NDE/NDT

for
Highways and Bridges
Structural Materials Technology
(SMT)

16-20 August 2010

LaGuardia Airport Marriott
New York City, New York
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ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3D Laser Scanning as Applied to Subway Tunnel Inspections Techniques for
Gathering, Documenting and Managing Inspection Data 1
James Hedley Armstrong, C.P. and Govind R. Sulibhavi,

Underwater Bridge Inspections Using Scanning Technology 9

Eric Thorkildsen, P.E.

Study on Retarding Cracking of Asphalt Pavement by Continuous Construction of

Asphalt Pavement and Base 12
Jian-Min ZI, Hui LUO, Qing-Rong DING and Jia-Tai LI

Nondestructive Testing of Foundations – Methods and Case Histories 19

Thomas Thomann, Neville Su and Scott H. Slaughter

A Comparison of Flexural Wave and Side Sonic Testing for Determining

Foundation Depth 26
J. Darrin Holt, Ph.D., PE and Mark A. Cesare, Ph.D.

Field Experience with Nondestructive Evaluation of Unknown Foundations 33

Bernard H. Hertlein, M.ASCE

Integrated Bridge Inspection and Management System for State of Indiana 41

Jeremy K. Shaffer

Designing Bridges for Inspectability 50

Sreenivas Alampalli and Arthur P. Yannotti

NDT/NDE Challenges and Solutions in Tennessee Bridge Inspection 57

Marcus L. Knight

Infrared Profiling and Ground Penetrating Radar for QA of Hot-Mix

Asphalt Construction 63
Stephen Sebesta, Tom Scullion and Timo Saarenketo

SHRP 2 R06(B): Evaluating Applications of Field Spectroscopy Devices to

Fingerprint Commonly Used Construction Materials 71
Adam Zofka, Maria Chrysochoou, Montgomery Shaw, James Mahoney, Stuart Farquharson,
Iliya Yut, Shih-Po Sun and Xiaolong Zhang

iii
An International Approach to Detailing for Safety, Serviceability and
Sustainability in Bridge Design 79
Harry A. Capers, Jr. and Meghann M. Valeo

Finite Element Analysis and Field Instrumentation of a Pennsylvania

Turnpike Bridge 87
Meghan Myers and Hani Nassif

The Rutgers Simple Bridge Security Checklist: Methodology,

Development and Calibration 96
Meghann M. Valeo

Stress Wave Methods for Quality Control and Quality Assurance of

Pavement Layers During Construction 105
Soheil Nazarian, Deren Yuan and Manuel Celaya

Application Research on Anti-Cracking Agent for Semi-Rigid Base 114

Hui LUO, Hong-Ping ZHU, Ying WANG and Yong-Fa LU

SHRP 2 Validation Study of Performance of NDT Technologies in

Identification and Characterization of Concrete Bridge Deck Deterioration 121
Nenad Gucunski, Soheil Nazarian, Parisa Shokouhi and Doria Kutrubes

High-Speed Nondestructive Testing Methods for Mapping Voids, Debonding,

Delaminations, Moisture and Other Defects Behind or Within Tunnel Linings 129
Andrew Wimsatt, Tom Scullion, Stefan Hurlebaus, Dan Zollinger, Kyle Wieghaus, Parisa
Shokouhi, Herbert Wiggenhauser, Timo Saarenketo, Fluvio Tonon and Soheil Nazarian

Passive Micro-Tremor Sensing for Geostability Analysis 137

Shen-En Chen, Yangguang Liu and Wenya Qi

Indirect Displacements Measurement using Accelerometers and High-Resolution

Signal Modeling 145
Hieu Thai, Viswanadh Kandula, Linda DeBrunner, Victor DeBrunner and Michelle
Rambo-Roddenberry

Experimental and Theoretical Investigations of Electrical Impedance Based

Sensing for Microstructure and Property Determination of Concrete in
Transportation Infrastructure 153
Narayanan Neithalath, Jarrod Persun and Ram K. Manchiryal

Development of a Sensor for Nondestructive Inspection of Deteriorated

Prestressing Strands in Prestressed Concrete Bridges 162
Bertrand Fernandes, James T. Wade, Douglas K. Nims, Vijay K. Devabhaktuni

Geosynthetic Enabled with Fiber Optic Sensors for Bridge Foundation Monitoring 171
John M. Lostumbo, P.E. and Olivier Artieres, Ph.D.

