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1. Research Question
How does the resistance (Ω) of copper wire change with temperature (ºC)? Determining the temperature
coefficient of resistance of copper.

This investigation aims to explore the relationship between temperature and the electrical resistance of
copper wire as a conductor. To achieve this, I will measure the resistance across a two-metre length of
copper wire that is heated to various temperatures (100ºC, 125ºC, 150ºC, 175ºC and 200ºC) in a
convection oven. I will also measure the resistance of the wire at room temperature (25ºC), which, given
that it will not have been heated and will not have been subject to experimentation, will act as the control.

2. Introduction
Like the great majority of the modern world, my family relies on electricity, with the supply and harnessing
thereof requiring conductors. Conductors, in this case, are materials that conduct/transmit electricity.
Household electricity is harnessed through cables that contain wires. These cables are run through the

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walls of a home and are connected to household goods, such as lamps and appliances. Most of the cables
used as electrical conductors are made from copper. This is because, aside from silver and gold, copper is

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the best all-round conductor due to its strength, ductility, resistance to corrosion and overall economics
(Monroe Engineering). tlo
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Electricity has been of interest to me, sometimes dangerously so, since I was a small child. A fascination for
plugs, plug points, and the exciting impact of switches led me to experiment with these as soon as I was
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able. This interest has become more nuanced and deeper over time. Over the past few years, I have learnt
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how nichrome is often used in resistors due to its overall high resistance and small change in resistance as
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its temperature increases. This discovery led me to question how other conductive materials (i.e. those
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used in cabling) might behave.

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My fascination with resistance was further piqued after covering “Electricity and Magnetism” (Topic 5).
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Studying this topic highlighted that temperature affects how current flows through a conductor. It also
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revealed how different materials (e.g. aluminium, copper and silver) have their own value of resistivity that
affects their resistance.

The merging of these three subject matters - electricity, resistance, and the impact of temperature on
resistance - prompted me to choose this topic. Finding a practical application through copper rendered this
experiment of further interest to me.

3 Background
3.1 Current: the flow of electrons in a conductor
Some electrons in a conductor are free-moving, while the rest remain attached to atoms. On the other
hand, the atoms are fixed in position due to intermolecular forces, which hold them in a lattice structure.
The free-moving electrons exist and move between these atoms.
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An electric field is formed when a potential difference is applied across the lattice structure. Once the
electric field forms, it accelerates the movement of the already mobile electrons. Moving randomly, an
electron continues to move until it collides with an atom or another electron. Upon impact, the mechanical
kinetic energy of the electron converts into three types of energy: random kinetic energy, potential energy of
the atom (or the other electron) and thermal energy. The intermolecular force between the atoms distributes
the energy throughout the conductor. Macroscopically, this process is seen as a steady current flow that
also leads to an increase in the temperature of the conductor. (a. Kognity, “App | Kognity”)

3.2 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR)

The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) is the resistance change per degree of temperature
change. Since every conductor has a TCR, the resistance of a conductor will change with temperature.
While most conductors have a positive, linear TCR, some have a positive, nonlinear TCR. Nichrome is an
example of a conductor with a very small positive, nonlinear TCR. Thus it is a popular alloy for resistors.
Gold and silver are examples of conductors that have a positive linear TCR. While rare, conductors with a

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negative TCR exist, e.g. silicon. (All About Circuits)

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As part of this investigation, an experimental TCR will be determined for copper. While I will not use the
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following equation in this investigation, it is a helpful mechanism to illustrate how the TCR of a conductor
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can be predicted or applied. This equation is used to predict the resistance of a conductor at a specific
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temperature and is as follows:

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[
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 1 + α(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓) ]
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Where:
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- 𝑅𝑇 is the resistance (Ω) of the conductor at the new temperature 𝑇

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- 𝑅𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the resistance (Ω) of the conductor at the reference temperature 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
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- α is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) for the conductor

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- 𝑇 is the ‘new’ temperature of the conductor

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- 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference temperature that α is specified at

4. Hypothesis
Based on what I have learned, I hypothesise that the resistance of copper (i.e. the conductor) will be
proportional to the temperature. This means that as the temperature increases, the material’s resistance
should likewise increase.

