HPL – Human Performance and Limitations

Formulas
ð 15 mg/hr/L alcohol elimination (60 mg / 100 ml à 0.6 promille à 0.15 promille / hr – 4 h)
ð Cardial output = pulse frequency x stroke volume
ð 1 m = 3.28 ft
ð 1 NM = 1.852 km

General
ð 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, rest: rare gases
ð Temp initially remains constant in stratosphere and later increases up to stratopause
ð Ozone layer in stratosphere (ozone converter in cabin eliminate it)
ð Radiation records (ozone) are kept for flights above FL 490
ð Galactic radiation effect increases with altitude (from sea level and not from FL 490)
ð Galactic and solar the main sources of radiation
ð Cabin Air humidity is about 5 to 15%
ð Pressure drops faster at lower altitudes (in the first 0 – 8.000 ft)
ð Spin à predominating angular acceleration
ð Barotrauma most significant during descends
ð Capacity of concentration is limited as it requires cognitive resources
ð Swallowing as action to balance pressure gradient between middle and outer ear
ð Changes of blood pressure are measured by pressoreceptors
à A pair of sensors in the main arteries to the brain and another on the aorta at the
top of the heart.
à They are called carotid sinus and aortic arch pressoreceptors.
à Adaption in case of low pressure: constricting peripheral vessels, increase heart
rate and increase blood flow (cardiac output)
ð Normal pulse 60 – 80 (sometimes 100) beats per minute
ð Cardial output = pulse frequency x stroke volume
ð Normal cardial output is 5 liter per minute
ð UVA (long wave), UVB (medium wave), UVC (short wave – usually does not reach the
earth)
ð Physical exercise in high temperature (tropical climate) may cause painful muscle and
abdominal cramps
ð Metabolism à generation and utilization of energy by the body’s cells and tissues

Respiration
ð Boyle Mariotte – volume is inversely proportional to pressure
à Applicable for expansion of trapped gases in the body with increasing altitude
ð Dalton – total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures
à Explains hypoxia
ð Henry – quantity of a gas in dilution is proportional to the pressure of the gas
à Explains decompression sickness
ð Graham – speed of discharge is the same pressure inversely proportional to sqrt(density)
ð Internal respiration
à Oxygen in cells is used and carbon dioxide (CO2) produced
ð External respiration
à Normal rate is 12 -16 cycles per minute
à 0.5 L are usually being exchanged during normal breathing cycle
ð Oxygen transfer in alveoli à diffusion
à Partial pressure of oxygen is a highly significant factor
à Depends on the partial pressure gradient
ð Thin walls of capillaries are permeable for gases
ð Total gas volume of lung is tidal, inspiratory, expiratory and residual
ð CO2 (carbon dioxide)
 à In the blood regulates the breathing (rate and depth)
à Waste product of the metabolic process
à Too much à one will breathe deeper and faster
à Pressure in the alveoli is lower than in the blood (H à L pressure)
ð Artery: Away from heart (unless heart
muscle)
ð Veins: To the heart
ð Pulmonary artery: heartàlung (CO2)
LACK in OXYGEN
ð Arteries: blood heart à tissues
ð Veins: blood tissues à heart
ð Aorta: direct connection from heart (O2)

ð Coronary artery: lung à heart muscle

ð Cardiac veins: heart muscle à lung
- C heart musCle -

ð Heart à 2 atria, two ventricles, four valves

ð Platelets are cell fragments and important
for blood clotting
ð Protein are basic modules of all cells
giving structure to the cell
ð Heart attack is a total blockage of
coronary artery
ð Risks are
à Obesity
à Chronic stress, smoking, family history

