CHAPTER 2 COAL SELECTION

The selection of coal to be used is essential in designing a coal – fired powerplant.

Different types of coals vary in their characteristics and classifications. There are four main
ranks of coals which are categorized as anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite.
Lower grade coals such as bituminous, lignite and other grade B coals are ideal in use for the
fluidized bed power plant. The designers select the types of coals based on criteria set by the
designers themselves.

2.1 Types of Coals

Coal is very different from mineral rocks, which are made of inorganic material. Coal is
made of fragile plant matter, and undergoes many changes before it becomes the familiar black
and shiny substance burned as fuel. It is a combustible sedimentary rock, primarily composed of
carbon and hydrocarbons, serves as a leading global source for electricity. Derived from ancient
organisms, coal is a nonrenewable resource due to its lengthy formation period and limited
supply (NatGeo, n.d.).

Coal stands as one of the earliest, most abundant, and extensively utilized fossil fuels
worldwide. Various applications categorize coals into distinct ranks, including Anthracite,
Bituminous, Subbituminous, and Lignite. Low-rank coal comprises lignite and sub-bituminous
coal, constituting over 50% of the global coal reserve. In contrast to high-rank coal, lower-
ranked coal exhibits elevated moisture, increased reactivity, diminished ash content, and lower
energy density (NatGeo, n.d.).

2.2 Coal Classification

Coal is characterized by its heterogeneity, meaning that its composition can vary
significantly. To address this variability, the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) has developed a classification system for coals. By employing ASTM standards, coal
can be systematically categorized based on its key components, providing a standardized
approach for analysis and classification within the scientific and industrial communities (ASTM
D388). The classification of coals by rank is typically based on the carbon content and heating
value of the coal. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has a standard for
the classification of coals by rank, known as ASTM D388. Listed below is a general overview of
the classification system:

1. Anthracite Coal (ASTM Class 1): Anthracite is the highest rank of coal in terms of
carbon content, energy density, and overall quality. Anthracite's exceptional properties
make it a valuable resource for applications where high heat output and clean combustion
are essential, such as in residential heating, metallurgical processes, and certain industrial
applications (King, 2019).
 High carbon content: Anthracite coal has the highest carbon content among all
coal ranks, typically ranging from 86% to 98%. This high carbon content
contributes to its excellent energy density and heat-producing capabilities
(Grammelis et al., 2016).
 High energy density: Anthracite is known for its high energy density. It provides
more energy per unit weight compared to lower-ranked coals. This makes
anthracite a preferred choice for applications where a high heat output is crucial,
such as in residential and industrial heating (Babcock et al., 2005).
 Low volatile matter: Anthracite contains a very low percentage of volatile matter,
often less than 5%. Volatile matter refers to the components of coal that vaporize
when the coal is heated. The low volatile matter content contributes to the clean-
burning nature of anthracite (Babcock et al., 2005).
 Low moisture content: Anthracite has a low moisture content, typically ranges
about 3-6%. Low moisture content is desirable as it ensures that more of the coal's
weight is composed of combustible elements, contributing to its efficiency in
burning (Babcock et al., 2005).
 Low ash content: Anthracite coal has a relatively low ash content, usually below
10%. Ash is the non-combustible residue left after coal combustion. The low ash
content reduces waste and the need for frequent ash disposal (Babcock et al.,
2005).
 Black appearance: Anthracite is characterized by its shiny, black appearance. It
has a distinct luster and a hard, metallic sheen. This appearance is a result of the
 high carbon content and metamorphic processes that anthracite undergoes over
geological time (Enrera, 2022).
 Dense and hard: Anthracite is dense and hard, making it resistant to breakage and
fragmentation. This physical property contributes to its durability and suitability
for various applications, including as a heating fuel (Bowen et. all, 2008).
 Clean-burning properties: It produces little smoke and releases fewer pollutants
into the atmosphere compared to lower-ranked coals. This makes it an
environmentally favorable choice, especially in residential heating applications
(USGS, n.d.).

