REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration
• explain the term refrigeration
• define the term refrigerating effect (RE), COP and calculate the ideal and theoretical COP’s
• identify the four processes that make up a refrigeration circuit
• sketch the T-s diagram for the Reversed Carnot Cycle
• identify the four components that make up a simple vapour compression refrigeration
cycle
• sketch the T-s diagram for the vapour compression refrigeration cycle including superheat
and undercooling
• sketch the P-h diagram for the vapour compression refrigeration cycle including superheat
and undercooling
• interpret and use refrigeration data from tables and graphs
• calculate cycle parameters from data
• describe desirable/undesirable refrigerant characteristics and explain refrigerant leakage
detection
Refrigeration is defined as a method of reducing the
temperature of a system below that of the surroundings and
maintaining it at the lower temperature by continuously
extracting the heat from it.
Use of Refrigeration:

1. Ice making
2. Preservation of food products and medicines
3. Air conditioning
4. Transportation of food stuffs, dairy products, flowers etc
5. Cooling of concrete for dams
6. Special industrial processes such as chemicals, medicals,
surgical aids, etc
7. Processing of food products, beverages, textiles, printing
work, etc
 History Of Refrigeration

• Most evidence indicate that the Chinese were the first to store
natural ice and snow to cool wine and other delicacies.
Natural Refrigeration
In olden days refrigeration was achieved by natural means such as the use of
ice or evaporative cooling. In earlier times, ice was either:
1. Transported from colder regions,
2. Harvested in winter and stored in ice houses for summer use or,
3. Made during night by cooling of water by radiation to stratosphere.

Cooling by Salt Solutions:

Certain substances such as common salt, when added to water dissolve in
water and absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic process). This
reduces the temperature of the solution (water+salt).
Sodium Chloride salt (NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20°C and Calcium
Chloride (CaCl2) up to - 50°C in properly insulated containers.

Artificial Refrigeration
Refrigeration as it is known these days is produced by artificial means.
began in the year 1755, when the Scottish professor William Cullen made
the first refrigerating machine, which could produce a small quantity of ice in
the laboratory.
 Refrigeration cycles
The five commercially available
refrigeration cycles are:

• Vapour compression
• Absorption
• Gas cycle
• Steam jet
• Thermoelectric
 Refrigerantion Principle
• Modern refrigeration equipment is dominated by
vapour compression refrigeration technology built
upon the thermodynamic principles of the reverse
Carnot cycle.

• Refrigerant Changes phases during cooling and used

again and again.
 Refrigeration

Basic Refrigeration Methods

There are many means to obtain refrigeration effect, but only the 3 basic
methods are introduced here:
1. Mechanical refrigeration (vapour compression system)
2. Absorption refrigeration system
3. Steam-jet (ejector) system

All 3 methods use similar processes for obtaining refrigeration effect:

• Evaporation in the evaporator
• Condensation in the condenser where heat is rejected to the environment
• Expansion in a flow restrictor
 Refrigeration
Main differences:
Is in the way compression [-method of transforming low pressure vapour into
high pressure vapor in refrigeration system] is being done:
high pressure vapour
Compression condenser

1. Mechanical (Vapour compression)

- Compressor
2. Absorption expansion valve
- Absorb vapour in liquid
while removing heat
- Elevate pressure of liquid with
pump evaporator
- Release vapour by applying heat
3. Steam jet (ejector) low pressure vapour
- ejector
 1. Mechanical Refrigeration (vapour compression system)

1. Mechanical Refrigeration (Vapour-Compression System)

• Most widely used refrigeration principle.
• Used widely in oil/gas industry
heat

high pressure vapour

condenser
2
3
expansion valve

4 compressor

evaporator 1
work
heat

low pressure vapour

 Mechanical Refrigeration – (vapour compression system)

Equipment
1. Compressors
This could be classified by one criteria (the way the increase in
pressure is obtain):
1. positive displacement (reciprocating and rotary)
2. dynamic (centrifugal)

Using other criteria compressors are classified as:

1. Open
Characterized by shaft extension out of compressor where it is
coupled to the driver
2. Semi-hermetic
Electric motor is in the same housing with compressor mechanism, but
housing is tightened by screw
3. Hermetic
Same as semi-hermetic but have welded housing (enclosure)
 Mechanical Refrigeration – (vapour compression system)