As referenced in section 3.1 of this investigation, the movement of electrons in a conductor is random. This
relates to the flow of electrons and collisions between an electron and an atom or another electron. By
increasing the temperature of a conductor, two things should happen. One: the kinetic energy of the mobile
electrons will increase. This means that collisions will become more frequent. Two: the already vibrating
atoms will vibrate more vigorously. As the atoms vibrate more vigorously, more ‘obstacles’ become present
in the electron's path (b. Kognity, “App | Kognity”). In both instances, the possibility of a collision and the
frequency of actual collisions will increase. More collisions lead to more resistance.
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Given literary sources and the equation for TCR (section 3.2 of this investigation), I also hypothesise that
copper will show a positive linear relationship between resistance and temperature. To illustrate this,
consider the equation for TCR. It is apparent from the structure of the equation that it should produce a
linear function. This is seen as follows: if α is considered 𝑚 (the gradient) in a linear function, it will produce
a function that follows the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. To predict the value of α, one must rework the prior formula to
match a linear function 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. The equivalence between the two is illustrated below:
𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
= α(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓) + 1

𝑅 = α(𝑇) + 𝑐
Where the following is likely:
𝑅𝑇
- 𝑅𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
is the 𝑦 value

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- α is the equivalent 𝑚 variable (gradient function)

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- (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓) is the difference in 𝑥 values

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5. Variables
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Table 1. Variables in the investigation of the effect of temperature on the voltage output
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Method of
Variable Type Variables Impact on Experiment
measurement/control
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Temperature of the Infra-Red Thermometer

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Independent Variable -
Conductor (±0.1 ºC)
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Resistance of the
Dependent Variable Multimeter (±0.1 Ω) -
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Conductor
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Must be uniform in all trials, as the

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Length of the
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Meterstick (±1 cm) length of the wire impacts its

Conductor
resistance.

Use the same thickness of Must be uniform in all trials, as the

Cross-sectional area
copper wire (0.4 mm cross-sectional area of the wire
Controlled Variables of the Conductor
width) impacts its resistance.

Must be uniform in all trials, as the

Material of the Copper metal as the
material of the conductor affects its
Conductor conductor
resistance.

Although this is highly unlikely to

Purity of the
- cause noticeable issues, it could
Conductor
lead to systematic errors.
Uncontrolled Variables
If the whole length of wire is not the
Absolute temperature
- same temperature, the results may
of the Conductor
not be precise.
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6. Apparatus

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Figure 1: Diagram detailing apparatus

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Table 2. Equipment used in the experiment
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Equipment
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1 x oven (100 ºC to 200 ºC)

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1 x oven tray
1 x multimeter (200 Ω)
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1 x meterstick
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1 x length of copper cable (2.5 m (L) x 0.4 mm (W))

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1 x plastic pipe (50 cm (L) x 5 cm (W))

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1 x infrared thermometer (-40 ºC to 400 ºC)

1 x bucket of water (5 litres capacity)
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1 x roll of electrical tape

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1 x roll of aluminium foil

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1 x pair of tongs
Uncertainties:
Three measurement uncertainties are highlighted in this experiment: the infrared thermometer, the
multimeter and the measuring stick. The uncertainty for the digital measuring devices (i.e. the multimeter
and infrared thermometer) is set at the scientifically accepted smallest increment, with details relating to
accuracy included in the final graphed data (section 8). The uncertainty of the meterstick is not included in
the final data but is also highlighted since it could impact the controlled variable.