2. Bituminous Coal (ASTM Class 2): The most common type of coal and the second-
highest quality after anthracite is bituminous coal. Because of its comparatively high
energy density (27 MJ/kg), burning this coal releases a substantial amount of energy
(Kopp, 2024).
 Moderate Carbon Content. Bituminous coal contains 45%–86% carbon.
Bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 million and 300 million
years old. Bituminous coal is the most abundant rank of coal found in the United
States, and it accounted for about 46% of total U.S. coal production in 2022 (U.S.
EIA, 2023).
 Calorific Value. Bituminous coals generally have calorific values above 11,500
Btu/lb and volatile matter below 14%. In the Illinois Basin (and western
Kentucky), however, the lower rank end of what are termed bituminous coals in
the United States have calorific values of 11,100 to 11,300 Btu/lb (ASTM,
Jackson, 1997).
 Low Moisture Content. Bituminous coal has moisture content up to 17%. Still a
desirable amount for the combustible elements in the coal, just below anthracite’s
moisture content (Vedantu, 2024).
 Moderate Volatile matter. Bituminous coal is divided into high-volatile, medium-
volatile, and low-volatile bituminous groups. Volatile matter takes into account
any material that is free from the coal at high temperatures (Vedantu, 2024).
  Low Ash Content. Bituminous coal has an ash content up to 12% in weight. Ash
content in coal refers to the non-combustible residue left behind after burning the
coal.
 Coal Appearance. Bituminous coal is dark brown to black in colour and
commonly banded, or layered. Microscopically, three main groups of macerals
(individual organic constituents of coal) can be recognized: vitrinite, liptinite, and
inertinite. The glassy material in most bituminous coal is vitrinite, composed of
macerals derived primarily from woody plant tissue. Because of its relatively high
heat value and low (less than 3 percent) moisture content (Kopp, 2024).

3. Subbituminous Coal (ASTM Class 3): Sub-bituminous coal, generally dark brown to
black coal, intermediate in rank between lignite and bituminous coal according to the coal
classification used in the United States and Canada. In many countries subbituminous
coal is considered to be a brown coal (Kopp, 2024).
 Lower carbon content than bituminous coal. Subbituminous coal contains 42 to
52 percent carbon on a dry, ash-free basis (Kopp, 2024).
 Calorific Value. By ASTM standards, sub-bituminous coals have calorific
(heating) values of 8,300 to 11,500 Btu/lb. In practice, however, there is
considerable overlap between what is called a higher rank sub-bituminous coal
(subbituminous A) and a lower rank bituminous (high volatile C) (ASTM, 2014).
 Higher Moisture Content. The moisture content of subbituminous coal typically
ranges from 15% to 30% by weight. This is significantly lower than the moisture
content of lignite, the lowest rank of coal, which can be as high as 70%. However,
it's still higher than the moisture content of bituminous coal, which typically
ranges from 5% to 20% (Di Gianfrancesco, 2017).
 Higher Volatile Matter. Sub-bituminous volatile matter content typically ranges
from 42% to 53% by weight. This is higher than the volatile matter content of
bituminous coal, which typically ranges from 14% to 46%, and significantly
lower than the volatile matter content of lignite, which can be as high as 63% (Di
Gianfrancesco, 2017).
  Ash Content. The ash content of subbituminous coal typically ranges from 10% to
30% by weight. This is higher than the ash content of bituminous coal, which
typically ranges from 5% to 20%, and significantly lower than the ash content of
lignite, which can be as high as 40% (Di Gianfrancesco, 2017).

4. Lignite Coal (ASTM Class 4): Lignite coal, aka brown coal, is the lowest grade coal
with the least concentration of carbon. Lignite has a low heating value and a high
moisture content and is mainly used in electricity generation. It is the first product of
coalification and is intermediate between peat and subbituminous coal (Kopp, 2024).
 Low carbon content. Lignite contains 25%–35% carbon and has the lowest energy
content of all coal ranks. Lignite coal deposits tend to be relatively young and
were not subjected to extreme heat or pressure (US Energy Information
Administration, 2023).
 Calorific Value. Lignites have calorific (heating) values less than 8,300 Btu/lb. In
some other countries, lignites are defined based on their moisture content.
(ASTM, 2014).
 Highest Moisture Content. Lignite coal has high inherent moisture content,
sometimes as high as 66%. Moisture content of coal causes many difficulties
during processing, storage, transport, grinding, and combustion (Di
Gianfrancesco, 2017).
 Highest Volatile Matter. Lignite’s volatile matter content is high. Regarding ash
and moisture-free conditions, the percentage of volatile matter falls between 45%
and 55%. Compared to higher ranking coals, it is easier to convert it into gas and
liquid petroleum products due to its high volatile matter content (Satyendra,
2018).
 Ash Content. The ash content of lignite coal generally ranges from 6 % to 20 %
(Di Gianfrancesco, 2017).
 These classes represent a sequence from higher carbon and energy content (anthracite) to
lower carbon and energy content (lignite). The classification is essential for understanding the
characteristics and potential uses of different types of coal in various industries. Please refer to
Table 2.1 for the Classification of Coals by Rank, as seen from ASTM D388.
Table 2.1 Classification of Coals by Rank