Evaluation of Long-Term Performance of Soil Stabilization with Falling

Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Testing 177
Zairen Luo and Eddie Chou

iv
Innovations in Bridge Superstructure Condition Assessment with Sonic and
Radar Methods 185
Larry D. Olson

Noise and Interference Reduction in Air-Launched Antennas used for GPR

Evaluation of Roads and Bridges 197
Jeffrey Feigin, Roger Roberts and Robert Parrillo

Beneficial Use of Multiple NDE Technologies in Condition Assessment of

Reinforced Concrete Bridge Decks 203
Nenad Gucunski, Francisco A. Romero, Hooman Parvardeh and Farhad A. Fetrat

Nondestructive Inspection of Strand Corrosion in Prestressed Concrete

Box Beam Members 214
Clay Naito and Lawrence Jones

Data Fusion Techniques of Multiple Sensors Nondestructive Evaluation of a

Concrete Bridge Deck 220
J. Cui, D.R. Huston, R. Arndt and F. Jalinoos

Characterizing Point-based Transverse Pavement Rut Measurement Errors

Using Emerging 3D Continuous Profile-based Laser Technology 228
Yichang (James) Tsai, Feng Li, Vivek Kaul and Zhaohua Wang

Validation of Bridge Girder Deflection Measurement Using LiDAR Scan 236

Kaoshan Dai, Chris Watson, Wanqiu Liu, Shen-En Chen and Edd Hauser

Evaluation of the Route 615 Chickahominay River Bridge Using Ground

Penetrating Radar and Impact Echo Scanning 245
Brian M. Pailes, Stephen R. Sharp, Michael C. Brown and Michael M. Sprinkel

Assessing Concrete Damage in Reinforced Concrete 252

H.G. Wheat

Bear Mountain Bridge Cable Monitoring Update 259

William J. Moreau

Bridge Hanger Pin Inspection Using Ultrasound 265

Michael S. Januszkiewicz

Quantitative Damage Assessment Based on Environmental Bridge Response 273

Elena Barton and Bufa Zhang

Condition Assessment of a 45-year-old Prestressed Concrete Bridge Using

NDT and Verification of the Results 280
Alexander Taffe, Bernd Hillemeier and Andrei Walther

Forensic Investigation of Out of Plane Vibrations in the Webs of Plate Girders 288
John Cleary and Arthur Huckelbridge

Acoustic Emission Monitoring of a Florida Steel Girder Bridge During a Load Test 296
Andrej Korcak, Fady F. Barsoum, Eric v.K. Hill and Yi Zhang

v
Field Appraisal of Various Types of Highway and Railway Bridges in Western China 303
Chang-Sheng Xiang, Hui Li, Chung C. Fu, Sheng-Kui Di, Wei-Gang Luo

Load Test of MD-140 HPS Bridge with Distributed Wire Sensors 311
Chung C. Fu and Amr Baz

Determining the Embrittlement Temperature of Asphalt Binders Using an

Acoustic Emission Approach 318
Behzad Behnia, William G. Buttlar, Henrique Reis and Alex K. Apeagyei

Automatic Road Surface Assessment and High Speed 3D GPR Technology 326
Bryan Reeves

Soil Structure Interaction: Parameters’ Identification Using Particle

Swarm Optimization 334
Maxime Fontan, Denys Breysse and Frédéric Bos

AE Inspection and Monitoring for Highway and Bridge: Case Studies in Japan 342
Masayasu Ohtsu and Shigenori Yuyama

Comparison of Vibration Method and Elasto-Magnetic Sensor for Monitoring

Cable Force 350
Woon Jeong, Ju-Won Seo, Jinsuk Yim and Yang Zhao

Integrating the Evaluation of Suspension Bridge Parallel-Wire Cable Anchoring

Systems with the Proper Rehabilitation Methods 358
Amir Mousa, P.E., Jason Lambert, EIT and Guang-Nan Fanjiang, P.E.

Case Study: Tracking the Performance of Suspender Ropes at the George

Washington Bridge Using Nondestructive Testing Technique 366
Robert K Kumapley, P.E., Stewart Sloan, P.E. and Hegeon Kwun, Ph.D.