Blood and Blood-pressure

ð Circulation of blood transports oxygen to the cells, withdraws waste products from the
cells, conveys nutrients to the cells and transports information by chemical substances
ð Red bloods cells and haemoglobin transport oxygen in blood
ð Blood pressure (mmHg) depends on
à Cardiac output / work of the heart
à Peripheral resistance (narrowed or not)
à Elasticity of arterial walls
à Blood volume and viscosity
ð Normal pressure is 120/80 mmHg
ð Blood – red cells (with haemoglobin) for oxygen transport, white cells for immunity,
platelets for coagulate blood
ð Blood transports oxygen and CO2 by circulation
ð Anaemia à not enough functioning haemoglobin
ð Hypertension
à High blood pressure (160/95 mmHg)
à Increased pressure on arterial walls
à Increases the risk of heart attack and stroke
ð Do not fly after blood donation
à Low blood pressure
à Increases susceptibility for fainting and hypoxia
Hypoxia
ð The first action is always: “Use oxygen”!!
ð Excessive G forces can result in stagnant hypoxia
ð Time of useful consciousness the time we can act mental and physical efficient and
alerted measured from the moment at which we are exposed to hypoxia
ð Night vision à first / most affected by Hypoxia at 5.000 ft (1.600 m)
ð Can also be caused by lack of red blood cells and decreased ability of hemoglobin to
transport oxygen
ð May be caused by carbon monoxide saturation of blood (attaches to red blood cells)
ð Blood pooling (due to +Gz) and malfunction of cells may cause hypoxia too
ð Severity and reaction varies from person to person
à Most dangerous are euphoria
(interference of reasoning and perceptive
functions)
à Cyanosis à blue lips and finger nails

à Hypoxic hypoxia can be caused by

climbing to high altitude without using
additional oxygen, malfunction of the
aircrafts oxygen supply system and loss of
cabin pressurization at high altitude

FL TUC
450 5 – 15 sec
400 15 - 20 sec
350 30 – 60 sec
300 1 – 2 min
250 2 – 4 min
220 4 – 8 min
200 20 - 30 min

Altitude Zone Description O2 partial

pressure
< 6.000 (10.000) Indifferent No effects for healthy people. 95 – 98 %
Decrease of visual performance
from 5000 ft
7.000 – 15.000 Complete Small decrease in performance. 90 – 95 %
compensation Healthy people are able to
compensate. Decrease of visual
performance
Short term memory affected
starting at 12.000 ft
15.000 – 22.000 Incomplete Unconsciousness. 70 – 90 %
compensation /
Disturbance Stage
> 22.000 Fatal / Critical 65 – 70 %
Stage
Altitude range Type of oxygen supply
SL – 10.000 Outside air
10.000 – 34.000 Mixture of outside air and 100% oxygen
34.000 – 40.000 100% oxygen
> 40.000 100% oxygen under pressure
à After rapid decompression breathe 100% under pressure at 38.000 ft

Altitude Equivalent ambient air at … when 100% oxygen

34.000 Sea level
38.000 8.000 (hypoxia symptoms can occur) à threshold for pilots
40.000 10.000
45.000 20.000

Hyperventilation
ð PH level of blood more alkaline à PH value RISES (acidity level of blood reduced, level of
carbonic acid falls)
ð Lack of carbon dioxide in the blood. (NOT a high %tage of oxygen in blood!)
ð Breathing faster than necessary
à Reduce CO2
à Undersupply of O2 in brain and blood (but not reduction of partial O2 in brain!)
ð Cyanosis is not a symptom
ð Symptoms are dizzy feeling, muscular spasms, visual disturbances, lack of concentration,
euphoria, tingling (kribbeln) sensations
ð Is a normal compensatory reaction to a drop in partial oxygen pressure.
ð Caused by fear, anxiety, distress, strong pain and pressure breathing NOT jogging
ð In hyperventilation the respiration rate will be higher due to adrenalin; due to low levels of
CO2, the pH of the blood will be higher and the brain will stop the blood from reaching its
cells, to prevent damage, and that will induce hypoxia which is any situation inducing a deficit
of O2 reaching the cells and thus preventing the normal metabolism