Source: ASTM International (American Society for Testing and Materials) – ASTM D388

2.3 Coal Characteristics

Understanding the characteristics of the coal allows boiler operators to modify procedures,
optimizing the coal's heat output and mitigating the adverse impacts of inefficient combustion.
These different characteristics of coals is crucial for the efficiency of coal-fired power plants.
Proximate and ultimate analyses are methods used to assess these characteristics.

2.3.1. Proximate Analysis

 Proximate analysis in coal refers to the determination of its basic physical and chemical
properties. This analysis categorizes coal into different components based on their behavior
during heating, including moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash content.
Proximate analysis provides valuable information about the combustion and handling
characteristics of coal, aiding in its classification and use in various applications, such as power
generation (ASTM D3172).

(A) Volatile Matter

According to ASTM International (2019), volatile matter in coal refers to the

proportion of combustible materials that can be released as gases during the heating of
coal. It includes various components such as water, hydrocarbons, and other organic
compounds that can vaporize when subjected to heat (ASTM D3175).

This means that higher volatile matter content generally leads to easier ignition
and more rapid combustion, ensuring a stable and efficient combustion process in
power plant boilers. Efficient combustion of volatile matter releases energy that adds to
the overall heat output of the combustion process, influencing the power plant's
efficiency.

(B) Fixed Carbon

Sarkar (2015) stated that fixed carbon in coal is the residual carbon content remaining
after volatile matter, moisture, and ash are subtracted. It consists mostly of carbon but
includes small amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. During combustion, it
represents the solid combustible residue. Understanding fixed carbon aids in selecting
combustion equipment, as its form and hardness indicate a fuel's caking properties (Fuels
and Combustion, Thermal Power Plant). Fixed carbon is an important characteristic of
coal as it gives a rough estimate of the heating value of coal.

(C) Ash Content

Ash content in coal refers to the inorganic residue left behind after combustion. It
consists of minerals, impurities, and non-combustible materials present in the coal
(ASTM D3172-13 & ASTM D3174-12, 2019). This means that higher ash content can
 lead to incomplete combustion, decreased efficiency in power plants, and more ash
residue, requiring proper handling and disposal methods.

(D) Moisture

Moisture in coal refers to the water content present in the coal. It has implications for
combustion efficiency, energy content, and overall performance in power plants (ASTM
D3172-13 & ASTM D3173-12, 2019).

Excess moisture can absorb heat during combustion, reducing the available energy
for power generation. Higher moisture content means less energy is available for
combustion, potentially lowering overall power plant efficiency.

2.3.2. Ultimate Analysis

The ultimate analysis of coal provides a detailed breakdown of its elemental composition,
including carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, (CHON), sulfur, and ash. This analysis is
crucial for understanding the fuel's characteristics and predicting its behavior during combustion
in power plants (ASTM D3176-15, 2019). While carbon and hydrogen boost heating value,
oxygen lowers air demand. Sulfur, a nasty SOX source, determines if limestone is needed in the
bed and how much (Oka, 2003).

The ultimate analysis provides an element-by-element composition of the coal's organic

fraction: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur, all on a weight percentage basis. Trace elements
that occur in coal are typically included as a part of the ultimate analysis. The standard method
for ultimate analysis of coal and coke includes the determination of elemental carbon, hydrogen,
sulfur, and nitrogen, together with the ash in the material as a whole. Carbon and hydrogen that,
respectively, account for 70 to 95 percent by weight and 2 to 6 percent by weight of organic
substance of coal are often thought to be the most important constituents of coal is normally low,
usually only a few tenths of a percent or less (Wiley, 2015).

