BREATHING & EXCHANGE OF

GASES
Why do we breathe?
✓ Continuous catabolism of glucose requires O2 and liberates CO2.

➢ Uninterrupted supply of O2 required

➢ Continuous removal of CO2 required

BREATHING : The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with the CO2 produced
by the cells

[Physical process depending on diffusion, No enzymes, No energy release]

How do organisms breathe?

Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals depending mainly

on their habitats and levels of organisation
Respiratory Organs

➢ Simple diffusion over their

entire body surface: Sponges,
coelenterates, flatworms

➢ Cuticle(moist Cutaneous R.):

Annelids (Earthworms),
Amphibians

➢ Tracheal tubes: Insects

➢ Gills(Branchial R): Aquatic

arthropods, molluscs & fishes

➢ Lungs (Pulmonary R) :
Reptiles, birds and mammals -
lungs.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
❑ Nostrils ( a pair)
❑ Nasal Passage
❑ Nasal Chamber/cavity
❑ Pharynx
❑ Larynx (Sound Box)
❑ Trachea
o
❑ Bronchus (left & right 1 )
o o
❑ 2 & 3 Bronchi
❑ Bronchiole (terminal)
❑ Alveolus
Respiratory system = Conducting part + Respiratory part
(transports air, purifies, (diffusion of O2 & CO2
humidifies and warms air) between blood and atmos Air)
Respiration involves the following steps:

(i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which

atmospheric air(O2 rich) is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar
air is released out.
(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar
membrane.
(iii) Transport of gases by the blood.
(iv) Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
(v) Utilization of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and
resultant release of CO2
Diaphragm : Muscular wall separating the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
➢ 2 stages : INSPIRATION & EXPIRATION
➢ Creation of Pressure gradient between lungs and
atmosphere
➢ by diaphragm & external and internal intercostal
muscles

➢ Inspiration requires increased thoracic chamber

volume :
➢ Negative intra-pulmonary pressure :
➢ Contraction of diaphragm antero-posteriorly
➢ Contraction of external inter-costal muscles – lifts
ribs and sternum up – dorso-ventral increase
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION (contd)

➢ Expiration requires decreased thoracic

chamber volume :
➢ Positive intra-pulmonary pressure :
➢ Relaxation of diaphragm antero-posteriorly
➢ Relaxation of external inter-costal muscles –
ribs and sternum returns to original
position – dorso-ventral increase
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION (contd)
MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION (contd)

➢ Average Breathing rate : 12-16 times/minute

➢ Spirometer :
➢ diagnostic device - measuring how much air you inhale, how
much you exhale and how quickly you exhale.
➢ helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions

➢ Spirometry is used to diagnose asthma, chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other
conditions that affect breathing.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES

➢ Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration. It is approx. 500
mL., i.e., a healthy man can inspire or expire approximately 6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute.

➢ Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Additional volume of air, a person can inspire by a forcible
inspiration. This averages 2500 mL to 3000 mL.

➢ Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Additional volume of air, a person can expire by a forcible
expiration. This averages 1000 mL to 1100 mL.

➢ Residual Volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forcible expiration. This
averages 1100 mL to 1200 mL.
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES
➢ Inspiratory Capacity (IC): Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration. This
includes tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume ( TV+IRV)

➢ Expiratory Capacity (EC): Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal inspiration. This
includes tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV).

➢ Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): Volume of air that will remain in the lungs after a normal
expiration. This includes ERV+RV)

➢ Vital Capacity (VC): The maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a forced expiration.
This includes ERV, TV and IRV or the maximum volume of air a person can breathe out after a
forced inspiration.

➢ Total Lung Capacity (TLC): Total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the end of a forced
inspiration. This includes RV, ERV, TV and IRV or vital capacity + residual volume.
EXCHANGE OF GASES
➢ Primary sites of exchange of gases : Alveoli

➢ Exchange also occur between blood and tissues.

➢ O2 and CO2 are exchanged by simple diffusion.

➢ Factors that influence the rate of diffusion:-

➢ Pressure/concentration gradient.

➢ Solubility of the gases.

➢ Thickness of the membranes involved in diffusion.

 PARTIAL PRESSURE

➢ Atmospheric air generally exerts pressure on any surface.

➢ Gravitational pull
➢ Atmosphere – mixture of gases.
➢ Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is called partial pressure.
EXCHANGE OF GASES : Pressure Gradient
➢ PP represented- pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for carbon dioxide.