Decompression sickness
ð Nitrogen is fundamentally responsibly
ð Over saturated nitrogen gas molecules dissolve in body tissues and fluids (not from joints)
ð Bends à Nitrogen bubbles in the joints
ð Creeps à the skin is itching (gas bubbles under the skin)
ð Chokes à Gas bubbles in the lungs
ð Staggers à bubbles affecting the nervous system
ð Prevention
à Avoid cabin altitudes > 18.000 ft
à Maintain cabin pressure at / below 8.000 ft during high altitude flights
à Breathing 100% oxygen for 30 minutes prior to and during the flight
ð Tolerance decreased by Scuba diving, obesity and age
ð Seek prompt aeromedical advice after decompression even if no symptoms occur
ð Prevent flying after scuba diving (> 10 m) for at least 24 hours

Accelerations
ð Effects depend on duration, onset rate, magnitude and direction
ð Positive (+Gz) – Upward motion
à Everything is pulled down (blood,
organs, …)
à Increased in heart rate to
compensate
à Pooling of blood in the lower
portions of the body thus reducing
blood in brain
à Greyout from +3 G
à Further stage tunnel vision
à Blackout from +4.5 G
à G-Loc from +5 G
ð Long duration acceleration lasts more than 1 second J

Carbon Monoxide
ð Binds up 200 times faster than oxygen to hemoglobin
ð Smokers are permanent carbon monoxide poisoned (lifting up their physiological altitude)
ð Initials Symptoms are not alarming, it’s colorless, odorless, highly toxic and cumulative
ð Loss of muscular power, headache, impaired judgement, loss of consciousness
ð CO in blood displaces oxygen from the blood corpuscles impairing oxygen transport
ð Several days are required to recuperate from the poisoning

Barotrauma
ð Equalization between middle ear and ambient is limited à Eustachian tube is blocked
ð Eustachian tube to equalize pressure between middle ear and ambient!!
ð Eustachian tube connects nasopharynx and middle ear
ð Suffered a cold: pain and damage of the eardrum, particularly during fast descends
à Can even cause vertigo when catched a cold and flying
à May even cause otic and sinus barotrauma
ð Trapped gases are more frequent to cause severe pain when flying above 18.000 ft in un-
pressurized aircraft
ð Valsalva is not a counter measure against barotrauma; it facilitates the pressure
equalization only.
ð Most likely to occur during rapid descends
ð Aerodontalgia does not occur during descent. Only during climb as gases expand.
ð Incapacitation caused by expansion of gases after decompression is associated with
digestive tract and not ears, eyes or sinuses

Common Health
ð High blood pressure, coronary problems and diabetes are usually associated with obesity
ð BMI = weight / height²
ð BMI up to 25 is normal / over 30 (male) / 29 (female) is obesity
ð Height in cm – 100 à the result in kg is the normal weight
à Ideal is 10% (men) 15% (woman) below
à 30% above à obesity
ð Body obtains energy from carbohydrates, protein and fats (usually not minerals and
vitamins)
ð Hypoglycemia (Unterzuckerung)
à Pilot should eat regularly and ensure a balanced diet
à Symptoms are headache and lack of concentration
ð Body looses water via skin, lungs and kidneys (Niere)
ð Complete adaption to heat environment take about fortnight (14 days)
ð Hep A, Cholera and Typhus through food and water which has been contaminated
ð Tetanus through bacteria via punctures
ð Yellow fever by a virus transmitted by an infected person / bites of mosquitos
ð One pack cigarettes a day à 5 – 8 % of hemoglobin capacity blocked
à Responsible for addiction (Abhgkt) is nicotine
à Carcinogen (responsible for cancer) is tar
ð Caffeine in excess of 250 mg/day is considered to be excessive (200 is moderate)
ð Maximum blood alcohol (JAA rule) is 20 mg / 100 ml of blood (1 promille = 0.001) -> 0.2
promille
ð Alcohol degrades paradoxical sleep
ð 15 mg / hour or 0.015% / hour alcohol metabolism
ð Excessive aspirin à gastric bleeding and blood thinning
ð Antihistamines cause dizziness and drowsiness
ð In flight fatalities à suffocation from fumes caused by aircraft furnishing and wiring
ð Most dangerous incapacitation develops slowly and gradually (hypoxia or CO poisoning)
ð Most common in-flight incapacitation - gastrointestinal disorders