(A) Carbon is the most important constituent of coal as it mainly contributes to the
overall heating value of the coal. During combustion, it is transformed into carbon
dioxide in complete combustion and carbon monoxide in incomplete combustion
(Morley, 2017).
 (B) During combustion, hydrogen is converted into water, significantly contributing to
the overall heating value of coal as well. The water then evaporates, becoming steam
and released to the atmosphere as flue gas (Morley, 2017).
(C) Oxygen is a common element found in coal. Fuel oxygen reduces the amount of air
needed for combustion and is found in the combustion products chemically bound in
the molecules of carbon dioxide and water (Morley, 2017).
(D) During combustion and for all practical purposes, nitrogen does not oxidize in any
significant quantities and is released in the gas phase as nitrogen - therefore, its
contribution to the overall heating value is zero. However, an amount of nitrogen gets
oxidized and converted into nitrogen oxides depending on the combustion condition.
These extra nitrogen oxide emissions are harmful gases that can cause adverse effect
to the environment (linked to smog and acid rain) and human health (early child
asthma) (Morley, 2017).
(E) Sulfur in coals can contain up to 10% by weight, although values of 1 to 4% are more
typical depending on the region where the coal was extracted. The sulfur content of a
coal highly affects the environmental aspects because of the presence of sulfur
oxides. High sulfur content may also lead to corrosive effect on metallic materials
since it reduces the temperature of the flue gas, thus neglecting the precaution that it
may cause corrosion. The normal sulfur content of coals should be less than 1%
(Black and Veatch, 1996).

2.3.3. Additional Characteristics

(A) Heating Value

The heating value of coal, also known as its calorific value or energy content,
represents the amount of heat released during its combustion. It is a critical parameter for
evaluating the efficiency and energy output of coal-fired power plants (ASTM D5865-13,
2019).

The heating value indicates the potential energy yield of coal. Higher heating value
is associated with more efficient combustion. Power plants aim to maximize
combustion efficiency to extract the most energy from the coal.
 Two terms matter here:

 Higher Heating Value (HHV): The grand total of heat released, including water vapor
from burning.
 Lower Heating Value (LHV): The usable heat, or heat energy available after reducing
the loss due to moisture.

These values determine how much coal a power plant needs to generate
electricity. Higher heating values mean less coal per kilowatt-hour, but cost more
upfront. On the flip side, lower heating values require more coal, but come with cheaper
logistics, storage, and ash handling (Truba, 2019).

(B) Grindability Index

The grindability of a coal is a measure of its resistance to crushing. The two factors
affecting grindability are the moisture and ash contents of a coal. In general, lignite and
anthracites are more resistant to grinding than bituminous coals. One commonly used
method for assessing grindability is the Hardgrove test which consists of grinding a
specially prepared coal sample in a laboratory mill of standard design. The percent by
weight of the coal that passes through a 200-mesh sieve (a screen with openings of 74
micrometers or 0.003 inch) is used to calculate the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI).
The index is used as a guideline for sizing the grinding equipment in a coal-preparation
plant (Morley, 2017).

(C) Ash Fusion Temperature

Ash fusion temperature (AFT) refers to the temperature at which ash particles in coal
melt and fuse together, forming clinkers or slag during combustion (ASTM D1857-04,
2017). It is the point at which portions of ash will be in molten or plastic state. At high
temperatures, coal ash becomes sticky and eventually forms molten slag. Specific ash-
fusion temperatures are determined in the laboratory by observing the temperatures at
which successive characteristic stages of fusion occur in a specimen of ash when heated
in a furnace under specified conditions. These temperatures are often used as indicators
of the clinkering potential of coals during high-temperature processing. This gives one of
 the advantages of CFB wherein its working temperature is way less than most coals' ash
fusion temperature (Morley, 2017).

AFT affects the combustion efficiency of coal. High AFT values can lead to the
formation of sticky or hard-ash deposits, reducing heat transfer efficiency and
overall combustion performance. It ensures that coal combustion occurs without
problematic clinker formation, contributing to the reliable and efficient operation of
power generation facilities (Syrodoy et al., 2018).