Equipment (con’t)
2. Condensers
These are heat exchangers that convert refrigerant vapour to liquid.
Heat is tranferred in 3 main phases:
1. desuperheating
2. condensing
3. subcooling

The 3 main types of refrigeration condensers are:

1. air cooled
2. water cooled
3. evaporative – with dedicated cooling tower
 Mechanical Refrigeration – (vapour compression system)

Equipment
3. Evaporators
These are heat exchangers where refrigerant is
evaporated while cooling the product, fluid or body.
 Carnot Cycle

Temperature-entropy diagram of the Carnot cycle

4 1
Thigh
T [K]
Tlow
3 2

s[kJ/kgK]
Cycle consists of:
• (1-2) - adiabatic expansion
• (2-3) - isothermal rejection of heat  
output Wout T1  T2 s1  s4 T1  T2 
 Carnot    
• (3-4) - adiabatic compression
• (4-1) - isothermal addition of heat
input Qin T1 
s1  s4 T1
 Reversed Carnot Cycle
Temperature-entropy diagram of the Reversed Carnot
cycle

3 2
Thigh
T [K]
Tlow
4 1

s[kJ/kgK]

Cycle consists of:

• (1-2) - adiabatic compression
• (2-3) - isothermal rejection of heat 𝑇1
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙) =
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
• (3-4) - adiabatic expansion
• (4-1) - isothermal addition of heat
 Refrigeration Cycles
ℎ1 − ℎ4′
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
A Carnot cycle in reverse ℎ2′ − ℎ1′

T
3 2 2’
condenser
QH 2
3
turbine compressor

4 1’
evaporator 1 4 4’ 1
QL
• 1-2-3-4 show the reverse Carnot Cycle.
However it is not practical to implement (why?) s

Hence, we modify some of the processes to eliminate the practical problems

and get the Ideal Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Evaporates liquid into 100% vapour
• Compress vapour instead of two phase mixture
• Replace turbine by an expansion/throttling valve (not an isentropic process)
 Compression Cycle
• Typical compression cycle diagram:

Condenser QC

High Compressor
Pressure Expansion Work
Low Valve
Pressure

Evaporator QE
19
 Some Considerations
• In order to produce reasonable heat transfer, the temperature difference
should be as high as possible ( > 10°C). Therefore, in the evaporator the
temperature should be as low as possible. It can be achieved by reducing
the pressure.

Problem: If the pressures is too low (below atmospheric pressure) then

the probability of air leakage into the system increases.
 Throttling Process

• A significant reduction in pressure can be achieved by introducing a

restriction into the flow line. The restriction can be a partially-opened
valve, or a porous plug, or a capillary tube.
• Enthalpy (internal energy + flow work) is a constant going through a
throttling process: h1=h2
Throttling processes lead to a pressure drop without producing any work
– unlike turbines.
Refrigerants
 Refrigerants
• In 1834, Jacob Perkins, an American, developed a closed
refrigeration system using liquid expansion and then compression
to produce cooling. He used Ether as refrigerant, in a hand-
operated compressor, a water-cooled condenser and an evaporator
in liquid cooler.
 Refrigerants
• Refrigerants are used as working substances in a Refrigeration
systems.
• Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be classified into
primary and secondary refrigerants.
• Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are used directly as
working fluids, for example in vapour compression and vapour
absorption refrigeration systems.
• These fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase change
process in the evaporator.
• Secondary refrigerants are those liquids, which are used for
transporting thermal energy from one location to other.
Secondary refrigerants are also known under the name brines
or antifreezes
Types of refrigerant used in vapour compression systems

A variety of refrigerants are used in vapour compression systems. The

required cooling temperature largely determines the choice of fluid.

Commonly used
refrigerants are in the family of chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs, also
called Freons): R-11, R-12, R-21, R-22 and R-502. The properties of
these refrigerants are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Properties of commonly used refrigerants
 What is ChloroFloroCarcons

• Today’s refrigerants are predominantly from a

group of compounds called halocarbons
(halogenated hydrocarbons) or specifically
fluorocarbons.
• Chlorofluorocarbons were first developed by
General Motor’s researchers in the 1920’s
and commercialized by Dupont as “Freons”.
 Halocarbon Refrigerants
• Halocarbon Refrigerant are all synthetically
produced and were developed as the Freon
family of refrigerants.

