods for SCR, GTO, and triac
- Practical applications and examples of firing control circuits
Week 7-8: Revision and Practice
Lecture 9: Revision of Small Signal Amplifiers and Feedback
- Recap of small signal amplifier analysis and design
- Review of feedback effects and applications in amplifiers
- Problem-solving and practice exercises
Lecture 10: Revision of Power Devices and Firing Control Circuits
- Recap of power device characteristics and applications
- Practice exercises and case studies related to firing control circuits
- Preparation for assessments and examinations
Assessment and Evaluation:
- CAT1 on small signal amplifiers and feedback
- CAT2 on power devices and firing control circuits
- Practical design projects related to amplifier and power device applications

The above lecture notes provide a comprehensive outline for the EEE2210 Analog Electronics II course.
Each lecture will be supported by practical demonstrations, laboratory sessions, and hands-on activities
to reinforce theoretical concepts. Additional resources, including textbooks, research papers

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Lecture 1: Introduction to Small Signal Amplifiers

Objective:
The objective of this lecture is to introduce students to the concept of small signal amplifiers,
highlighting their definition, purpose, and the importance of small signal analysis in electronic circuits.
We will also cover the basic concepts of amplification and gain.
I. Definition and Purpose of Small Signal Amplifiers:
1. Definition:
- Small signal amplifiers are electronic circuits designed to amplify small input signals without
distorting the waveform. These amplifiers are typically used to increase the strength of signals for
further processing or transmission.
2. Purpose:
- The primary purpose of small signal amplifiers is to increase the amplitude of weak input signals to
a level suitable for driving other circuit elements such as speakers, antennas, or other active devices.
Small signal amplifiers are commonly found in audio systems, communication devices, and various
sensor applications.
II. Importance of Small Signal Analysis in Electronic Circuits:
1. Understanding Signal Integrity:
- Small signal analysis is essential for understanding how electronic circuits respond to small
variations in input signals. It helps in predicting the behavior of the circuit and ensuring signal integrity.
2. Performance Optimization:
- By analyzing small signal behavior, engineers can optimize the performance of electronic circuits,
ensuring that signals are faithfully amplified without distortion or noise.
3. Design and Troubleshooting:
- Small signal analysis is crucial in the design phase of electronic circuits, as well as in troubleshooting
existing circuits. It provides insights into how the circuit responds to small changes and aids in
identifying potential issues.
III. Basic Concepts of Amplification and Gain:
1. Amplification:
- Amplification refers to the process of increasing the magnitude of a signal. In small signal amplifiers,
the goal is to ensure that the output signal faithfully replicates the input signal, but with a larger
amplitude.
2. Gain:
- Gain is a measure of the amplification achieved by an amplifier and is defined as the ratio of the
output signal amplitude to the input signal amplitude. It is typically expressed in decibels (dB) or as a
unitless ratio.
3. Types of Gain:
- Voltage Gain: This refers to the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage and is denoted by
Av.

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- Current Gain: This refers to the ratio of the output current to the input current and is denoted by Ai.
- Power Gain: This refers to the ratio of the output power to the input power and is denoted by Ap.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, small signal amplifiers play a crucial role in modern electronic systems. Understanding
their definition, purpose, and the importance of small signal analysis is fundamental for any student or
practitioner in the field of electronic engineering. Moreover, grasping the basic concepts of
amplification and gain is essential for designing, analyzing, and troubleshooting electronic circuits.
Next Lecture:
In the next lecture, we will delve into the different types of small signal amplifiers, their characteristics,
and typical applications. We will also explore the transistor-based small signal amplifiers, including
common-emitter and common-source configurations.
Note: This lecture note is designed to provide a comprehensive overview of the key concepts related to
small signal amplifiers. It should be supplemented