7. Methodology
7.1 Process
Step 1: Preparation
1. Measure out 204 cm of copper wire using the meterstick.
2. Measure 2 cm from each end of the copper wire. Bend the wire to mark these spots.
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3. Use the marked-off 2 cm on each end of the copper wire to create a hook. Each hook will be used
as the attachment area for the multimeter probe.
4. Cut two 20 cm pieces of electrical tape.
5. Tape one end of the wire, below the hook, to one end of the pipe.
6. Wind the copper wire around the plastic pipe. Leave 0.5 cm between each coil.
7. Tape the other end of the wire, below the hook, to the other end of the pipe.
8. Fill up the bucket, to the halfway mark, with room-temperature water.
9. Attach the multimeter probes to the negative and positive terminals on the multimeter.
10. To optimise heating (i.e. to ensure equal heat distribution), place the oven shelf in the oven, at the
midpoint.
11. Cover the oven tray with aluminium foil to prevent potential damage from the copper wire.
12. Place the oven tray on the shelf in the oven.

Step 2: Data collection

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1. Use the infrared thermometer to measure and record the temperature of the copper wire at ‘room

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temperature’.

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2. Turn the multimeter on, then turn the dial to the “200 Ω” setting.
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3. Place one of the multimeter probes at one end of the wire and the other probe at the other end of
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the wire. Ensure that the 2 cm hook is used as the point of attachment.
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4. Record the resistance at room temperature.

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5. Turn the multimeter off and remove the probes from the wire.
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6. Preheat the oven to the desired temperature. Start with the lowest temperature and work
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sequentially to the highest temperature (100 ºC, 125 ºC, 150 ºC, 175 ºC and 200 ºC).
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7. Place the pipe with the coiled wire on top of the oven tray, and leave for 5 minutes.
8. Open the oven door half-way. Keep one hand on the door handle. With the other hand, measure the
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temperature of the wire using the infrared thermometer. If the wire is not at the desired temperature,
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close the oven door and leave the pipe with the coiled wire in the oven to continue to heat. Measure
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continuously until the wire reaches the correct temperature.

9. Once the wire has reached the desired temperature, turn the multimeter on and turn the dial to the
“200 Ω” setting.
10. Put on heat-proof gloves.
11. Fully open the oven door and pull out the shelf to roughly half-way. To retain the heat, do not
remove the shelf from the oven.
12. Place one of the multimeter probes at one end of the wire and the other probe at the other end of
the wire. Ensure that the 2 cm hook is used as the point of attachment.
13. Record the resistance at the specified temperature.
14. Turn the multimeter off and remove the probes from the wire.
15. Push the shelf back into the oven, and close the oven door.
16. Remove the heat-proof gloves.
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17. Repeat the data collection process (steps 2.6 to 2.16) until one data point for each temperature
interval has been collected.
18. Once a data point for each temperature interval has been collected, remove the pipe with the coiled
wire from the oven with the pair of tongs.
19. To cool, place the pipe with the coiled wire into the bucket of water for one minute. Using the
infrared thermometer, ensure that the wire has returned to the initial room temperature reading
before removing it from the bucket of water.
20. Ensure that the pipe with the coiled wire is dry.
21. Repeat the data collection process (steps 2.1 to 2.17) until a minimum of five data points for each
temperature interval have been collected.

7.2 Safety and risk assessment

The primary safety issue in this experiment relates to the exposure to high temperatures and, thus, the
possibility of sustaining burns. One should use heat-resistant gloves or oven tongs when handling the pipe

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with the coiled wire. These allow for the wire to be touched or held at high temperatures. Care should also

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be taken when opening the oven. Here, wearing gloves makes dealing with the oven at high temperatures

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less dangerous. In addition, when taking the temperature, one must hold the part-opened oven door with
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one hand. This ensures that the oven door will not snap closed, trapping the hand inside.
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7.3 Environmental care and disposal

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This experiment involves no significant environmental or ethical issues. To limit waste, the pipe that the wire
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was wrapped around was recycled. The copper wire was also returned to its original coil to be used for
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future experiments.
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In addition, three actions were taken to conserve electricity. The first was to experiment in a single sitting,
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and the second was to heat the oven sequentially, from the lowest to the highest temperature. This meant
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that the oven was heated from cold once, becoming increasingly hotter. This eliminated the need for
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repeated heating and cooling in between measurements. The third was to work at pace when taking the
temperature of the wire. While it is necessary to open the oven door to measure, keeping it open for as
short a time as possible helps to minimise heat loss.