Examples :
– CFC’s : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
 Freon Group Refrigerants Application and ODP
Values
Refrigerant Areas of Application ODP
CFC 11(R11) Air-conditioning Systems ranging from 200 to 1.0
2000 tons in capacity. It is used where low
freezing point and non-corrosive properties are
important.

CFC 12 ( R 12 ) It is used for most of the applications. Air- 1.0

conditioning plants, refrigerators, freezers, ice-
cream cabinets, water coolers, window air-
conditioners, automobile air conditioners.

CFC 13 (R 13) For low temp refrigeration up to – 90 C in 1.0

cascade system

CFC113 ( R113 ) Small to medium air-conditioning system and 1.07

industrial cooling

CFC114 ( R114 ) In household refrigerators and in large industrial 0.8

cooling
0.34
Blend of R22 and Frozen food ice-cream display cases and
R115 (R502) warehouses and food freezing plants. An
excellent general low temp refrigerant
 Ozone Layer
• Ozone depleting substances (ODS) are found in certain
refrigerants manufactured before 1995.
• The United States and over 150 other countries signed
the Montreal Protocol that pledges the phasing out of
ODS by the end of 1995.
• EPA is authorized to assess fines of up to $27,500 per
day for any violation of ODS regulations.
 Ozone Layer
• Ozone is an isotope of oxygen with three atoms instead
of normal two. It is naturally occurring gas which is
created by high energy radiation from the Sun.

• The greatest concentration of ozone are found from 12

km to 50 km above the earth forming a layer in the
stratosphere which is called the ozone layer.

• This layer, which forms a semi-permeable blanket,

protects the earth by reducing the intensity of harmful
ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the sun.
 Ozone Layer Depletion
• In the early70’s,scientists Sherwood Roland and Mario
Molina at the University of California at Irvine were the
first to discover the loss of ozone in stratosphere while
investigating the ozone layer from highflying aircraft
and spacecraft.

• They postulated the theory that exceptionally stable

chlorine containing fluorocarbons could, overtime,
migrate to the upper reaches of the atmosphere and be
broken by the intense radiation and release chlorine
atoms responsible for catalytic ozone depletion.
 Harmful consequences of ozone depletion
• For Humans Increase in
• skin cancer
• snow blindness
• cataracts

• For plants
• smaller size
• lower yield
• increased toxicity
• altered form
•
• For marine life
aquatic life
MONTREAL PROTOCOL

• SIGNED IN 1987 UNDER THE ‘UNEP’, AFTER MUCH DISCUSSIONS

• MORE THAN 170 COUNTRIES HAVE RATIFIED

• INDIA RATIFIED ON SEPT 17,1992

• ONE OF MOST SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLE OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

IN UN HISTORY
 Montreal protocol- Control
Montréal Protocol- Control Schedule
Schedule

ozone depleting developed countries developing countries

substance

CFCs phased out end of total phase out by

1995 2010

halons phased out end of total phase out by

1993 2010

HCFCs total phase out by total phase out by

2020 2040
 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Zero ODP as no chlorine atom contains only
Hydrogen and Flurodine
• Very small GWP values
• No phase out date in Montreal Protocol
• R134a and R152 a – Very popular refrigerants
• HFC refrigerants are costly refrigerants
 R134a
• ODP-0, GWP-1300
• Used as a substitute for R12 and to a limited
range for R22
• Good performance in medium and high temp
application
• Toxicity is very low
• Not miscible with mineral oil
 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

• Extraordinary reliability- The most convincing argument is the

reliability of the hydrocarbon system because of fewer compressor
failures.
• But most of the hydrocarbons are highly flammable and require
additional safety precaution during its use as refrigerants.
• Hydrocarbons have been used since the beginning of the century
and now being considered as long term solutions to environmental
problems,
 Hydrocarbons

• Dominant in domestic market like household

refrigerators and freezers
• Growing use in very small commercial systems like
car air-conditioning system

• Examples: R170, Ethane, C2H6

R290 , Propane C3H3
R600, Butane, C4H10
R600a, Isobutane, C4H10
Blends of the above Gases
F Gas Stakeholder Group, 14th October 2009 Slide 40
 R 600a
• ODP-0,GWP-3
• Higher boiling point hence lower evaporator
pressure
• Discharge temp is lowest
• Very good compatibility with mineral oil
 Azeotropic Refrigerants

• A stable mixture of two or several refrigerants

whose vapour and liquid phases retain
identical compositions over a wide range of
temperatures.