Sleep
ð Circadian cycle is governed by body temperature
ð Sleep is facilitated by a decrease in body temperature (around 10 pm)
ð Wake up is facilitated by an increase in body temperature (around 6 am)
ð Temp is lowest in the early morning (0500) and highest in the evening (1800)
ð Duration of sleep is primarily governed by the time within your cycle at which you try to
sleep (too early à you will sleep less than usual)
ð 1 sleep cycle lasts 90 minutes and is
divided into 4 + 1 steps
à Light – normal transition between activity
and sleep (appr. 10 minutes)
à Early – muscular activity lowers lasts
about 20 minutes
à Metabolic rate falls, arterial blood
pressure falls and pulse rate decreases
à Orthodox (Non REM) – 75% of normal
sleep time. Physical recovery of fatigue /
resting muscles and restoring energy
reserves of neurons.
à Paradoxical (REM) – 70-90 minutes in
total sleep cycle (increases during the 2nd 4
hours of an 8 hours sleep cycle). Important
for memorization process and emotional
balance
à Interruption of REM may be harmful

Fatigue
ð Rhythm will resynchronize with 1 – 1.5 hours a day
ð Resynchronization is faster / easier for when travelling westwards
ð Biological clock is not disturbed after a bad nights sleep. Rather by east/west or west/east
flights
ð Irritability is the most noticeable psychological effect of fatigue
ð Sleep loss
à Unable to be aware of personal performance degration
à Performance loss present up to 20 minutes after a short sleep (nap)
ð Stop Over
à Long duration stays (> 48 hours) move to the new time as soon as possible
à Short duration stays (< 48 hours) stay on home time
Hypothermia
ð Pilots need for oxygen is increased as long as he is conscious
ð Sleepiness occurs with a feeling of contentment or apathy
ð Reasoning problems as soon as body temp falls below 37°C
ð Stages
Stage Description
1 ð Temp drop 1-2°
ð Mild to strong shivering
ð Unable to perform complex tasks with the hands
ð Blood vessels constrict / vasoconstriction
ð Quick and shallow breathing
ð Goose bumps form, raising body hair
ð Trouble Seeing
ð Apathy!
2 ð Temp drop 2-4°
ð Further shivering (some questions state the cease of shivering from
35°!!)
ð Lips, ears, fingers and toes become blue
3 ð Further temp drop (below approx. 32°C)
ð Shivering stops
ð Difficulty speaking and thinking
ð Amnesia
ð Cell metabolic process shut down
ð Whole skin becomes blue
ð Dead

CNS – Central Nervous System

ð ANS – Autonomous Nervous System
regulates sweating, arterial pressure, body
temperature and the general adaption
syndrome
ð Nervous cells are capable of slow
generalized activity as well as efficient and
rapid activity
ð Main parts are the brain and spinal cord
ð Vision is processed at the cortex
ð Kinesthetic sense (like kinetic energy) informs us about the relative motion and position of
the body itself
ð Peripheral Nervous System passes information from the sensory inputs to the CNS
through sensory and motor nerves
ð Stereotype / Involuntary reaction à reflex
ð Synapse à Connection between neurons
ð Perceptual Threshold
à Amount of stimulation that will be detected by a sensory organ. A less intense
stimulation will not be detected.
à Rising threshold à lesser sensitivity (higher intensity of stimulation required)
à Factors are type, intensity, location and duration
ð Subcutaneous pressure receptors (in the skin) are stimulated by pressure created on the
corresponding body parts when sitting, standing or lying down
ð Habit reversion / habit transfer (unintentionally behaviour e.g. aircraft with fuel lever acting
in reverse direction) When cognitive resources are not focused on the task in hand this is not
uncommon
ð 70%-80% of information is processed via visual channel
Eye
ð Cornea is the transparent front of the eye
ð Crystalline lens for near objects
ð Cones à Color vision (highly sensitive to
hypoxia)
ð Rods (Scotopic)
à Night vision à first / most affected by
Hypoxia at 5.000 ft