8. Analysis
8.1 Qualitative data
During the experiment, there was only one observable change to the apparatus. I noticed that the plastic
pipe became pliable under heat. Cooling returned it to its original state. Post-experiment, I found a second.
When removing the copper wire from the pipe, I noticed a ridge-like pattern in the pipe. This likely indicated
that it had expanded and contracted during the experiment.
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8.2 Quantitative data

Table 3. Raw data - trials where the resistance was recorded at temperatures from 25ºC to 200ºC

Resistance of the Copper Wire (Ω ±0.1)

Temperature of the
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
Copper Wire (ºC ±0.1)

25.0 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0

100.0 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.2

125.0 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.2

150.0 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.4

175.0 1.5 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.6

200.0 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.5

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Table 4. Processed data - trials where the resistance was recorded at temperatures from 25ºC to 200ºC

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Temperature of the Mean Average (R) with Mean Average (R) Percentage
Copper Wire (ºC ±0.1) anomalies
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without anomalies Uncertainty (%)
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25.0 0.8 0.8 ±12.5

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100.0 1.2 1.2 ±8.3

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125.0 1.3 1.3 ±7.7

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150.0 1.4 1.4 ±7.1

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175.0 1.5 1.6 ±6.3

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200.0 1.7 1.8 ±5.6

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Average Percentage
±7.9
Uncertainty (%)

Two equations were used to calculate the values in Table 4. These are as follows:

Mean Average Equation:

Σ 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
= 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠

Percentage Uncertainty Equation:

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
× 100 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦

Example Equations with Values:

To illustrate how the equations work in practice, I chose to utilise values from the trial that was conducted at
100ºC. These values can be seen in Table 3, row: 100.0, and they are applied as follows:
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Example Mean Average (using the values from 100 ºC):

1.2 + 1.3+1.1+ 1.2+1.2

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= 1. 2

Example Percentage Uncertainty (using the mean average voltage from 100 ºC):

0.1
1.2
× 100 = 8. 3%

8.3 Processed Data

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Graph 1: Scatter graph of the average resistance of the copper wire against the wire’s temperature
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Graph 2. Scatter graph of the average resistance of the copper wire against the wire’s temperature
(including minimum and maximum gradients)
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9. Conclusion and extension

9.1 Evaluation
Both Graph 1 and Graph 2 illustrate a positive linear correlation between increasing temperature and the
average resistance of the copper wire (i.e. a positive linear TCR). This correlation suggests that my initial
hypothesis that a temperature increase would lead to an increase in resistance is correct.

Data for the trendlines in Graph 1 and Graph 2 are taken from the mean average in Table 4 and depicted by
the blue linear line of best fit. The red and yellow lines in Graph 2 represent the minimum and maximum
trendlines. These are calculated by applying the percentage uncertainty to the first and last mean data
points in Table 4 (i.e. mean average for 25ºC and 200ºC).

The TCR in Graphs 1 and 2 is the coefficient of (𝑥) in the lines of best fit. Here, the (𝑥) value is the
temperature, and the (𝑦) value the resistance. The equations are as follows:
The equation for the line of best fit (the blue line) is: 𝑦 = 0. 0051𝑥 + 0. 6798

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The equation for the minimum gradient line (the red line) is: 𝑦 = 0. 0044𝑥 + 0. 8115

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The equation for the maximum gradient line (the yellow line) is: 𝑦 = 0. 0068𝑥 + 0. 5485

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The positive coefficient of (𝑥) in all three cases (the TCR) suggests that with an increase in the (𝑥) value
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(i.e. temperature), the (𝑦) value (i.e. resistance) will also increase.
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Mathematically, all lines of best fit have a coefficient of determination. The coefficient of determination is
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depicted by R² and is a number between 0 and 1. It measures how well a statistical model predicts an
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outcome and is used to determine the strength of the relationship between the variables of the graph. The
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closer the absolute value of the coefficient is to 1, the stronger the correlation. In this instance, the
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coefficient of determination, R2, is strong, with a value of 0.988 (Bloomenthal).