Lecture 2: Bipolar Transistor Small Signal Analysis

Overview:
In this lecture, we will explore the small signal analysis of bipolar transistors, which is essential for
understanding their behavior in electronic circuits. We will start by reviewing the operation of bipolar
transistors in the active region and then proceed to derive the small signal equivalent circuit.
Understanding the small signal behavior of bipolar transistors is crucial for designing and analyzing
small signal amplifiers in electronic circuits.
Key Topics:
1. Review of Bipolar Transistor Operation:
- Bipolar transistor structure and operating regions (active, saturation, and cutoff).
- Emphasis on the small signal model and its application in analyzing transistor behavior.
2. Small Signal Equivalent Circuit:
- Derivation of the small signal equivalent circuit for bipolar transistors.
- Explanation of the components of the small signal model, including the small signal current sources,
voltage sources, and resistances.
3. Calculation of Small Signal Parameters:
- Analysis of small signal parameters such as voltage gain, current gain, input impedance, and output
impedance.
- Application of the small signal model to determine the performance of bipolar transistor amplifiers.

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Review of Bipolar Transistor Operation:

Bipolar transistors are three-terminal semiconductor devices that consist of alternating layers of N-type
and P-type materials. The small signal behavior of bipolar transistors is crucial for designing amplifiers
and other electronic circuits. In this section, we will review the operation of bipolar transistors, focusing
on their behavior in the active region, where they act as amplifiers.
- Operating Regions: Bipolar transistors operate in different regions, including the active region,
saturation region, and cutoff region. We will primarily focus on the active region, where the transistor
acts as an amplifier.
- Small Signal Model: Emphasis will be placed on the small signal model, which is used to analyze the
behavior of bipolar transistors when subjected to small variations in the input signal. The small signal
model linearizes the transistor's behavior around a quiescent operating point, enabling analysis at small
signal levels.
Small Signal Equivalent Circuit:
The small signal equivalent circuit of a bipolar transistor is derived by linearizing its large signal
behavior around the quiescent operating point. The small signal equivalent circuit simplifies the analysis
of transistor circuits and is crucial for understanding the small signal behavior of the transistor.
- Components of the Small Signal Model: The small signal model includes small signal current sources,
voltage sources, and resistances. These components represent the variations in transistor parameters
caused by small changes in the input signal.
- Derivation: The step-by-step derivation of the small signal equivalent circuit will be presented,
highlighting the transformation of the bipolar transistor's large signal model into its small signal
counterpart.
Derivation and Application of Small Signal Equivalent Circuit:
The small signal equivalent circuit allows us to analyze the behavior of the transistor for small variations
in the input signals. It is derived by linearizing the transistor's characteristics around the operating point.
The small signal equivalent circuit includes small signal models for the transistor's parameters such as
transconductance (gm), output conductance (go), and capacitances.
To derive the small signal equivalent circuit, we use the hybrid-pi model for bipolar transistors. The
hybrid-pi model represents the transistor as a small-signal current source in parallel with a resistor
between the base and emitter, and a voltage-controlled current source between the collector and emitter.
These small signal models allow us to analyze the transistor's behavior using simple circuit analysis
techniques.
Calculation of Small Signal Parameters:
1. Voltage Gain: The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier can be calculated using the small signal
equivalent circuit. By applying basic circuit analysis techniques, we can determine the voltage gain as
the ratio of the output voltage signal to the input voltage signal.
2. Current Gain: The current gain of a transistor is another important parameter that can be calculated
using the small signal model. It represents the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in
base current.
3. Input/Output Impedance: The input and output impedance of a transistor amplifier are important for
matching the amplifier to the preceding and following stages in a circuit. The small signal model allows