ð Retina has rods on its peripheral zone

ð Retina has cones on its central zone
ð Retina is light sensitive inner lining
ð Optic system is cornea, lens and vitreous
ð Fovea is central part of the retina and humor (transparent, gelatinous mass to fill
contains cones only the space)
à Called central vision
à Allows distinguishing fine details such as ð Adaptation is the adjustment of the eyes
alphanumeric information but is a restricted to high or low levels of illumination (from day
area à scanning required to night vision and back!), not the change of
à enables details and colors diameter of pupil nor the adjustment of the
à 150.000 cones per mm crystalline lens (the latter is accommodation)
ð Vitamin A is responsible for the
ð Peripheral vision à the rods in the regeneration of visual purple (Rhodopsine)
peripheral area à detecting moving objects à An excessive intake of Vitamin A will NOT
and night vision improve the night vision
ð Rhodopsine (visual purple) is the visual
ð Pupil controls the amount of light which pigment used in low light levels by the rods
strikes the retina
ð Visual acuity is effected by hypoxia, age
ð Focusing on near objects à the lens gets and angular distance from the fovea
more spherical
ð Cornea and crystalline lens causes the convergence of light rays onto the retina (known
as accommodation)
à By the cilliary muscles around the lens
ð Scanning technique à short jerky movements called saccades. Smooth vision is achieved
by the visual cortex (a kind of software fine tuning in the brain)
ð Night vision approximately 30 min as light bleaches out the visual purple
à Spend some time getting adapted to low levels of illumination
à Do not focus on the point to be observed (slightly beside)
à Avoid blinding and increased instrument panel lighting
à But increase panel lights at night with low workload to prevent low vigilance
ð Adaption from darkness to daylight takes only 10 seconds
ð To perceive color vision a sufficient amount of light must be present
ð Prevent eyes from flash blindness
à Tuning up cockpit lights
à Looking inside the cockpit
à Wearing sunglasses
à Using faces blinds or face curtains when installed
ð Binocular vision is vision with both eyes and allows terrain relief at short distances.
ð Terrain relief at large distances is maintained by rules of proportion and perspective
ð Visual disturbances by hyperventilation, hypoxia, fatigue but NOT by hypertension
Ear
ð Human range between 16 Hz and 20 KHz
ð Middle Ear à Ossicles (tiny bones)
ð Inner Ear à Semicircular canals and
cochlea (latter one for perception of noise)

ð Vestibular system
à Accelerations and vertical reference
à Semicircular canals – angular acc
à Saccule and utricle (otoliths) – linear acc
/ gravity
ð Noise induced hearing loss NIHL (> 90db) ð Cochlea is fluid filled and moves in
à Permanent nature for some frequencies respond to vibrations coming from middle
à Excessive noise damages the sensitive ear via oval window
membrane in the cochlea (inner ear) ð Lots of hair cells are set in motion
à NOT a damage to the eardrum or ossicles converting it into a electrical signal

ð Conductive Hearing loss – has nothing to

do with auditory nerve damage!
à Damage ossicles in middle-ear by
infection or trauma
à Obstruction in the outer ear
à Ruptured tympanic membrane
ð Hearing tests are carried out to detect
early signs of deafness
ð Alcohol has effects to the inner ear!

ð Presbycusis
à Gradual loss of hearing with age (65 -75)
à Loss of high tones comes first
à Can be conductive or sensorineural