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It is visually evident that none of the data points lie far from the line of best fit. This, coupled with a high R2
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value, indicates no significant anomalies within the data. Thus, there was no need to remove data points.

Therefore, the data shows that the resistance is lowest at the lowest temperature (0.8 Ω at 25 ºC) and
highest at the highest temperature (1.8 Ω at 200 ºC). This can be seen in Graph 1 and Graph 2, and Table
3 and Table 4. This suggests a positive gradient, with an upward trend in resistance as the temperature
increases. Therefore, this data can be used to answer the research question, “How does the resistance of
copper wire change with temperature?”. The answer: the resistance of copper wire increases linearly as its
temperature increases.
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9.2 Strengths and weaknesses

Table 6. Systematic Evaluation - Strengths

Strength Benefit to investigation

Temperature To control the temperature of the wire, an oven was used. This ensured that the cable and pipe
control were heated up to the set temperature. In addition, the oven was large enough to keep any heat
dissipation to a minimum.
In comparison to a flame, the temperature was easy to maintain. Using an oven instead of a
flame also helped minimise any risk of damage to the multimeter and reduced the possibility of
burns.

Standardisation Not replacing the copper wire between trials meant avoiding any change in length, surface area
of the length and cross-sectional area. A change in any of these three specifications would lead to a change in
and width of the resistance of the copper wire.
the copper wire Keeping the original copper wire meant that a) the resistance at room temperature would be
the same throughout the trials, and b) an equal surface area of the wire would be exposed to the
heat. Control over this variable was essential to ensure that a fair test could take place.

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Consistent To ensure control over the length of the copper wire, I delineated where to attach the multimeter

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connection probes each time they were used. I did this by a) measuring and then marking a length of 2 cm at

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point on the each end of the copper wire and b) crafting a hook at each end of the wire that could be used to
copper wire for attach to the multimeter probes. tlo
the multimeter This ensured that the resistance would not change due to a change in the length of the copper
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probes wire.
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Table 7. Systematic Evaluation - Weaknesses

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Weakness Detriment to investigation Improvement

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Heating The wire’s temperature was carefully measured To maintain consistent temperature across the
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methodology before removing it from the oven. entire length of the wire, one could utilise an
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However, I noticed that the wire on the electronic variable temperature water bath. This
underside of the pipe (i.e. the side touching the would ensure that a) the entire length of the wire
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aluminium foil) was slightly cooler than the wire is kept at the same temperature and b) the
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on the exposed sides of the pipe. This
temperature difference may have been due to a
difference in the heat capacity between copper
and aluminium, possibly leading to uneven heat
distribution. Thus, there is a possibility that
inaccuracies exist within the resistance readings
due to these temperature differences.
temperature is accurate throughout each
micro-step in the data collection process.
However, it is worth noting that there is a
limitation to the water bath, namely the
temperature range. Significantly smaller than the
oven, the water bath ranges between 25 ºC and
100 ºC, while the oven has a range of 75 ºC /
100 ºC to 250 ºC / 300 ºC.

Precision of The multimeter used in this experiment provides
the precision to one decimal point (e.g. 0.8Ω at
Mutlimeter 25ºC). This leads to a lack of precision in the
data set since any variations in resistance
smaller than the first decimal point are not
visible. In addition, although the multimeter was
new, it had not been calibrated.
One could solve this weakness by using a
Precision Ohmmeter that has been calibrated.
These laboratory-grade ohmmeters provide high
precision that ranges from micro-ohms to
kilo-ohms. This device would allow for the
measurement of much smaller values of
resistance, thus increasing the precision of the
data points. It is also likely to increase the
accuracy of measurements.
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Weakness Detriment to investigation Improvement

Stability of Maintaining a constant and stable connection One could use crocodile clips instead of the
connection between the wire and the multimeter probes standard multimeter probes to maintain a stable
between the was difficult. Although more of a hindrance than connection. These are significantly easier to
probes and a weakness, there is a possibility that results attach and are likely to provide a stronger
the copper were negatively influenced due to this unstable connection between the wire and the multimeter.
wire connection.