2.4 Coal Analysis and Selection

To design a coal-fired power plant, the designers chose coal from three sources: two (2)
from Indonesia, and one (1) from Australia. Selection is based on set criteria using proximate
and ultimate analyses.

Table 2.2 Comparison of Coals

[1]
COAL A B [2] C [3]
CHARACTERISTICS
Rank Sub-Bituminous Sub-Bituminous Sub-Bituminous
Grade B B B
Low Heating
4478.22 5251.44 4776.92
Value, kcal/kg
btu/lb 8055.43 9446.29 8592.72
Ash Fusion Temperature (°F)
Initial Deformation 2120 2190 2470
Softening
2170 2410 2670
Temperature
Fluid Temperature 2400 2610 2770
Hardgrove
51 58 54
Grindability Index
Form of Sulfur (%)
Sulfate 0.1 0.03 0.02
Pyritic 0.1 0.02 0.09
Organic 0.22 0.32 0.11
Total Sulfur 0.24 0.37 0.22
Free Swelling Index 0 0 0
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
 Moisture (%) 18.02 19.36 25.26
Ash (%) 9.68 4.33 21.71
Volatile Matter (%) 39.93 34.99 22.4
Fixed Carbon (%) 32.37 41.32 30.63
Total (%) 100 100 100
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
Hydrogen (%) 3.74 4.1 2.45
Carbon (%) 50.69 57.47 38.24
Nitrogen (%) 0.77 1.3 0.98
Sulfur (%) 0.24 0.37 0.22
Oxygen (%) 16.9 13.1 11.14
Ash (%) 9.68 4.3 21.71
Total Moisture (%) 18.02 19.36 25.26
Total (%) 100 100 100
Source: WOCQI, 2024 [1] Coal A – Bangko, South Sumatra, Indonesia; [2] Coal B – Sanggata, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia; [3] Coal C – South Australia, Australia
The data presented above will be the basis in the selection of coal to be used in the power
plant. The data will be analyzed using the criteria to be discussed in the next paragraphs.

2.5 Summary of Coal Criteria

Coal-fired power plants are popular for electricity generation due to global coal deposits and
stable costs. However, they have high carbon dioxide emissions. Developing reliable coal usage
techniques is crucial to enhance thermal efficiency and minimize emissions. Coal is a
heterogeneous compound, difficult to define. While its constituents are always carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and certain mineral non-combustibles, not ordinarily analyzed but
lumped together as “ash,” the many ways in which these elements are compounded in coal as
found at different sites precludes any simple definition. In fact, coal is quite a variable substance,
and the classification of its different forms has not been easy. There are several classification
systems which attempt to find some common principle of variation among different kinds of coal
(Morse, 1953).

The firing qualities of coal are very important when selection of the coal and combustion
equipment is being considered, for if it were not for the effects of these qualities, coal could be
purchased on the basis of heating values alone (Morse, 1953).

The following criteria are to be considered in selection of coal:

1. Sizes and grades - for economical and satisfactory performance;
2. Constituents - includes information such as proximate and ultimate analysis;
3. Physical characteristics - such as friability and hard grove grindability;
4. Storage characteristics - includes deterioration and spontaneous combustion;
5. Performance characteristics - includes the coking and caking tendency;
6. Slagging characteristics - dependent on ash fusion temperature and iron content;
7. Corrosive characteristics - the sulfur content; and
8. Ignition characteristics - the minerals of low ignition temperature in the volatile.

(A) Lower Heating Value

The most crucial coal parameter for economic benefits and optimal engineering
efficiency is the heating value (Mastalerz, et al., 2005). Since the heating value significantly
influences various systems in the planned power plant, designers established the Lower
Heating Value (LHV) criteria, comprising 55% of the coal selection criteria. In fluidized bed
systems, coals must possess an LHV within the range of 6000 – 11,500 BTU/lb (Woodruff,
et al., 2004). To compare coal sources, designers prioritized selecting the coal with the
highest LHV.