• Examples : R-500 : 73.8% R12 and 26.2% R152

R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
 Zeotropic Refrigerants
• A zeotropic mixture is one whose composition in
liquid phase differs to that in vapour phase.
Zeotropic refrigerants therefore do not boil at
constant temperatures unlike azeotropic refrigerants.
• Examples :R404a : R125/143a/134a (44%,52%,4%)
R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%, 52%)
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)
R413a : R600a/218/134a (3%, 9%, 88%)
 Inorganic Refrigerants
• Carbon Dioxide
• Water
• Ammonia
• Air
• Sulphur dioxide
 Carbon Dioxide
• Zero ODP & GWP
• Non Flammable, Non toxic
• Inexpensive and widely available
• Its high operating pressure provides potential for
system size and weight reducing potential.
• Drawbacks:
• Operating pressure (high side) : 80 bars
• Low efficiency
 Ammonia –A Natural Refrigerant
Ammonia is produced in a natural way by human beings and
animals; 17 grams/day for humans.

Natural production 3000 million tons/year

Production in factories 120 million tons/year

Used in refrigeration 6 million tons/year

 Ammonia as Refrigerant
• ODP = 0
• GWP = 0
• Excellent thermodynamic characteristics: small molecular
mass, large latent heat, large vapour density and excellent
heat transfer characteristics
• High critical temperature (132C) : highly efficient cycles at
high condensing temperatures
• Its smell causes leaks to be detected and fixed before reaching
dangerous concentration
• Relatively Low price
 Some Drawbacks of Ammonia as
Refrigerant
• Toxic
• Flammable ( 16 – 28% concentration )
• Not compatible with copper
• Temperature on discharge side of compressor
is higher compared to other refrigerants
 Water
• Zero ODP & GWP
• Water as refrigerant is used in absorption
system .New developing technology has
created space for it for use in compression
cycles also.
• But higher than normal working pressure in
the system can be a factor in restricted use of
water as refrigerant
 Refrigerant selection criteria
• Selection of refrigerant for a particular
application is based on the following
requirements:
– i. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties
– ii. Environmental and safety properties
– Iii. Economics
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL REFRIGERANT

An ideal refrigerant should possess the following properties:

A. Thermodynamic Properties:

Low boiling point

Low freezing point
Positive pressure (but nor very high) in evaporator and condenser
High saturation temperature
High latent heat of vapourisation.
B. Chemical Properties:

Non-toxicity
Non-flammable and non-explosive
Non-corrosiveness
Chemical stability in reacting
No effect on the quality of stored (food and other) products
like flowers, with other materials, i.e., furs and fabrics.
Non-irritating and odourless.

C.Physical Properties:

Low specific volume of vapour

Low specific heat
High thermal conductivity
Low viscosity
High electrical insulation.
D.Other Properties:

Ease of leakage location

Availability and low cost
Ease of handling
High C.O.P.
Low power consumption per tonne of refrigeration
Low pressure ratio and pressure difference.
Ozone friendly
 Conclusions
• In the aftermath of the Montreal protocole HFC’s have
predominantly replaced CFC’s and HCFC’s in RAC equipment.
• Due to their high GWP, HFC’s are not a good replacement
solution.
• The solution are the natural refrigerants :
Ammonia, Hydrocarbons and Carbon dioxide
• System need to have low Total equivalent warming impact(TEWI)
factor
A vapour compression refrigeration system uses R134a as the working fluid. The
cycle incorporates throttling with no undercooling and isentropic compression
to the saturation temperature without superheating. The maximum system
pressure is 400kPa and the minimum pressure is 20kPa. What are the maximum
and minimum temperatures in the cycle?

Calculate the COP and compare it to the idea COP which would have been
attained between the same pressure limits using adiabatic expansion instead of
throttling.

For the throttling case what rating of compressor would have been required to
manufacture 2 tonnes of ice per hour from water at 0◦C? Take the latent heat of
fusion of ice as 330kJ/kg.