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us to calculate the input and output impedance by considering the transistor's small signal parameters
and the components in the small signal equivalent circuit.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, small signal analysis of bipolar transistors is fundamental for understanding the behavior
of transistors in electronic circuits. By reviewing the small signal model, deriving the small signal
equivalent circuit, and calculating small signal parameters such as voltage gain, current gain, and
input/output impedance, we gain valuable insights into the performance of transistor amplifiers and
other electronic circuits.
Lecture 3: Field Effect Transistor (FET) Small Signal Analysis
Overview of FET Operation and Characteristics
Field Effect Transistors (FETs) are three-terminal semiconductor devices that rely on an electric field
to control the conductivity of a channel, which is used to carry current. There are two main types of
FETs: Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs) and Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs).
In this lecture, we will focus on the basic principles and small signal analysis of both types.
MOSFETs operate by varying the voltage applied to the gate terminal, which in turn modulates the
conductivity between the source and drain terminals. JFETs, on the other hand, operate by controlling
the width of a conducting channel using an electric field. Both types of FETs have high input impedance,
making them suitable for many applications, including amplifiers, switches, and digital circuits.
The key characteristics of FETs include high input impedance, low output conductance, and voltage-
controlled operation. These characteristics make FETs particularly suitable for use in high-impedance
and low-power applications.
Small Signal Equivalent Circuit of FET
To perform small signal analysis on FETs, we often use a small signal model that simplifies the complex
behavior of the device. The small signal equivalent circuit of a FET consists of a signal source, input
resistance, output resistance, and transconductance (for MOSFETs) or transadmittance (for JFETs). The
small signal model allows us to analyze the response of the FET to small variations in input voltage or
current.
For MOSFETs, the small signal equivalent circuit typically includes a voltage-controlled current source
(transconductance) and a parallel combination of a resistor and a current source representing the output
conductance. For JFETs, the small signal model includes a transconductance and a resistor representing
the output conductance.
Analysis of FET Small Signal Parameters and Comparison with Bipolar Transistors
FETs and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are two main types of transistors used in electronic circuits.
While BJTs are current-controlled devices, FETs are voltage-controlled devices. This fundamental
difference results in different small signal parameters and performance characteristics.
In small signal analysis, FETs exhibit high input impedance, low output conductance, and high voltage
gain. On the other hand, BJTs have moderate input impedance, higher output conductance, and
moderate voltage gain. This makes FETs especially suitable for high-impedance and low-power
applications, while BJTs are often used in low-impedance and medium-to-high power applications.
In conclusion, small signal analysis of FETs involves understanding the small signal equivalent circuit,
analyzing the small signal parameters, and comparing them with those of bipolar transistors. This

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knowledge is essential for designing and analyzing electronic circuits that utilize FETs as the
active components.

Lecture 4: Design of Small Signal Amplifiers

I. Design Specifications and Requirements for Small Signal Amplifiers
A small signal amplifier is a device that amplifies weak input signals without distorting their waveform.
When designing small signal amplifiers, it is crucial to establish clear design specifications and
requirements to ensure that the amplifier meets the desired performance criteria. The following are some
of the key design specifications and requirements for small signal amplifiers:
1. Gain: The gain of the amplifier determines the degree to which the input signal is amplified. It is
essential to specify the required gain accurately to ensure that the amplifier meets the application's
needs.
2. Bandwidth: The frequency range over which the amplifier operates effectively is known as its
bandwidth. The desired bandwidth of the amplifier should be specified to ensure that it can amplify
signals across the required frequency range.
3. Input and Output Impedance*: The input and output impedance of the amplifier should be designed
to match the source and load impedances to minimize signal reflections and maximize power transfer.
4. Linearity: Small signal amplifiers should exhibit good linearity to ensure that the output faithfully
represents the input without introducing distortion.
5. Noise: The amplifier's noise performance is crucial, especially in low-level signal applications.
Specifications regarding the maximum allowable noise figure should be established.
6. Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the amplifier refers to its ability to detect and amplify small input
signals. The desired sensitivity should be defined based on the minimum input signal strength that the
amplifier must be able to process.
7. Stability: The amplifier should be designed to be stable under all operating conditions to avoid
oscillations and instability.
8. Size and Power Consumption: Practical considerations such as size, power consumption, and heat
dissipation should also be taken into account in the design process.
II. Selection of Amplifier Configuration Based on Design Specifications
Once the design specifications and requirements have been established, the next step is to select an
appropriate amplifier configuration that best meets these criteria. Common small signal amplifier
configurations include common-emitter, common-base, common-collector (emitter follower), and
differential amplifiers. The choice of configuration depends on factors such as gain, input and output
impedance, frequency response, and application-specific requirements.
III. Calculations and Design Considerations for Achieving Desired Performance
After selecting the appropriate amplifier configuration, the design process involves performing
calculations and considering various design parameters to achieve the desired performance. Some
important design considerations include:
1. Biasing: Proper biasing of the amplifier is crucial to ensure that it operates in the linear region of its
transfer characteristic. Biasing circuits are designed to establish the DC operating point of the amplifier.

