Chp 13

Respiratory System

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Organization of the Respiratory System

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 The Respiratory System
• The main function of the respiratory system is to
supply the body tissues with oxygen and dispose of
carbon dioxide generated by cellular metabolism.

• Respiration is collectively made up of 4 processes:

1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
2. External respiration (movement of O2 from lungs into
blood; CO2 from blood to lungs)
3. Transport of respiratory gases in the blood
4. Internal respiration (movement of O2 from blood into
tissue cells; CO2 from cells into blood)

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The Airways and Blood Vessels

4
 The Airways
• The structures that comprise the system are:
– Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lungs, alveoli

• These can be divided into the respiratory zone (where

the gas exchange happens) and the conducting zone
(top of the trachea to the respiratory bronchioles).
• The trachea is also known as the “windpipe.” It has 3
layers and the mucosa has the goblet cells and cilia.
• Smoking kills the cilia. So coughing is the only way
to keep mucus from accumulating in the lungs.
(hence the chronic cough seen in many long-term
smokers) 5
 Site of Gas Exchange: The Alveoli
• The alveoli are tiny, hollow sacs whose open ends are continuous
with the lumen of the airways.

• Most of the air-facing surfaces of the wall are lined by a

continuous layer, one cell thick, of flat epithelial cells termed
type I alveolar cells.

• Type II alveolar that produce a detergent-like substance called

surfactant.

• The total alveolar surface area is very large and this permits the
rapid exchange of large quantities of oxygen and carbon dioxide
by diffusion.

• In some of the alveolar walls, pores permit the flow of air

between alveoli.

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Site of Gas Exchange: The Alveoli

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Relation of the Lungs to the Thoracic
Wall

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 Pleurae

• The pleurae form a thin double-layered serosa. The parietal

pleura covers the thoracic wall and superior face of the
diaphragm. The visceral pleura covers the external surface of the
lung.

• The pleura produce fluid that remains in the pleural cavity. This
lubricates the lung to prevent friction while breathing.

• Pleurisy is an infection or inflammation of the pleura and often

results from pneumonia. This results in a roughening of the
pleura, which creates friction and a stabbing pain with each
breath. As the disease progresses there is a build-up of fluid,
which hinders breathing.

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Steps of Respiration

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 Ventilation and Air Flow
• Ventilation is defined as the exchange of air
between the atmosphere and alveoli.

• F = ΔP/R

• Remember that flow (F) is proportional to the

pressure difference (Δ P) between two points
and inversely proportional to the resistance
(R).

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 Ventilation
• Remember that a volume change leads to a pressure
change and that pressure changes lead to the flow of
gases to equalize the pressure.

• Boyle’s law says that at a constant temperature the

pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume.

• P1V1=P2V2

• Remember that gases always fill their container. So in a

large container the molecules in
will be far apart (low pressure).
that same amount of gas will
together (high pressure).
a given amount of gas
In a smaller container
have molecules close
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 Pressure Measurements
• The respiratory pressures are always relative to
atmospheric pressure!
• We measure this in mm Hg or atmospheres
(atm).
• At sea level this is 760 mm Hg or 1 atm.
• If you were to go to higher altitudes (i.e., up in
the Andes Mountains), then the pressures
would be different.

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 Intrapulmonary Pressure
• Palv is the pressure in the alveoli.

• It rises and falls with breathing and determines

the direction of air flow.

• When Palv < Patm, air flows into the lung. This is
known as “negative pressure breathing”.

• When Palv > Patm, air flows out.

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Ventilation and Lung Mechanics

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Inspiration

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Expiration

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 Lung Compliance
• Compliance can be considered the inverse of
stiffness.
• The greater the lung compliance, the easier it is to
expand the lungs at any given change in
transpulmonary pressure.
• There are two major determinants of lung
compliance:
1. The stretchability of the lung tissues
2. The surface tension at the air-water interfaces within the
alveoli
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Lung Compliance

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 Lung Compliance and Surfactant
• The type II alveolar cells secrete the detergent-
like substance known as surfactant.

• Surfactant markedly reduces the cohesive

forces between water molecules on the
alveolar surface.