Pressure gradient created : O2 : Alveoli Blood Tissues

CO2 : Tissues Blood Alveoli
EXCHANGE OF GASES : Solubility of gases

➢ Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher

than that of O2,

➢ the amount of CO2 that can diffuse through

the diffusion membrane per unit of partial
pressure is much higher compared to that of
O2.
EXCHANGE OF GASES : Diffusion Membrane
➢ The diffusion membrane is made up of
three major layers namely,
➢ the thin squamous epithelium of alveoli,
➢ the endothelium of alveolar capillaries and
➢ basement substance/membrane (composed of a
thin basement membrane supporting the
squamous epithelium and the basement
membrane surrounding the single layer
endothelial cells of capillaries) in between them.

➢ However, its total thickness is much less

than a millimeter.
TRANSPORT OF GASES
➢ Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2.
➢ O2 : 97% of - RBCs in the blood, 3% of O2 through plasma(dissolved state).
➢ CO2 : 70% as bicarbonate, 20-25% by RBCs , 7% through plasma.
Transport of Oxygen

➢ Haemoglobin is a red coloured

iron containing pigment present
in the RBCs.
➢ O2 can bind with haemoglobin in
a reversible manner to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
➢ Each haemoglobin molecule can
carry a maximum of four
molecules of O2
Transport of Oxygen (contd)
Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily influenced by
▪ partial pressure of O2,
▪ Partial pressure of CO2,
▪ hydrogen ion concentration and
▪ temperature
FACTORS FOR FORMATION OF OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+ concentration(blood becoming alkaline) and lower temperature

FACTORS FOR DISSOCIATION OF OXYHAEMOGLOBIN

low pO2, high p CO2, high H+ concentration and higher temperature

Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O2 to the tissues under normal
physiological conditions.
Oxygen dissociation curve
➢ A sigmoid curve is obtained when
percentage saturation of
haemoglobin with O2 is plotted
against the pO2.
➢ This curve is called the Oxygen
dissociation curve.
➢ Sigmoid - Cooperative oxygen
binding - an effect where oxygen
binding affinity can change depending on
how much oxygen is bound
Transport of Carbondioxide
➢ 70% as bicarbonate

➢ 20-25% by RBCs (carbamino-haemoglobin by Hb)

➢ 7% through plasma – dissolved state – carbonic acid

✓ Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
➢ Nervous control and Chemical control
➢ Rate changing as per Oxygen demand of the body.

The regulatory centre for respiration is known as the respiratory centre.

There are three groups of respiratory centers-
respiratory rhythm centre
pneumotaxic centre and
chemosensitive area.
Respiratory rhythm centre:
Dorsal portion of medulla oblongata.
Specialized centre responsible for the regulation of respiration.
Produces the basic respiratory rhythm.
The nervous signals released from the neurons of respiratory rhythm
centre are transmitted to the diaphragm which is the primary
inspiratory muscle.
These signals cause the inspiratory muscle or diaphragm to contract
and bring about inspiration.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION (contd)

Pneumotaxic centre:
It is a group of neurons located dorsally in the upper
pons of the brain. It can moderate the functions of the
respiratory rhythm centre.
The signal from the neurons of pneumotaxic centre
determines the number and depth of breaths.
The neural signals from pneumotaxic centre can also
reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter
the respiration rate.
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION (contd)

Chemo sensitive centre:

This is an area situated adjacent to the
respiratory rhythm centre which is highly
sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen ions.
The concentration of hydrogen ions and CO2
cause an increase in the inspiratory signal and
expiratory signal.
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Asthma is difficulty in breathing causing
wheezing due to inflammation
of bronchi and bronchioles.
Caused by allergic reaction to foreign subst
reaching the lungs (spasms of smooth
muscles of bronchi and bronchioles

Preventive measure – avoid exposure to

allergen
Treatment – bronchodilator drugs, inhalers
etc
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (contd)
Emphysema is a chronic obstructive disorder in which
alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory
surface is decreased - shortness of breadth

The alveolar walls degenerate and alveoli combine to form

large alveoli. The alveoli remain fully filled with air even
during expiration. This will lead to increase in lung size and
the major cause of emphysema is cigarette smoking.
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (contd)
Occupational respiratory disorders:

The pulmonary disease caused due to the

exposure of potentially harmful substances like
gas, fumes, or dusts, present in the working
environment of a person are called occupational
respiratory disorders.

The common examples are silicosis & asbestosis

(caused in workers employed in mining industry,
quarry etc due to chronic exposure to silica dust
from rocks or stones) and asbestosis (in workers
employed in asbestos factory due to chronic
exposure to asbestos dust).

Long exposure can give rise to inflammation

leading to fibrosis causing serious lung damage.