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2. Component Selection: Selecting appropriate transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other components
is essential for achieving the desired gain, bandwidth, and other performance characteristics. The choice
of components also affects noise performance, stability, and linearity.
3. Frequency Compensation: Techniques such as Miller compensation and pole splitting may be
employed to ensure stability and prevent oscillations, especially in high-gain amplifiers.
4. Feedback Networks: The use of feedback networks can help control gain, bandwidth, and other
performance parameters. The selection and design of feedback networks should be carefully considered
to meet the specified requirements.
5. Simulation and Testing: Once the amplifier circuit has been designed, it should be simulated using
tools such as SPICE simulation software to verify its performance. Simulation allows for the analysis
of the amplifier's behavior under various operating conditions and helps identify potential issues before
hardware implementation. Additionally, prototype testing and iterative improvements are crucial to
refine the design and achieve the desired performance.
6. Signal Integrity: Ensuring signal integrity throughout the amplifier circuit is important to minimize
signal distortion and maintain the fidelity of the amplified signal. Proper layout design, grounding, and
signal routing are critical in preserving signal integrity.
7. Thermal Considerations: In high-power applications, thermal considerations are important to prevent
excessive temperature rise, which can affect the amplifier's performance and reliability. Adequate heat
sinking and thermal management strategies should be incorporated into the design.
8. EMI/RFI Considerations: Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference
(RFI) can impact the amplifier's performance and introduce unwanted noise. Designing the amplifier to
mitigate EMI/RFI issues through shielding, filtering, and layout optimization is essential.
9. Compliance and Safety: Depending on the application, the amplifier design should comply with
relevant safety standards and regulations. This includes considerations such as isolation, insulation, and
protection against electrical hazards.
10. Documentation and Design Review: Proper documentation of the amplifier design, including
schematics, bill of materials, and design calculations, is important for future reference and maintenance.
Conducting a design review with peers or experts can help identify potential design flaws and ensure
the amplifier meets all requirements.
In summary, the design of small signal amplifiers involves establishing clear design specifications,
selecting an appropriate amplifier configuration, and carefully considering various design parameters
to achieve the desired performance. Through thorough calculations, simulation, testing, and iterative
improvements, engineers can develop small signal amplifiers that meet the specific needs of diverse
applications while ensuring high performance, reliability, and compliance with relevant standards.

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Week 3-4: Feedback

Lecture 5: Introduction to Feedback in Amplifiers
Introduction
In this lecture, we will delve into the concept of feedback in electronic circuits, with a specific focus on
its role in amplifier design. Feedback is a fundamental concept in electronics and plays a crucial role in
shaping the behavior and performance of electronic circuits, especially amplifiers.
Definition and Types of Feedback in Electronic Circuits
Feedback in electronic circuits refers to the process of taking a portion of the output signal of a system
and feeding it back to the input. This allows the output to influence the input, thereby affecting the
overall behavior of the system. There are two primary types of feedback: positive feedback and negative
feedback.
- Positive Feedback: Positive feedback occurs when a fraction of the output signal is fed back to the
input in such a way that it reinforces the input signal. This can lead to an increase in the magnitude of
the output signal, and under certain conditions, it can result in oscillation or instability in the system.
- Negative Feedback: Negative feedback, on the other hand, involves feeding back a fraction of the
output signal to the input in a manner that opposes the input signal. This tends to stabilize the system,
reduce distortion, and improve linearity and bandwidth.
Positive and Negative Feedback and Their Effects on Amplifier Characteristics
Positive and negative feedback have distinct effects on the characteristics of amplifiers.
- Positive Feedback: In amplifiers, positive feedback can lead to increased gain, but it can also introduce
instability and oscillations, making it generally unsuitable for most amplifier designs. However, positive
feedback is used in certain specialized applications such as oscillators and Schmitt trigger circuits.
- Negative Feedback: Negative feedback is commonly employed in amplifier circuits to improve
performance. It reduces distortion, improves bandwidth, enhances linearity, and stabilizes the amplifier.
By feeding back a portion of the output signal to the input in a phase that opposes the input signal,
negative feedback effectively regulates the gain and minimizes the impact of variations in component
parameters.
Importance of Feedback in Amplifier Design and Performance
Feedback plays a crucial role in amplifier design and performance for several reasons:
- Stability: Negative feedback helps stabilize amplifier circuits, reducing the risk of oscillation and
instability, which can degrade performance and damage components.
- Linearity: Negative feedback minimizes nonlinear distortion in amplifiers, resulting in more accurate
signal reproduction.
- Bandwidth: By reducing the impact of internal capacitances and other parasitic effects, feedback can
increase the bandwidth of amplifiers, allowing them to faithfully reproduce higher-frequency signals.
- Gain Control: Feedback allows for precise control and stabilization of the gain of an amplifier,
ensuring consistent performance over varying operating conditions and component tolerances.
In conclusion, feedback is a powerful tool in amplifier design, offering the means to control and
optimize the performance of these critical electronic circuits. By understanding the principles of