Quality Control for Crack Repair – A New Approach using Ultrasonic Imaging 374
Martin Friese, Christian Roder, Ute Effner and Frank Mielentz

Ultrasonic Testing Equivalent Transformation Technique of Fiber Reinforced

High Strength Concrete 383
Wu Xiangguo, Zhao Xinyu and Han Sangmook

Design and Conception Using Smart Composite Materials 388

Monssef Drissi-Habti

Embedded Optical Fiber Sensors for In-situ and Continuous Health Monitoring
of Smart Composite Civil Engineering Structures 393
Xavier Chapeleau, Monssef Drissi-Habti

Health Monitoring of Prestressing Tendons in Post-Tensioned Concrete Structures 401

Salvatore Salamone, Ivan Bartoli, Robert Phillips, Claudio Nucera, Francesco Lanza
di Scalea, Charles Sikorsky and Terry Tamutus

Nonlinear Ultrasonic Guided Waves for Stress Monitoring in Prestressing

Tendons for Post-Tensioned Concrete Structures 409
Claudio Nucera, Salvatore Salamone, Ivan Bartoli, Robert Phillips, Francesco Lanza
Di Scalea and Charles Sikorsky

vi
Nondestructive Evaluation and Temporary Post-Tension Strengthening of a
Steel Girder Bridge 418
Harry White and Jonathan Kunin

Detection and Characterization of Fatigue Cracks in Steel Bridges 426

Pranaam Haldipur and Frank Jalinoos

NDE of Steel Bridges: Fatigue Crack Detection and Monitoring 435

Pranaam Haldipur and Frank Jalinoos

Fiber Optic Monitoring of the Masonry Arch Approach Spans in the

Brooklyn Bridge 443
C. Fischer, I. Talebinejad, F. Ansari and Bojidar Yanev

High Rate Wireless Strain Monitoring of an FRP Bridge Deck Replacement

Superstructure 452
Michael V. Gangone, Matthew J. Whelan, Kerop D. Janoyan, Levon Minnetyan
and Tong Qiu

Dynamic Characteristics Research of Steel-Free Deck Bridge Damaged Cases 461

Shengkui Di, Zongjiang Guo and J.P, Newhook

Damage Detection of Highway Bridges Using Strain and Wireless

Acceleration Measurements 469
Michael V. Gangone, Matthew J. Whelan and Kerop D. Janoyan

Dynamic Load Test for Slab Type Bridge 478

Punya Chupanit, Pichit Jamnongpipatkul, Yongyuth Taesiri and Montri Dechasakulsom

Acceleration Time Series Based Model Free Linkage Damage Detection for
a Steel-Concrete Composite Girder 485
B. Xu, T. Tan and H. Hao

LiDAR Scan Applications for Bridge Condition Validation Post-Blast

Load and Construction 491
Yonghong Tong, Haitao Bian, Christopher Watson, Kaoshan Dai, Wanqiu Liu
and Shen-En Chen

Remote Sensing Technologies for Detecting Bridge Deterioration and

Condition Assessment 498
Theresa (Tess) M. Ahlborn, Ph.D., P.E., Devin K. Harris, Ph.D., Colin N. Brooks,
K. Arthur Endsley, Darrin C. Evans and Renee C. Oats

SI-SFAP Applications for Bridge Condition Validation Post-Blast Load

and New Construction 505
Shen-En Chen, Corey Rice, Chuck Boyle, Edd Hauser and Brian Philbrick

Active Thermographic Coating Inspection System 513

Paul A. Fuchs and Steven B. Chase

Application and Evaluation of Promising Image-Based Approaches for

Condition Assessment of Bridge Structures 521
Mohammad R. Jahanshahi, Sami F. Masri and Gaurav S. Sukhatme

vii
Thermal Imaging of Damage in Bridge Soffits 528
Glenn Washer

Quality Assurance of Concrete Deck Reinforcement Cover Using Pachometer

and Ground Penetrating Radar 533
Michael C. Brown, Brian M. Pailes and Marc K. Stecker

Application of a Traffic-Speed Road Scanning System Including a New

Type of 3D GPR 538
Wayne Muller and Bryan Reeves

Frequency Domain Methods for Analyzing Impact Echo Data for Distributed
Damage in Concrete 546
Richard A. Livingston, Nicolas McMorris and Amde M. Amde

Reverse Time Migration: A Seismic Imaging Technique Applied to Ultrasound Data 554
Sabine Müller, Ernst Niederleithinger, Martin Krause and Thomas Bohlen