• Therefore, surfactant lowers the surface

tension, which increases lung compliance and
makes it easier to expand the lungs.
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 Clinical Interest
• A lack of surfactant is a huge problem for premature babies
whose Type II cells are not mature enough to produce
surfactant. This is known as infant respiratory distress syndrome
(IRDS) or as respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn
(RDSN).

• Too little surfactant allows the alveoli to collapse and then they
have to re-inflate every time. This is a huge energy drain.

• Normally surfactant isn’t made until the last two months in

utero. If a baby is being born too early they can now administer
some steroids to help stimulate production. But in most
emergency births this isn’t possible so the baby is put on a
ventilator. Artificial surfactant is also available.
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 Airway Resistance

• Airway resistance is normally very small, but

changes in airway resistance follow changes
in airway radii.

• Airway radii may change in response to

physical, neural, and chemical factors.

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 Asthma
• Asthma is a disease characterized by intermittent episodes in
which airway smooth muscle contracts strongly, markedly
increasing airway resistance.

• The basic defect in asthma is chronic inflammation of the

airways, the causes of which vary from person to person and
include, among others; allergy, viral infections, and sensitivity
to environmental factors.

• The underlying inflammation makes the airway smooth

muscle hyperresponsive and causes it to contract strongly in
response to such things as exercise (especially in cold, dry air),
cigarette smoke, environmental pollutants, viruses, allergens,
normally released bronchoconstrictor chemicals, and a variety
of other potential triggers.
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Asthma

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
• The term chronic obstructive pulmonary disease refers to
emphysema, chronic bronchitis, or a combination of the two.

• These diseases cause severe difficulties not only in

ventilation, but in oxygenation of the blood.

• Emphysema is caused by destruction and collapse of the

smaller airways.

• Chronic bronchitis is characterized by excessive mucus

production in the bronchi and chronic inflammatory changes
in the small airways. The cause of obstruction is an
accumulation of mucus in the airways and thickening of the
inflamed airways.
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Lung Volumes and Capacities

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Alveolar Ventilation

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Exchange of Gases in Alveoli and
Tissues

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Partial Pressures of Gases

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Normal Gas Pressures

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Gas Exchange Between Alveoli and Blood

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Matching of Ventilation and Blood Flow in
Alveoli

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Transport of Oxygen in Blood
Oxygen is transported
in the blood bound to
hemoglobin.

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What Is the Effect of PO2 on Hemoglobin
Saturation?

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Oxygen Movement in Lungs and Tissues

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Transport of Carbon Dioxide in Blood

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Transport of Hydrogen Ions Between
Tissues and Lungs

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 Neural Generation of Rhythmical Breathing

An overdose of
morphine,
barbituates or
alcohol
suppresses the
neurons in the
ventral respiratory
group and stops
respiration.

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Peripheral Chemoreceptors

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Low Arterial PO2 Causes Hyperventilation

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Reflexively Induced Hyperventilation and
H+ Concentration

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Control of Ventilation by PO2, PCO2, and
H+ Concentration

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Control of Ventilation During
Exercise

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 Hypoxia
• Hypoxia is an inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues.
• The pathophysiology of emphysema is a major cause
of hypoxia.
1. Anemic hypoxia: poor O2 delivery because of too few
RBCs or abnormal hemoglobin
2. Ischemic hypoxia: blood circulation is impaired
3. Histotoxic hypoxia: the body’s cells are unable to use O2
(cyanide causes this)
4. Hypoxemic hypoxia: reduced arterial O2
(can be caused by lack of oxygenated air, pulmonary
problems, lack of ventilation-perfusion coupling)
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 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

• This is a type of hypoxemic hypoxia. It is the leading

cause of death from fire.

• CO is an odorless, colorless gas that competes with O2 for

the binding sites on the hemoglobin. It has a 200-times
greater affinity for hemoglobin than O2 does.

• The symptoms are confusion, respiratory distress, the skin

becomes cherry red. NO CYANOSIS is detectable.

• To treat it, hyperbaric treatment or 100% oxygen is used.

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Functions of the Respiratory System

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