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feedback and its effects on amplifier characteristics, designers can create circuits that deliver the desired
gain, linearity, stability, and bandwidth for a wide range of applications.

Lecture 6: Feedback Analysis in Amplifiers

Introduction
In this lecture, we will explore the analysis of feedback in amplifiers. Understanding the effects of
feedback on amplifier gain, input/output impedance, and stability is crucial for designing and
optimizing amplifier circuits for various applications. We will also delve into the calculation and
interpretation of feedback factors and loop gains, as well as the design considerations for achieving
desired feedback characteristics.
Analysis of Feedback Effects on Amplifier Gain, Input/Output Impedance, and Stability
Feedback has significant effects on the key parameters of amplifiers, including gain, input and output
impedance, and stability.
- Gain: Feedback impacts the overall gain of an amplifier. Negative feedback reduces the gain, while
positive feedback increases it. We will explore the specific mathematical relationships that govern the
gain of a feedback amplifier.
- Input/Output Impedance: Feedback affects the input and output impedance of an amplifier. It can be
used to control and modify these impedances to match the requirements of the connected circuits or
loads.
- Stability: Feedback plays a crucial role in determining the stability of an amplifier. We will analyze
the conditions for stability and how feedback affects the stability margin of an amplifier circuit.
Calculation and Interpretation of Feedback Factor and Loop Gain
The feedback factor and loop gain are important parameters in the analysis of feedback in amplifiers.
- Feedback Factor (β): The feedback factor, denoted by β, represents the fraction of the output signal
that is fed back to the input. We will discuss how to calculate β and its significance in determining the
amount of feedback in the system.
- Loop Gain (T): The loop gain, denoted by T, is a measure of the overall gain of the feedback loop. It
is essential for assessing the stability and performance of feedback amplifiers. We will explore the
calculation and interpretation of loop gain and its relationship to stability criteria.
Design Considerations for Achieving Desired Feedback Characteristics
When designing an amplifier with specific feedback characteristics, several considerations come into
play.
- Selection of Feedback Topology: Different feedback topologies, such as voltage-series, current-series,
voltage-shunt, and current-shunt feedback, offer distinct performance characteristics. We will discuss
the trade-offs and considerations involved in selecting the appropriate feedback topology for a given
application.
- Stability Analysis: Stability is a critical consideration in feedback amplifier design. We will explore
the stability criteria and design techniques to ensure that the amplifier remains stable under varying
operating conditions.

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- Gain and Bandwidth Control: Feedback allows for precise control of amplifier gain and bandwidth.
We will discuss design techniques for achieving the desired gain and bandwidth characteristics while
utilizing feedback to enhance performance.
- Input/Output Impedance Matching: Feedback can be employed to adjust the input and output
impedances of the amplifier to match the requirements of the preceding and succeeding stages.
In conclusion, feedback analysis is essential for understanding the behavior of amplifiers with feedback
and for designing circuits with specific performance characteristics. By mastering the calculation and
interpretation of feedback factors and loop gains, as well as considering the design implications,
engineers can create amplifiers that meet the requirements of a wide range of applications while
leveraging the benefits of feedback to improve performance and stability.