NDE for Bridge Preservation and Maintenance 560

Frank Jalinoos, Ralf Arndt, Jianhong Cui and Dryver Huston

Emerging Construction Technology – Nano Structural Steel 568

Kamal Prasad Singh

On-Site SIBIE Measurement of Surface Cracks and Defects in Concrete

Structures of Highway 574
Masayasu Ohtsu and Masahiko Yamada

Structural Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Evaluation of the

Merrimack River and Washington Street Bridges 582
Duncan Paterson, June Wu and Loretta Girard Doughty

Finite Element Analysis to Improve IR Thermography Inspection for a

Stay Cable Bridge 590
Belal Gharaibeh, Mohamed Kenawey, Ahmad Salaimeh and Kozo Saito

Monitoring the Relocation of the Innerbelt Bridge (CUY-90-1524) in

Cleveland, Ohio 598
John Cleary and Arthur Huckelbridge

Rapid Performance Monitoring of Highway Infrastructures Using Chaos

Theory Analysis 606
Shuang Jin and Frank Jalinoos

Use of Scanning Sonar for Scour Monitoring 614

John J. Loftus and Brian P. Dilworth

Analysis of Train Induced Elastic Waves in Rail and the Feasibility for
Damage Detection 622
Gopinath Reddy Penamalli and Lei Zuo

viii
Structural Health Monitoring and Damage Identification of Full-Scale Bridges 629
William S. Ragland, Dayakar Penumadu and Richard T. Williams

Automated Decision Making Tool for Bridge Managers 638

Sharada Alampalli and Mohammed Ettouney

Plan for Structural Health Monitoring of the Indian River Inlet Bridge 644
Patrick D. Carson, Harry W. Shenton III and Michael J. Chajes

A Strength Degradation Monitoring System for Highway Bridges 651

Zach Liang and George C. Lee

Monitoring Bridge Deflection in Real Time 659

Spencer B. Graves and James C. Elliott

Objective Functions Using Different Residuals for Model Updating 663

Zhi Fang, Shenghua Tang and Guogang Zhang

Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Florida Mast-Arm Poles Susceptible to Fatigue 671

Andrej Korcak, Fady F. Barsoum, Eric v.K. Hill and Yi Zhang

Investigation of the Parameters that Influence the Accuracy of Bond Defect

Detection in CFRP Bonded Specimens Using IR Thermography 678
Jawdat TASHAN and Riadh AL-MAHAIDI

Acoustic Emission Studies for Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) of Bridge Cables 686
Devendra S. Parmar and Stephen R. Sharp

Diagnostic Load Testing Alternative to Timely and Costly Bridge Replacements 694
Michael E. Gelfuso, P.E.

Debonding Detection for Concrete-Filled Steel Tube Using Embedded

Piezoelectric Actuators 698
Bin Xu, Ting Zhang and Gangbing Song

Characterization of the Triboluminescence Performance of ZnS:Mn Under

Repeated Mechanical Loading for Smart Optical Damage Sensor System 706
David O. Olawale, Tarik Dickens, Alvin Lim, Steve Tsalickis, Okenwa Okoli, Ben Wang
and John O. Sobanjo

Investigation to Damage Detecting Indices for Health Monitoring

of a Steel Truss Bridge and Model Test 713
DU Yong-feng, LI Xi-mei and LIU Yun-shuai

Author Index 720

ix
 Characterization of the Triboluminescence Performance
of ZnS:Mn under Repeated Mechanical Loading
for Smart optical Damage Sensor System
David o. olawale1, Tarik Dickens1, Alvin Lim1, Steve Tsalickis1,
okenwa okoli1, Ben Wang1 and John o. Sobanjo2
1
High Performance Materials Institute, FAMU – FSU College of Engineering
2525 Pottsdamer Street, Tallahassee, Florida, 32310
(850) 645-8997; fax (850) 645 9105; e-mail doo07@fsu.edu
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, FAMU – FSU College of Engineering
2525 Pottsdamer Street, Tallahassee, Florida, 32310

