Module 3: The gastrointestinal system

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is in essence a 9 metre (30 feet) long muscular
tube. The tract comprises several different organs - mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small and large intestine, and the rectum - working together to digest food and
absorb nutrients. Along its length, the GI tract is supported by various accessory
organs, like the salivary glands and the pancreas, which are critical to digestion.
Food boluses are propelled from the mouth to the anus by muscular contractions
of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle, located in the GIT walls. Also, this
contractility mixes food with digestive enzymes aiding digestion, and ensuring
nutrients are appropriately absorbed in the intestines.

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

List the key organs of the gastrointestinal tract.

List the essential activities involved in the processing of food.

Describe the types of motility that occur in the GIT.

The gastrointestinal system

Digestive system

The digestive system is essentially a

hollow muscular tube running
through the body from the mouth to
the anus, called the gastrointestinal
tract (GIT).

The major organs of the

GIT are:

Mouth

Pharynx

Oesophagus

Stomach

Small Intestine

Large Intestine

Rectum

Each of these hollow structures are

separated from each other at key
locations by sphincters.

Image source: 'Gastrointestinal Tract' by Christos Georghiou, Adobe Stock, modified.

The digestive system also consists of accessory organs and glands which help in
the digestive process.

The accessory organs include:

Teeth

Tongue

Salivary glands

Liver

Gallbladder

Pancreas

Image source: Adapted from: 1) 'Dental Root anatomy of mandibular human gum and teeth' by Alex
Mit, Adobe Stock, modified, and 2) 'Liver, gallbladder and bile ducts' by Alila Medical Media, Adobe
Stock, modified.

The digestive process

The GIT system works under both neural and hormonal control. Each part of the GI
system has a specialised function. Food is the trigger for digestion to commence. As the
food is moved through the GIT, various hormones and enzymes are released, each with a
variety of functions. Some hormones help in pushing the food through the tract (motility),
whilst others signal to aid the chemical breakdown of food and aid absorption. As the
food moves through the GIT, nutrients are absorbed from it and waste material is pushed
further towards the anus, until finally it is excreted.

There are 6 essential activities involved in the processing of food:

Ingestion

Propulsion

Mechanical breakdown

Chemical digestion

Absorption

Defecation

Image source: 'Human digestive system illustration'. by robu_s, Adobe Stock, modified.

The diagram below gives an overview of the whole gastrointestinal tract

and the many activities that occur along its length. In the remainder of this
module we will explore this in some detail.

Image source: 'Digestive Processes'. Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-

physiology-2e

Motility in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT)

Motility is known as the ‘motor function’ of the GIT. There are two main types of
movements that take place in the GIT - peristalsis and segmental contractions.

Peristalsis and segmental contractions come about due to rhythmic movement of

the smooth muscle lining the GIT. The smooth muscle activity is a result of both
intrinsic and extrinsic (neural and hormonal) stimuli. A combination of peristalsis and
segmental contractions ensures that food is both digested and pushed towards the
anus for removal from the body.

Peristalsis

You can see the layers of smooth muscle in the diagram below of the alimentary
tract. The muscularis has an outer circular muscle layer, and an inner longitudinal
layer. Also note the innervation of the nervous system that we will examine in later
units in this GIT module.

Click on the image for a larger view (opens in a new tab)

Image source: 'Layers of the Alimentary Canal' Access for free

at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e.

For peristalsis, a
simultaneous and
progressive wave of
contractions and
relaxation of the
smooth muscle
occurs. Behind the
food bolus, circular
muscles contract,
while longitudinal
muscles relax.
Simultaneously, in
front of the food
bolus circular
muscles relax and longitudinal muscles contract.

The result is a wave-like movement, moving

(propulsion) food towards down the tract. Note
that peristalsis occurs throughout all regions of
the GIT.

Image source: 'Peristalsis' by Auawise, CC BY-SA 4.0,

Wikimedia.

Segmental contractions

Segmentation involves alternating backward and forward contractions and

relaxations of the longitudinal muscle in the GIT wall. This type of contractility
churns food, enhancing digestion and absorption. It is responsible for mixing food
with digestive juices and mucus to form chyme. Also, as noted in the diagram below,
segmentation separates chyme and then pushes it back together, mixing it, and
provides time for digestion and absorption. This process is specific to the small and
large intestines.

Image source: 'Segmentation' Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-

physiology-2e