Week 5-6: Power Devices

Lecture 7: Introduction to Power Devices
Introduction:
Welcome to the seventh lecture in our series on power devices. In this lecture, we will provide an
overview of power semiconductor devices, including their operating principles, characteristics, and
applications in electronic circuits. Specifically, we will discuss the silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR),
unijunction transistor (UJT), triac, gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), and diac.
Overview of Power Semiconductor Devices:
Power semiconductor devices are crucial components in electronic circuits designed to handle large
amounts of electrical power. These devices are used in a wide range of applications, including power
supplies, motor control, lighting, and renewable energy systems. The main power semiconductor
devices we will cover in this lecture are as follows:
1. Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR): The SCR is a four-layer, three-junction semiconductor device
that acts as a controlled switch for high-power applications. It is capable of withstanding high voltages
and currents and is commonly used in AC power control, motor drives, and voltage regulators.
2. Unijunction Transistor (UJT): The UJT is a three-terminal semiconductor device with one PN
junction that exhibits a negative resistance characteristic. It is often used in timing circuits, pulse
generators, and voltage-controlled oscillators.
3. Triac: The triac is a three-terminal, four-layer, bidirectional semiconductor switch that can control
AC power. It is widely used in dimmer controls, AC power switching, and motor speed control
applications.
4. Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO): The GTO is a high-power semiconductor device with a gate terminal
for turn-on control and a special structure that allows for turn-off by applying a negative pulse to the
gate. GTOs are commonly used in high-power inverters, motor drives, and induction heating systems.
5. Diac: The diac is a two-terminal, bidirectional trigger diode that conducts current only after its
breakover voltage is reached. It is often used in conjunction with triacs for phase control and triggering
applications.
Operating Principles and Characteristics of Power Devices:

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Each power semiconductor device operates based on distinct principles and exhibits unique
characteristics that make it suitable for specific applications. Understanding the operating principles
and characteristics of these devices is essential for effectively utilizing them in electronic circuits.
- SCR: The SCR operates as a bistable switch, conducting current only when a gate signal triggers it
into conduction. Once triggered, it remains conducting until the current through it drops below a certain
threshold. The SCR exhibits high current and voltage-handling capabilities, making it suitable for high-
power applications.
- UJT: The UJT operates as a relaxation oscillator, producing a sawtooth waveform at its emitter
terminal. It exhibits a negative resistance characteristic, making it useful for triggering other devices
and generating timing signals.
- Triac: The triac is capable of controlling power in both directions, allowing it to be used for AC power
switching and phase control. It can be triggered into conduction by either a positive or negative gate
signal, making it suitable for a wide range of applications.
- GTO: The GTO operates as a high-power switch that can be turned on by applying a positive gate
signal and turned off by applying a negative gate pulse. It exhibits high current-carrying capabilities
and is often used in high-power applications that require fast switching.
- Diac: The diac operates as a bidirectional trigger diode with a symmetrical voltage-current
characteristic. It remains non-conducting until the voltage across it reaches the breakover voltage, at
which point it switches to a low-resistance state. The diac is commonly used in conjunction with triacs
for phase control and triggering applications.
Applications of Power Devices in Electronic Circuits:
Power semiconductor devices find widespread applications in electronic circuits where efficient control
and handling of high power levels are required. Some common applications of these devices include:-
AC Power Control: SCR, triac, and GTO are extensively used for controlling AC power in applications
such as light dimmers, motor speed control, and heating systems. These devices enable precise
regulation of power delivery to AC loads.
- Inverters and Motor Drives: GTOs and SCRs are frequently employed in high-power inverters and
motor drives. They facilitate the conversion of DC power to AC and the control of motor speed and
torque in industrial and automotive systems.
- Voltage Regulation and Power Supplies: SCRs are utilized in voltage regulators and power supplies
to regulate and stabilize output voltages. By controlling the conduction angle of the SCR, the output
voltage can be adjusted as needed.
- Timing and Oscillator Circuits: UJTs are commonly used in timing circuits, pulse generators, and
oscillators due to their ability to produce precise timing signals and waveforms.
- Phase Control and Triggering: Triacs and diacs are often combined to provide phase control and
triggering in AC power applications. This combination allows for the regulation of power delivered to
resistive and inductive loads.
Conclusion:
In this lecture, we have introduced the key power semiconductor devices, including SCR, UJT, triac,
GTO, and diac, and discussed their operating principles, characteristics, and applications in electronic
circuits. Understanding the capabilities and limitations of these power devices is essential for designing
efficient and reliable power electronic systems. In the upcoming lectures, we will delve deeper into the
operation and practical implementation of these devices in various power electronic applications.