InTRoDuCTIon
Triboluminescence (TL) [1] or mechano-luminescence [2], is the emission of light by solid materials when they
undergo elastic deformation, plastic deformation and fracture [3, 4]. TL-based sensor systems have been proposed
for in-situ damage detection in engineering structures like bridges (Figure 1) and aircrafts. Such sensors comprising
high eficiency triboluminescent materials could allow simple, real-time monitoring of both the magnitude and

structure [4, 5]. However, a key question that needs to be answered for the successful development of such sensor
location of damage caused by dynamic impact events, with a minimal amount of parasitic weight to the host

of TL sensor systems, and will be discussed in this paper.

systems is how will they behave under repeated loading? The answer is needed to enhance the design for reliability

identiication
Damage-sensitive region with intrinsic Signal analysis and damage
TL sensor network

sensitized optical iber

Light emission from intrinsic TL sensor due Signal reception and transmission by
to hidden damage

Figure 1: Intrinsic TL-based sensor system for bridges.

acoustic emission and ultrasonic testing; thermography, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and ground penetrating
Currently, damage detection and monitoring are being effected with nondestructive testing techniques such as

radar (GPR); X-ray, gamma-ray and neutron ray; and iber optics methods [6-8]. These techniques are limited
in that they do not provide in-situ (excluding iber optic methods) and distributed sensing. These prevent real

nondestructive inspections can be very high for civil structures like bridges. There is also the prohibitive cost
time monitoring of the structural states of engineering structures. The cost of the downtime required for periodic

arising from fatal accidents when such structures fail without warning. TL-based sensor systems however have great
potential to overcome these challenges because they have capabilities for wireless, in-situ, and distributed (WID)

of bridges, about 600,000 in the United States, that need monitoring and the limited number of bridge inspectors
sensing that can provide real time continuous monitoring. This is of critical importance considering the large number

available to examine these bridges once every two years [6, 7].

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Triboluminescence was irst observed in the sixteenth century by Sir Francis Bacon but serious research into the
phenomenon started mainly in the 1900 [9]. In recent times, many researchers have focused on the application of TL
for damage detection. Their work [4] mostly focused on: (i) techniques to initiate the triboluminescent light emission
with a known amount of mechanical energy so as to investigate the relationship between mechanical energy input
and the resulting triboluminescent emission intensity [10]; (ii) techniques to measure the triboluminescence emission

and the time needed to obtain the spectrum and (iii) an analysis of the spectral properties of the triboluminescence
spectrum with increased resolution and with a reduction in both the amount of triboluminescent material required

so as to understand the mechanism underlying the fracture-induced light emission [3]. There is however, no
information available in literature about any work targeted at understanding and characterizing the behavior of TL
materials under repeated loading.

This paper focuses on characterizing the TL performance of ZnS:Mn under repeated loading. Although about
50 percent of all crystals triboluminescence [9], ZnS:Mn is one of the most eficient TL material [11, 12]. Hence, it
is well suited for damage sensing applications. As such, its TL response under cyclic loading will be characterized

determine the minimum energy required to cause the TL excitation of the system. Scanning electron microscopy was
here, as it simulates the fatigue loading it may be subjected to in real life applications. An attempt was also made to

used to gain insights in to the effectiveness of the sample production method employed.

EQuIPMEnT AnD METHoDS

Sample Preparation
The ZnS:Mn used was purchased from Phosphor Technology, U.K, (GL25/N-X) while the vinyl ester (IVEX 400)
was supplied by CCP Co. North Kansas. The size of the crystals ranges from 5.2 to 20 μm and with a density of
4.10 g/ml. The desired weight by proportion was measured. The resin system was cured with 5% by weight MEKP
(NOROX MEKP-9H) supplied by Norac Inc, California. To ensure the proper curing of the resin, the catalyst was
added and both manually mixed before adding the ZnS:Mn crystals. In order to ensure uniform distribution and
prevent coagulation of ZnS:Mn micro particles in the resin, the mixture was prepared using a high shear mixer
(HSM-100LCI, Charles Ross and Son Company) at 5000 rpm for 10 min. The resulting paste was then stirred
manually for about 10 min before pouring in to a mold to make thin ilms that are about 1mm thick. The system
was pressed in a hot plate kept at 100 °F and allowed to cure overnight. The cured ilm was demolded and cut into
circular samples of 19.05 mm diameter using a laser cutting machine (ULS-M300 from Universal Laser Systems,
Arizona). The ilm thickness ranged from 0.93 to 1.30 μm.