(B) Moisture Content

Following the coal selection criteria, designers set the moisture content at 15% to
determine the calorific value and handling properties of coal. Moisture content contributes to
combustion effectiveness by generating turbulence but adds weight without enhancing
heating value. While low moisture content is cost-effective due to lower heat requirements
for evaporation, values should stay below 30% by weight (Woodruff, et al., 2004). Hence,
designers aim to choose coal with the lowest feasible moisture content.

(C) Ash Fusion Temperature

 Choosing coals with a higher ash fusion temperature is more cost-effective as it prevents
sludge formation on the boiler surface (Woodruff, et al., 2004). CFB boilers, operating at
lower combustion temperatures, can handle fuels with fouling and slagging below the ash
fusion temperature. For fluidized bed systems, coals must possess an ash fusion
temperature exceeding 1600°F (Woodruff, et al., 2004). Thus, the preference is for the coal
source with the highest ash fusion temperature. Since all selected coals possess an ash
fusion temperature greater than 1600 °F, thus, the designers chose to exclude the
criteria from the selection.

(D) Hardgrove Grindability Index

With a weight of 10%, the grindability index aligns with the ash content, as they are
inversely related; a higher Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) implies lower ash content
(Środowisko, 2007). The grindability index gauges the ease of coal crushing, with a lower
value indicating greater toughness. Optimal feeding for CFB furnaces requires coal no larger
than one-fourth of an inch (five millimeters), yet coal deliveries often range from 25 to 50
mm. Considering HGI is crucial in determining coal criteria, as harder-to-crush coals
necessitate higher-capacity crushers, incurring greater costs and energy consumption. The
recommended coal size for the system is within the range of 50 to 60 mm. Lower values
mean more difficult in grinding (Morse, 1953).

(E) Ash Content

Designers set ash content at 7.5% in the criteria, aligning with the Hardgrove Grindability
Index (HGI); higher ash content correlates with lower HGI (Górnictwa, 2015). In coal, ash
acts as insulation against combustion, posing issues in fluidized bed boilers. Higher ash
amounts are uneconomical due to increased maintenance costs. Thus, a lower ash content is
preferred for efficient fuel combustion in boilers (Górnictwa, 2015).

(F) Sulfur Content

 Limiting the sulfur content to 7.5% in the criteria is crucial due to its health hazards and
environmental emissions. Sulfur contributes to sulfate aerosols, inducing a cooling effect on
a continental scale through radiation reflection and absorption by the aerosol particles (Stern,
2005). To mitigate sulfur's corrosive impact on metallic components, limestone is employed.
Higher sulfur levels in coal demand increased limestone usage. Thus, for fluidized bed
boilers and to minimize maintenance costs, a sulfur content of less than 1% is necessary
(Woodruff et al., 2004).

(G)Volatile Matter

Designers set volatile matter at 5% in the criteria. In CFB boilers, coals with high
volatile matter, specifically 30% and above (Woodruff, et al., 2004), are preferred for
easier combustion at lower temperatures. Sub-bituminous coals generally have a naturally
higher volatile matter content.
 Table 2.3 Coal Selection Criteria for Fluidized Bed Combustion
RECOMMENDED
CRITERIA VALUES GRADE REMARKS
VALUES
Higher heating value means more efficient coal storage and firing
Lower Heating Value 6000-11500 BTU/lb As high as possible 55%
due to its high density. [1]
Low moisture content increases heat content of fuel, thus
Moisture Content <30% of Weight As low as possible 15%
increasing efficiency of the boiler.[1]
Coal size: <1/4 in. (6.35
Grindability Index mm) Within the range 10% Within recommended range for relative ease of crushing the coal.
HGI: 50 – 60 mm
Low-melting-temperature of fuel-derived ash compounds initiates
Ash Content 3%-8% As low as possible 7.5%
de-fluidization of the bed in CFB. [2]
Lower sulfur content means less health hazards and environmental
Sulfur Content <1% As low as possible 7.5%
emissions.[1]
Higher volatile matter ignites easily and are highly reactive in
Volatile Matter >30% value As high as possible 5%
combustion applications.[3]

TOTAL 100%

Source: [1] Woodruff et.al, 2004; [2] Moradian, 2016; [3] Morley, 2017
2.6 Coal Assessment

The different coal samples will be evaluated according to the criteria and assign scores
based on their characteristics. The coal with the highest overall score, calculated by summing
individual scores, will be the best choice for fluidized bed technology.