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Lecture 8: Design of Firing Control Circuits

I. Design Considerations for Firing Control Circuits Using Power Devices
A. Introduction to Firing Control Circuits
- Firing control circuits are essential in power electronics for accurately controlling the firing angle of
power devices such as Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs), Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTOs), and
triacs.
- The design of firing control circuits is crucial for achieving precise control of power delivery in various
applications including motor control, power supplies, and voltage regulation.
B. Design Considerations
1. Load Characteristics
- The nature of the load being controlled by the firing control circuit greatly influences the design.
Whether the load is resistive, inductive, or capacitive will impact the choice of power device and the
firing control method.
2. Power Device Selection
- The choice of power device (SCR, GTO, triac) depends on the specific requirements of the
application, including voltage and current ratings, switching speed, and the nature of the load.
3. Firing Angle Range
- Determining the required firing angle range is crucial for designing the firing control circuit. The
range of firing angles required for the application will dictate the complexity of the control circuit.
4. Protection and Safety
- Protection against overcurrent, overvoltage, and other fault conditions is critical in the design of
firing control circuits to ensure the safety and reliability of the system.
II. Analysis of Triggering Methods for SCR, GTO, and Triac
A. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
1. Gate Triggering
- Discuss the various methods for triggering SCRs including line triggering, voltage triggering, and
current triggering.
- Analyze the characteristics and applications of each triggering method.
B. Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)
1. Gate Pulse Control
- Explain the principles of gate pulse control for turning on and turning off GTOs.
- Discuss the advantages and limitations of different gate pulse control techniques.
C. Triac
1. Quadrant Operation
- Introduce the concept of quadrant operation for triacs and the associated triggering methods for each
quadrant.

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III. Practical Applications and Examples of Firing Control Circuits

A. Motor Control
- Discuss the design and implementation of firing control circuits for speed control of DC and AC
motors.
B. Power Supplies
- Explore the application of firing control circuits in regulating the output voltage of power supplies,
including phase-controlled rectifiers and inverters.
C. Heating Systems
- Present examples of firing control circuits used in heating systems for precise control of power
delivered to resistive heating elements.
D. Lighting Control
- Demonstrate the use of firing control circuits in dimmer switches and lighting control systems for
adjustable brightness.
Conclusion
- Summarize the key points covered in the lecture, emphasizing the importance of design considerations,
analysis of triggering methods, and practical applications of firing control circuits using power devices.

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Week 7-8: Revision and Practice

Lecture 9: Revision of Small Signal Amplifiers and Feedback
Lecture Summary:
During this lecture, we will be revising small signal amplifier analysis and design, as well as reviewing
feedback effects and their applications in amplifiers. The session will include a recap of small signal
amplifier analysis and design, a review of feedback effects, and various applications in amplifiers. In
addition, we will engage in problem-solving and practice exercises to reinforce the concepts covered in
the previous lectures.
Key Topics:
1. Recap of Small Signal Amplifier Analysis and Design
a. Small Signal Models
b. Common Emitter, Common Collector, and Common Base Configurations
c. Small Signal Parameters: Voltage Gain, Current Gain, Input and Output Impedance
d. Frequency Response and Bandwidth
e. Biasing and Stability
2. Review of Feedback Effects and Applications in Amplifiers
a. Types of Feedback: Positive and Negative Feedback
b. Effects of Feedback on Gain, Input and Output Impedance
c. Stability and Bandwidth Improvement
d. Feedback Topologies: Voltage-Series, Voltage-Shunt, Current-Series, and Current-Shunt
Feedback
e. Applications of Feedback in Amplifiers
3. Problem-Solving and Practice Exercises
a. Analysis and Design of Small Signal Amplifiers
b. Calculation of Gain, Input and Output Impedance
c. Feedback Analysis and Design
d. Frequency Response and Bandwidth Calculations
e. Stability Analysis
Lecture Structure:
1. Introduction (5 minutes)
- Welcome and Overview of the Session
- Brief Recap of Previous Lectures
2. Recap of Small Signal Amplifier Analysis and Design (30 minutes)
- Small Signal Models and Parameters