Lack of The data collection process rendered some One could repeat the trials that produced
repetition of anomalous data points. This means that the anomalous data points to validate the mean
trials with mean average value of the resistance was average value. This would help to rule out
anomalous affected in certain trials, which, in turn, may random errors that could have resulted from
data have affected the line of best fit. human error or a temporary malfunction of the
multimeter.

9.3. Conclusion

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In conclusion, the research question “How does the resistance of copper wire change with temperature?”

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has been answered by determining a positive linear temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) between

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0.0044 and 0.0068. Not only does this coefficient concur with the initial hypothesis that as the temperature
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increases, the resistance of the copper wire should likewise increase, but it is also similar to the
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scientifically accepted TCR of copper, 0.004 (All About Circuits).

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The results from this investigation are also in keeping with the scientific understanding that the free-moving
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electrons in conductors speed up when heated and that the atoms vibrate more vigorously. The increase in
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speed and vibration means that electrons are more likely to hit an ‘obstacle’ (i.e. there is a greater likelihood
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of an electron hitting an atom or another electron). A combination of increased speed and vibration leads to
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the movement of electrons from one end of the wire to the other, slowing down. This translates into
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increased resistance.
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Therefore, this investigation has shown that copper wire, when heated, offers more resistance and that this
resistance increases linearly as the temperature is increased.

9.4. Real life application

The TCR of a material is important when applied to real-life scenarios. This investigation has shown that
when the temperature in copper decreases, resistance also decreases. In the case of quantum computers
and superconductors, while copper is not the chosen material for the conductor, the relationship between
resistance and temperature is essential when considering these. Here, alloys like niobium-tin and
niobium-titanium are used as conductors; for these conductors to achieve ‘superconductivity’ they need to
be kept at very low temperatures. Each conductor has its own “critical temperature” (close to -273ºC or 0
Kelvin), where any temperature below means that the conductor has close to no resistance. If the
temperature rises, even marginally, then the superconducting properties that enable quantum computing
break down (Global Spec; IBM; “Superconductivity”; U Bristol).
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In contrast, jet engines operate across a wide range of temperatures, from around -50ºC to 1700ºC. In such
engines, conductors are typically made from either aluminium or copper. To limit the increase in the
temperature of the conductor and thus the change in resistance, materials derived from the Teflon® family
are used as insulators. Furthermore, as we learned from this experiment, copper has a relatively low TCR.
Therefore, assuming that the linearity would continue under extreme temperatures, we can assume that
any temperature change would have a minimal effect on the resistance of the conductor (PIC Wire and
Cable; Shepard; silverfox; Whitman).

9.5. Extension of investigation

Although this investigation was not conducted under industry lab conditions, it remains reasonably
accurate. This is because the uncertainty was low given the equipment used (Table 2), for example, the
meterstick that was ±10mm; and the multimeter that was ±0.1 Ω

However, this investigation would have significantly benefited from the changes discussed in the systematic

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evaluation (Table 7). Examples include: changing the method of heating from an oven to a water bath which

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would enable greater temperature control; and using a more precise multimeter.

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This investigation could be extended in at least four ways:
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The first would be to explore the effect of having a longer length of copper wire. This would mean using
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multiple lengths, such as five, ten, or fifteen metres, instead of only one length - the two-metre piece of
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copper wire - as used in this experiment.

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The second would be to add a factor by applying an electrical current to the wire. In addition to resistance,
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this would also enable one to measure the voltage and current change when the copper wire is exposed to
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various temperatures.
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Thirdly, one might explore the impact of colder temperatures on the resistance of the copper wire. This
could be done by placing the copper wire in a freezer for an extended period. On removing it, one would
then measure the temperature and resistance of the wire repeatedly as its temperature returns to room
temperature.

The fourth change might be to increase the frequency of the wire coils around the pipe. In this experiment,
the spacing between each coil was half a centimetre. To determine if the distance between each coil plays
a role in the resistance value, one could choose to either increase the distance between each coil or
decrease it.
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