In this assessment, the score is obtained through:

 Meeting the ideal: If a coal sample's value falls within the recommended range for a
specific criterion (listed in a table), it receives a perfect score for that criterion.
 Outside the range: If the value falls outside the recommended range, the score is
calculated based on how close it is to the ideal value, using the provided equations.

The following equations shall be used for computing the scores for the assessment:

Ideal Value
 Actual Value > Ideal Value, use Score= × Percentage
ActualValue
ActualValue
 Ideal Value > Actual Value, use Score= × Percentage
Ideal Value
 Value Within Range Score=Percentage Equivalent

Where: Actual Value - the value of the coal in a criterion

Ideal Value - the standard value for comparison in each criterion

2.6.1. Computations on Lower Heating Value Score – 55%

The computation of the scores of each sample coal for the first criterion is shown below. The
coal's LHV is equivalent to 55 percent of the coal's total assessment score.

6000 BTU/LB < Lower Heating Value < 11 500 BTU/LB

From Table 2.2, all sample coals fall within the criteria. For better comparison, the designers
would compare the sample coals by setting a benchmark. Higher LHV is desired for the CFB
boiler system. Therefore, the benchmark for the criterion is the coal with the highest LHV.

For Coal A:
8055.43
LHV Coal A = × 55 %
9446.29
 Score=46.90 %
For Coal B:
9446.29
LHV Coal B= × 55 %
9446.29
Score=55 %
For Coal C:
8592.72
LHV CoalC = ×55 %
9446.29
Score=50.03 %

Based from the computation above, the coal with the highest score for this criterion is
Coal B with 55%, followed by Coal C with 50.03%, and lastly by Coal A with 46.90%

2.6.2. Computations on Moisture Content Score – 15%

The computation of the scores of each sample for the moisture content is shown below:

Moisture content < 30%

From Table 2.2, all coals satisfied the requirements for the moisture content. However, the
designers set a benchmark for better comparison. Lower moisture content was selected for the
CFB. Therefore, the designers selected the coal with the lowest moisture content as the ideal
value.

For Coal A:
18.02
Moisture Content Coal A = × 15 %
18.02
Score=15 %
For Coal B:

18.02
Moisture Content Coal B = ×15 %
19.36

Score=13.96 %

For Coal C:

18.02
Moisture Content Coal C = × 15 %
25.26
 Score=10.70 %

From the computation above, Coal A has a moisture content score of 15%, Coal B has
13.96%, and Coal C has 10.70%, with Coal A having the highest among the three.

2.6.3. Computations on HGI Score – 10%

The computation for the grindability index is shown below. The designers followed the
recommended range size of 50 - 60mm and set it as the benchmark for the computation. Table
2.2 shows that all coal is within range of the recommended size, therefore all the coal is
considered having a perfect score.

50 < HGIsample coal < 60

For Coal A:
HGI Coal A=51
Score=10 %
For Coal B:

HGI Coal B=58

Score=10 %

For Coal C:

HGI Coal C =54

Score=10 %

As shown above, all coals are within the recommended grindability index, hence having a
perfect score for this criterion.

2.6.4. Computations on Ash Content Score – 7.5%

The ash content of coal affects the grindability of the coal thus, the designers set the grade for
ash content to 5%. The suggested value for ash content is:

3% < Ash Content < 8%

 Lower ash content will result to higher HGI thus, the designers set the coal sample with the
lowest value of Ash content as the ideal value for the computation.

The ideal value for the ash content is;

From Table 2.2., Ideal Ash Content: 4.33%

For Coal A:
4.33
AshContent Coal A = × 7.5 %
9.68
Score=3.35 %
For Coal B:

4.33
AshContent Coal B = × 7.5 %
4.33

Score=7.5 %

For Coal C:

4.33
AshContent Coal C = × 7.5 %
21.71

Score=1.50 %

The computation above shows that Coal B has the highest ash content score of 7.5%, while
Coal A and Coal C has a score of 3.35% and 1.50%, respectively.