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- Analysis of Common Emitter, Common Collector, and Common Base Configurations

- Frequency Response and Bandwidth Considerations
- Biasing and Stability
3. Review of Feedback Effects and Applications in Amplifiers (30 minutes)
- Types of Feedback and Their Effects
- Stability and Bandwidth Improvement
- Applications of Feedback in Amplifiers
- Feedback Topologies
4. Problem-Solving and Practice Exercises (30 minutes)
- Interactive Problem-Solving Session
- Practice Exercises for Small Signal Amplifiers and Feedback
- Q&A Session
5. Conclusion and Recap (5 minutes)
- Summary of Key Points Covered
- Homework and Further Reading Recommendations
Recommended Reading:
- Sedra, Adel S., and Smith, Kenneth C. "Microelectronic Circuits" (Chapters on Small Signal Analysis
and Feedback)
- Gray, Paul R., et al. "Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits" (Chapters on Amplifiers and
Feedback)
Homework:
- Solve practice problems related to small signal amplifiers and feedback analysis.
- Read relevant chapters from the recommended textbooks.
Additional Notes:
- Students are encouraged to actively participate in the problem-solving and practice exercises to
reinforce their understanding of the concepts covered.
- The lecture slides and additional resources will be available for download from the course website.

Lecture 10: Revision of Power Devices and Firing Control Circuits

I. Recap of Power Device Characteristics and Applications
A. Introduction to Power Devices
1. Definition of Power Devices
- Power devices are electronic components used to control the flow of electrical power in a circuit.

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2. Common Types of Power Devices

a. Power Diodes
b. Power Transistors (Bipolar Junction Transistors, MOSFETs)
c. Thyristors (SCR, Triac)
B. Characteristics of Power Devices
1. Voltage and Current Ratings
- Understanding the maximum voltage and current a power device can handle is crucial for safe and
efficient circuit design.
2. Switching Speed
- The speed at which a power device can turn on and off affects its suitability for different applications.
3. On-state Voltage Drop
- The voltage drop across a power device when it is conducting current is an important parameter,
especially in high-power applications.
4. Power Dissipation
- Power devices generate heat during operation, and their ability to dissipate this heat impacts their
reliability and lifespan.
C. Applications of Power Devices
1. Rectification
- Power diodes are commonly used for converting AC to DC in power supplies and rectifier circuits.
2. Amplification and Switching
- Power transistors and MOSFETs are used for amplifying signals and switching high-power loads in
various electronic systems.
3. Phase Control and AC Power Regulation
- Thyristors and triacs are essential for phase control and regulation of AC power in applications such
as motor speed control and heating systems.
II. Practice Exercises and Case Studies Related to Firing Control Circuits
A. Introduction to Firing Control Circuits
1. Definition and Purpose
- Firing control circuits are used to precisely control the switching of power devices such as thyristors
and triacs in AC power applications.
2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Techniques
- Understanding how PWM can be used to control the average power delivered to a load by varying
the duty cycle of the control signal.

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3. Phase Control Techniques

- Exploring methods for controlling the firing angle of thyristors to regulate the power delivered to
loads in AC circuits.
B. Practice Exercises
1. Design and simulation of a PWM-based motor speed control circuit using a microcontroller.
2. Analysis of a phase-controlled AC heating system and optimization of firing angles for improved
energy efficiency.
C. Case Studies
1. Real-world examples of firing control circuits in industrial motor drives, HVAC systems, and lighting
control applications.
2. Comparison of different firing control strategies in terms of efficiency, cost, and reliability.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the lecture on the revision of power devices and firing control circuits aims to reinforce
and consolidate students' understanding of these fundamental concepts in electrical engineering. By
revisiting key principles, engaging in practical exercises, and thorough examination preparation,
students will be well-equipped to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in assessments and
examinations. The comprehensive review and practical application of the concepts covered will
empower students to apply their learning to real-world engineering challenges.

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