Errors / Illusions
ð Parallax is a reading error (looking onto (e.g. instruments) with an angular distance)
ð Myopia à nearsightedness à image focus in front of retina
ð Hypermetropia à farsightedness à image focus beyond retina
ð Astigmatism à unequal curvature of cornea
ð Presbyopia
à Ageing process, harden the lens, loss of ability to focus on near objects
à Far sightedness linked with age
à Decrease of accommodation
ð Glaucoma
à Affect optic nerve, raised intra-ocular pressure
à Can lead to total blindness, undetected reduction of visual field and reduces acuity
à Detected by pressure testing the eye ball
ð Color blindness
à May be subtle (Schleichend) and only detected by using specialized tests
à Mans are more affected
à Is a permanent condition
ð Cataract is caused by clouding of the lens
ð Empty field myopia
à Lack of distant focus point à eye focuses automatically in 1 meter distance à you
can not see objects further away from 1 meter
à Short sharp scans, periodically focused on a distant object such a wingtip or cloud
edge
ð Autokinesis – apparent movement of static single light when long stared (at night)
ð During taxiing relative movement and cockpit height above ground can cause illusions
à Vection illusion (movements of other vehicles are interpreted as our movement)
 à The higher the cockpit is the slower you think you are
ð Flight in fog, snow or haze
à Low contrast
à Objects seems to be farther away
à One might get become too high during an approach follow by steep approach
ð Effects of high temperature
à Sweating
à Hairs on body remain flat
à Vaso-dilation of peripheral blood vessels (increase surface to evacuate more heat)
ð Resonance of body parts à 1 to 100 Hz
ð Illusion of obtaining greater height when suddenly flying over small trees after prolonged
flying over tall trees
ð Leans or Somatogyral: Unbanking after turn à turn in opposite direction or unnoticed
banking change during prolonged turn
ð Climbing or descending illusion during acceleration / deceleration à somatogravic
ð Coriolis Effect
à Simultaneous stimulation of several semicircular canals (not of the saccule and
utricle as they are stimulated from linear accelerations only)
à Head movement during aircraft maneuvers
ð Proprioceptive à Seat of the Pants Sense
à from Latin proprius, meaning "one's own" and perception
à Proprioceptors à inform about the relative motion and position of the body parts
ð Flying a coordinated turn gives pressure sensors feel of increase pressure along vertical
axis à climbing / pitching up
ð Pilot vertigo symptoms
à Dizziness, tumbling (Taumeln) sensations
à Contradictory impulses to the CNS
à Most likely to occur during banking
ð Trust the instruments and ignore illusions!
à Risk for spatial disorientation is growing when contradictory information between
instruments and vestibular organs
à Major protective measure against illusions is comprehensive briefings and de-
briefings
ð Black hole effect à illusion to high à low approach below safe glide slope à ground
contact
Runway Illusion Consequences
Wider than To low à Pilot corrects above
usual glide slope
à To high and to fast
à Long landing
à May lead to early or
high flare (round out)

Narrower To high à Pilots corrects below

than usual glide slope
à Risk of flying (low)
below glide slope the
approach and landing
short
Upslope Higher à Pilots corrects below
than glide slope
actual à Risk of flying (low)
below glide slope the
approach and landing
short

Downslope Lower à Pilot corrects above

than glide slope
actual à To high and to fast
à Long landing
à May lead to early or
high flare (round out)

Upslope Higher à Pilots corrects below

surface than glide slope
before actual à Risk of flying (low)
runway below glide slope the
approach and landing
short

Downslope Lower à Pilot corrects above

surface than glide slope
before actual à To high and to fast
runway à Long landing
à May lead to early or
high flare (round out)

Higher than Lower à Pilot corrects above

usual than glide slope
obstacles actual à To high and to fast
à Long landing
à May lead to early or
high flare (round out)

Lower than Higher à Pilots corrects below

usual than glide slope
obstacles actual à Risk of flying (low)
below glide slope the
approach and landing
short / obstacle contact
Memory
ð Short-term memory is affected by interruptions
ð Information in short term memory stays about 20 seconds and is limited in amount as well
ð Max storage of unrelated items is 7 in working memory
à Reminder of interrupted persons of their last action may be necessary
ð Information received from the senses is lost within 10-20 seconds unless it is rehearsed
and deliberately placed in Long Term Memory
ð Long term memory is affected by experience, repetition, suggestion and expectations
à Declarative stores facts
à Episodic memory is memory of events, times, places emotions in relation to
experience influenced by suggestions
à Semantic memory – meaning of the words and general knowledge; lasts for
longer time and tends to be more accurate than episodic memory
à Procedural stores skills and procedures “how to” knowledge
à Motor programs are not kept in the long term memory
ð Mnemonics are used in aviation to help to increase retention of information
ð Anderson model of knowledge acquisition
à Cognitive (you permanently think about what you do)
à Associative (gain of experience)
à Automatic (skills have developed and are executed on an unconscious level)
ð SRK – Skill, Rule and Knowledge based behaviour has nothing to do with motor
programs
ð Handle situation without applying rules and no skills à knowledge based à e.g. pax
suffered a heart attack and you (as PIC) decide to divert.
ð Errors in rule based à errors in “technical” knowledge (errors in the rules itself)
ð Skill based behaviour
à Flying a turn, setting flaps depending on situation and condition
à Errors are routine errors
à Motor program errors actually does not happen to novice as they think about all
they do
à Action slip – selection of incorrect action for the situation (routine errors)
à Environmental capture (habituation) - associating a specific situation to the
same environment (hearing a clearance as they usually comes at a specific
point even if one actually does not received a clearance)
ð Maslow (Physiological, Safety, Love, esteem, self-actualization are the 5 levels of needs)
includes freedoms from pain and danger and expression of capacities and talents