2.6.5. Computations on Sulfur Content Score – 7.5%

Based on Table 2.2, every sample coal met the sulfur content requirements. Setting a
benchmark, though, would allow the designers to compare their work more effectively. The CFB
boiler system was chosen because of its lower sulfur content. Consequently, the coal with the
lowest sulfur content serves as the standard for the criterion. The computation for the sulfur
content is shown below:

Sulfur Contentsample coal < 1 %

From Table 2.2, Ideal Sulfur Content: 0.22 (Lowest Sulfur Content)
For Coal A:
 0.22
Sulfur Content Coal A = ×7.5 %
0.24
Score=6.88 %
For Coal B:
0.22
Sulfur Content Coal B = ×7.5 %
0.37

Score=4.46 %

For Coal C:
0.22
Sulfur Content Coal C = ×7.5 %
0.22

Score=7.5 %

The computation above shows that the highest sulfur content is Coal C with 7.5%. Coal A
has a score of 6.88% and Coal B has 4.46%.

2.6.6. Computations on Volatile Matter – 5%

From Table 2.2, all sample coals were able to meet the requirements for the amount of
volatile matter. However, the designers could have a better comparison by setting a benchmark.
Higher volatile matter was chosen for the CFB boiler system. Therefore, the benchmark for the
criterion is the coal with the highest volatile matter content. The computation of the scores of
each sample coal for the last criterion is shown below.

From Table 2.2 – Volatile Matter: 39.93

For Coal A:
39.93
Volatile Matter Coal A = ×5 %
39.93
Score=5 %
For Coal B:
34.99
Volatile Matter Coal B= ×5 %
39.93

Score=4.38 %

For Coal C:
 22.4
Volatile Matter Coal C = ×5%
39.93

Score=2.80 %

The computation above shows that Coal A has the highest volatile matter score with 5%
while Coal B has 4.38%, and Coal C has 2.80%.

Table 2.4 presents the summary of the calculated scores of the sample coals. This will be the
basis of the designers for selecting the most suitable coal for the plant’s use.

Table 2.4 Summary of Coal Scores

COAL A COAL B COAL C
CRITERIA %
VALUE GRADE VALUE GRADE VALUE GRADE

Lower Heating Value 55 8055.43 46.90 9446.29 55.00 8592.72 50.03

Moisture Content 15 18.02 15 19.36 13.96 25.26 10.70

HGI 10 51 10.00 58 10.00 54 10.00

Ash Content 7.5 9.68 3.35 4.33 7.5 21.71 1.50

Sulfur Content 7.5 0.24 6.88 0.37 4.46 0.22 7.5

Volatile Matter 5 39.93 5 34.99 4.38 22.4 2.80

TOTAL 100 87.13 95.30 82.53

According to the Table above, Coal C has the lowest score of 82.53% for the criteria of coal
selection, followed by Coal A with 87.13%, and Coal B with the highest score of 95.30%.
Therefore, the designers will select Coal B as the most suitable coal for the power plant, with its
high LHV, low moisture, sulfur, ash content, and volatile matter. Coal B can be found in East
Kalimantan, Indonesia.
2.7 Selected Coal Summary

From the previous section, Coal B was chosen as the coal for the fluidized bed boiler of
the proposed power plant. Table 2.X presents the detailed information of Coal B, including its
type, location, proximate and ultimate analysis, and its other qualities.

Table 2.X Characteristics and Qualities of the Selected Coal

Location Indonesia
Mining Area Sanggata, East Kalimantan
Low Heating Value, btu/lb 9446.29
Ash Fusion Temperature (°F)
Initial Deformation 2190
Softening Temperature 2410
Fluid Temperature 2610
Hardgrove Grindability Index 58
Form Of Sulfur (%)
Sulfate 0.03
Pyritic 0.02
Organic 0.32
Total Sulfur 0.37
Free Swelling Index 0
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Moisture (%) 19.36
Ash (%) 4.33
Volatile Matter (%) 34.99
Fixed Carbon (%) 41.32
Total (%) 100
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
Hydrogen (%) 4.1
Carbon (%) 57.47
Nitrogen (%) 1.3
Sulfur (%) 0.37
Oxygen (%) 13.1
Ash (%) 4.3
Total Moisture (%) 19.36
Total (%) 100
Source: WOCQI, 2024