Experimental Setup

of a removable aluminum tube (internal diameter 12.7 mm) with one end resting on transparent Plexiglas. The
Figure 2 shows a schematic of the purpose-built impact rig and the setup used for this study. The impact rig consists

Plexiglas is sandwiched between two ABS plates and has a 1 mm diameter polymer optical iber (SH-2001-J from
Mitsubishi Rayon Co.) connected to it by means of optically transparent adhesive to pick up the TL output from

samples were impacted using cylindrical mass of steel (33 g and 49.7 g). The TL signals picked by the optical
the samples when impacted at from different height corresponding to different impact velocities and energy. The

iber are transmitted to the photomultiplier tube PMT from Hamamatsu (H5784-01) where they are converted into
electrical signal (voltage) and quantiied. The PMT was powered with 0.75 V from an Agilent E360A triple output
DC power supply. A custom-written program based on Matlab was used to control the operation of the PMT and to
display the TL response values and proiles through a national instrument NI-USB-6210 data acquisition device. The
characterization was done using vinyl ester samples doped with the TL material (ZnS:Mn) in the ratio 1:1 and 1:2 by
mass. For the degradation study, three tests were carried out; each test involved testing 6 samples (1:1). Each sample
was impacted at a particular impact level for 15 cycles and the TL response detected by the PMT. A total of 270
impacts were carried out for the three tests comprising a total of 18 samples.

SEM Characterization

Electron Microscope (JOEL JSM-7401F).

The cross-sections of the samples were coated with gold particles, and characterized using Field Emission Scanning

707
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concluded that the higher energy impact resulted in more consistent (higher frequency) TL response. This may be
because the higher energy of impact enables more crystals within the vicinity of the impact event to be excited. A
hypothesis that needs to be tested is that the threshold energy required to cause TL excitation of the crystals may be
dependent on the mechanical properties of the host matrix (particularly its rigidity which may be indicated by its
Young’s modulus) and the interface developed between the two. The external loading or energy source causing the
damage and excitation of the TL crystals has to be transmitted through the host matrix. Further work will be done in
quantifying this load transmission coeficient for various matrices.

Table 1: TL responses at low impact levels.

V(m/s) Energy (J) Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Run 5

1.0101 0.0254 0.1643 0.076 1.3208 0.3238 0.0979

1.0101 0.0168 0.4206 0.2661 0.0704 0.2827 0.0469

V(m/s) Energy (J) Run 6 Run 7 Run 8 Run 9 Run 10

1.0101 0.0254 0.1484 0.5472 0.3479 0.9038 0.1699

1.0101 0.0168 0.0673 0.2665 1.0982 2.0498 0.0689

Production Methodology
Initial samples produced without using the high shear mixer gave inconsistent TL responses under similar
impact levels. The results shown in Figures 3, 4 and 5 highlight the importance of developing a good production
methodology for consistent TL response if an intrinsic TL-based sensor system is the goal. To produce samples with
more consistent TL responses, careful attention was given to the sample production process. Not only was uniform
dispersion pursued by using the high shear mixer, the cut samples were also inspected for any visible defects before
being selected for testing. Figures 9(a) and 9(b) show the SEM images of samples produced without high shear
mixing and with high shear mixing respectively. Figure 8(a) shows coagulation of the ZnS:Mn crystals and larger

8(b). The improvement in the consistency of samples’ responses is enhanced by the improved dispersion of the
regions without the crystals. There are lesser coagulations and more uniform distribution of the particles in Figure

crystals in the host matrix.

(a)
a (b)
b

Figure 9: SEM images of (a) manually mixed sample (b) high shear mixing.

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ConCLuSIon
This study has shown that ZnS:Mn crystals embedded in vinyl ester matrix experience a degradation in their TL

levels indicating danger can be obtained after 8 cycles of impact. This shows the viability of TL-based sensor
responses by the 15th cycle of impact for all the impact levels studied. However, repeatable signals at high impact

systems for detecting and preventing damage. One of the irst challenges to achieving this is a good production

based characterization of the various sources of variability in the TL response of the system such as particle size
methodology for reliable and predictable responses. There is therefore a need to do a systematic and statistically

distribution, dispersion and sample thickness. It is after this that viable empirical models can be successfully
developed to estimate the TL response as a function of the matrix doping level, host material properties, impact level
and others in a bid to use TL sensors to detect and prevent damage. The insight from this study will help in doing
these successfully.

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