Psychology / Human Performance

ð Human error causes 70% -80% (NOT 90 %!) of all accidents
ð Human errors are to be expected in 1 of 100 times performing simple (untrained) tasks
and 1 to 1000 for trained tasks
ð Analysis of human factor in aviations shows there is hardly ever a single cause
ð Human errors are considered as being inherent to the cognitive function of human and
inescapable
ð GPWS marked a substantial decrease in hull loss in the eighties
ð Checklists and manuals are software
ð Cohesion is an advantage in times of difficult situations
ð Too much cohesion in group-thinking is negative (a strong cohesive groups knows each
other in a way that everyone knows what the other would do in this situation. So the
communication is affected in a negative way)
ð Democratic and co-operative style à Try to clarify the reasons and causes of the conflict
with all persons involved
ð Leadership à Excellent role-behavior and Mastery of communication skills
ð Automation in cockpits
 à Communication and coordination call for an even greater effort on the part of the
crew members (communication is even more important than in un-automated
cockpits)
à May result in routine errors (slip error)
à Attention of the crew will become reduced with the result of being “out of the loop”
à May result in complacency among the crewmembers
ð Optimum human performance à establish strategies for planning, automating and
managing resources (e.g. SOP)
ð Procedural consistency à SOP à makes pilots more effective and reliable
ð Communication uses up resources and thus limiting resources allocated to work
ð Capacity of concentration is limited as it requires cognitive resources
ð Excessive need for safety à hampers severely the way of pilot decision making (pyramid
of needs)
ð Selective attention required as capacity of central decision making and working memory is
limited
ð Divided attention is an alternative management of several matters of interest
à NOT to select information and check if its relevant to the task in hand.
ð Information process à First step is sensory stimulation (type and intensity)
ð Perception is extremely resistant to correction
ð Illusion of relative movement à sensation that we move but the other vehicle moves
ð Incorrect perception can be highly persuasive
ð Perception is based on information received and past experience and knowledge
ð The readiness for tracing information which could indicate the development of a critical
situation is necessary to maintain a good situational awareness
ð Perception should always match reality (related to situational awareness)
à The statement “when perception matches reality” describes situational awareness
ð Mental models are generated by past experience and learning
ð Vulnerable (anfällige) systems are effected in complete if one error occurs
ð When facing a problem take as much time as required to make up your mind
ð Decisions in cockpits remain valid for a limited time only
ð Bias is a systematic error
ð Confirmation bias
à Confirmation bias is a human error that occurs upon making a false perception.
Person makes a decision and only believes information that confirms that decision,
ignoring any contradictory information
à Tendency to ignore that information which indicates that a decision is poor
à Tendency to look for information which confirms the validity of the decision
à Avoid it by searching information that will falsify the hypothesis
ð Checklist execution must not be done with other action simultaneously
ð Coaction is a mode of coordination to work in parallel to achieve a common objective
ð Synergetic cockpit à decisions are made by the captain with the help and participation of
the other crew members
ð Differences on opinions are regarded as helpful
ð Role defines the functions to be performed
ð Status defines the enjoyment of a hierarchical position
ð Autocratic cockpit à commander is a tyrant who imposes his point of view in all situations
ð Laissez-faire cockpit à the commander doesn’t take decision, leaving the duty to the co
ð Self-centered cockpit à everyone works isolated assuming that everyone is aware of what
is being done or what is going on
ð In order to make communication effective it is necessary to send information in line (on the
same level) with the receivers decoding capability, simplify or seek clarification
ð Professional languages offers quick comprehension and simplified grammar (NOT better
communication even if professionals are not from the same field)
ð Stereotypes is a logical oversimplification in which all the members of a certain group to
be definable by an easy distinguishable set of characteristics. We tend to misjudge those
individuals even if we have contact with them
ð Metacommunication is defined as those aids, other than words, which compliment those
words in order to communicate (appr. 80% of entire communication)
ð Non-Verbal comm can serve as substitute to oral speech (NOT cross-cultural understood!)
ð One of the aspects among conflict resolving is seeking arbitration.
ð Reversion to early behaviour pattern during stress and when a task is relaxed
ð “Attitude” is likes and dislikes (learned dispositions)
ð Behaviour is the outward result of personality and attitude and is adaptable
ð Personality is based on heredity, upbringing, experience and childhood.
ð Self-concept is how you see yourself
ð Under-confident co à captain à aggressive if challenged by other as he must maintain
respect and fight for it to not allow other to discover his under-confidence.
ð High arousal
à Leads to fast but less accurate responses.
à Narrows the span of attention
à Does NOT improve performance nor lead to better decision-making
ð Relationship arousal à flying has the form of an inverted U à highest level of
performance is achieved at the optimum point
ð Related to the difficulty of a task the level of arousal should be within the optimum range
ð Equilibrium of mans internal is called Homeostasis
ð Stress is a normal phenomenon which enables an individual to adapt to encountered
situations
ð A stress reaction is non-specific to the stress (current situation) (for one person)
ð Stress is an unresolved pressure, strain or force acting upon individuals systems
à Behavioral effects are manifestation of aggressiveness and a tendency to
withdrawal. (not willingness to improve anything)
à Environmental stressors are heat, humidity and noise. (NOT lack of rest)
ð Physical stressor is a stimulus that produces a change in any of the homeostatic
mechanism of the body (administrative problems are not physical stressors)
ð Cognitive evaluation is the evaluation of the situation and the capabilities to cope with
ð General adaption syndrome is associated with ANS and can activate responds to an
imaginary threat
ð Physical stress take place when outside conditions put a strain on the homeostatic
mechanism of the body. (Noise, temperature, humidity, sleep deprivation)
ð Physical responses are sweating, dry mouth and breathing difficulties, NOT anxiety (is a
psychical one)
ð Stress is subjective (related to a subject)
ð To limit stress a pilot should maintain his competence by practicing his professional skills
and learning from past experiences
ð Acute stress quickly leads to the mobilization of resources to cope with the stressor
ð Alarm (increased blood pressure and deeper breathing, adrenalin causes massive release
of glucose into the blood, decrease in stress resistance) – Resistance (fat into sugar,
activation of ANS and psychosomatic disorders when lasting over prolonged time) –
Exhaustion (exhaust of products from step 1 and 2)
ð Signs of stress are usually NOT pain around the heart
ð Distress = Overstress increases vigilance for a longer period than the stress itself by may
focus attention
ð If coping with stress is impossible à one will remain in the state of distress
ð Cognitive Coping à Ignoring or realizing the stress factor
ð Chronic short term and acute fatigue exists
ð Tiredness is subjective
ð Vigilance is constant attention / monitoring – being watchful. (e.g. scan for other aircraft)
ð Excessive motivation in combination with high levels of stress will limit attention and
management capabilities. Excessive motivation can cause stress itself.
ð Mode error is associated with Automation
ð Someone in a euphoric condition is more prone to error
ð Decision making in emergency situations requires firstly delegation of tasks and crew
coordination
ð The effects of experience and repetition on performance can both beneficial and
negative!!!
ð DECIDE – prescriptive generic model, taking into account the method which seems most
likely to come up with the solution
ð Pilot difficulties to control the ac à fails to monitor fuel à lack of attention due to
distraction