Respiratory System

Overview of the respiratory system

 What is the pathway that air follows?

nose
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchus
bronchioles
alveoli
 What constitutes the upper respiratory tract?

• Nose
• Pharynx
• Larynx

•Main functions
of initial air
passages are
to warm, filter
and moisten
incoming air
 The nose
• Opens at the nostrils/nares and leads into the nasal
cavities

• Hairs and mucus in the nose filters the air

• The nasal cavity has lot of capillaries that warm and

moisten the air

• Specialized cells act as odor receptors

• Tear glands drain into the nasal cavities that can lead to
a runny nose
 The pharynx
• Funnel-shaped cavity commonly called the
“throat”

• 3 portions based on location: nasopharynx,

oropharynx and laryngopharynx

• Tonsils provide a lymphatic defense during

breathing at the junction of the oral cavity
and pharynx
 The larynx
• Triangular, cartilaginous
structure that passes air
between the pharynx and
trachea

• Bound on the top by the

epiglottis, which covers the
opening during swallowing

• Called the voice box and

houses vocal cords

• Vocal cords are mucus

membranes supported by
ligaments surrounding the
opening called the glottis
 Producing Sound
• Vocal cords vibrate to produce sound as air passes
by them
• Volume of sound depends on volume of air
expelled
• Pitch of sound can be varied by varying tension on
the cords
The pitch of an individual's voice depends on
length and elasticity of his or her vocal cords.
What constitutes the lower respiratory tract?

• Trachea
• Bronchial tree
• Lungs
 The trachea

• A tube, often called the

windpipe, that connects the
larynx with the 1° bronchi

• Made of connective tissue,

smooth muscle and
cartilaginous rings (they
keep it open)

• Lined with cilia and mucus

that help to keep the lungs
clean
 Trachea

• Cilia beat upwards carrying mucus, dust

upwards to pharynx
• Tracheotomy - surgical process of inserting
a hole into the trachea in case of blockage
• Trachea branches into 2 bronchi which in
turn branch into many bronchioles
 The bronchial tree
• Starts with two main bronchi that lead from the
trachea into the lungs

• The bronchi continue to branch until they are

small bronchioles about 1mm in diameter with
thinner walls

• Bronchioles eventually lead to elongated sacs

called alveoli, which make up the lungs
 The lungs
• The bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli beyond the 1° bronchi
make up the lungs

• The right lung has 3 lobes while the left lung has 2 lobes that
divide into lobules

• Each lung is enclosed by membranes called pleura

• The lungs are contained in the thoracic cavity which is

bounded on the top and sides by the rib cage and the bottom
by the diaphragm

• The diaphragm is a sheet of striated muscle , normally dome

shaped
The lungs
 The alveoli
• Small membrane bound
sacs (squamous epithelium)

• ~ 300 million in the lungs

that greatly increase
surface area

• Alveoli are enveloped by

blood capillaries

• The alveoli and capillaries

are one layer of epithelium
to allow exchange of gases
 Alveoli
• Lined with a
lipoprotein surfactant
layer which
prevents them from
collapsing due to
surface tension
• Surfactant secreted by
Type II alveolar cells
in epithelium
Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Some premature babies lack surfactant
• Alveoli stay collapsed - cannot breath
• Treat with artificial surfactant
 Two phases of breathing/ventilation

1. Inspiration – an active process of

inhalation that brings air into the lungs

2. Expiration – usually a passive process of

exhalation that expels air from the lungs
Inspiration is an Active Process
• Begins with respiratory center in medulla
oblongata
• Activity regulated by levels of CO2 and H+
in the blood but not by O2
• As CO2 and H+ rises, inspiration stimulated
 Inspiration
• Excitatory nerve impulses
are sent to the diaphragm
and muscles of rib cage
( intercostal muscles)

• The diaphragm flattens and

the rib cage moves upward
and outward

• Volume of the thoracic

cavity and lungs increase

• The air pressure within the

lungs decrease

• Air flows into the lungs

 Expiration

• Mainly passive
• Excitatory impulse
stop and diaphragm
& rib muscles relax
causing the thoracic
cavity to shrink in
size.
• Lungs' elasticity
recoil pushing air
out
 Different volumes of air during breathing

• Tidal volume – the small amount of air that usually

moves in and out with each breath

• Vital capacity – the maximum volume of air that can

be moved in plus the maximum amount that can be
moved out during one breath

• Inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume – the

increased volume of air moving in or out of the
body

• Residual volume – the air remaining in the lungs

after exhalation and is not available for gas
exchange (about 1 liter)
 Visualizing the vital capacity

Maximum amount that can be moved in and out in a breath,

typically ~4800 mL

Equals sum of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume,

expiratory reserve volume.
 How is breathing controlled by the
nervous system?
• Nervous control:
– Respiratory control center
in the brain (medulla
oblongata) sends out
nerve impulses to
contract muscle for
inspiration

– Sudden infant death

syndrome (SIDS) is
thought to occur when
this center stops sending
out nerve signals
 Breathing is under other kinds of feedback
control
• When lungs fill – stretch receptors also inhibits
breathing center
• Chemical receptors in brain and arteries detect
levels of CO2, O2 and H+
• CO2 detectors in aorta and carotid arteries
• Chemoreceptors in brain detect H + in cerebrospinal
fluid from dissolved CO2
• Increased CO2 causes increase in depth and rate of
breathing
 Exchange of gases in the body
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged

• The exchange of gases is dependent on diffusion

• Partial pressure is the amount of pressure each

gas exerts (PCO2 or PO2)

• Oxygen and carbon dioxide will diffuse from the

area of higher to the area of lower partial pressure
 External respiration
• Process by which oxygen enters blood and carbon dioxide
leaves blood in the alveoli
• Gases exchange across the alveoli walls by passive diffusion
• PCO2 is higher in the lung capillaries than the air thus CO2
diffuses out of the plasma into the lungs
• The partial pressure pattern for O2 is just the opposite so O2
diffuses the red blood cells in the lungs

Carbon dioxide transport: carbonic

H+ + HCO3- H2CO3 anhydrase H2O + CO2
Oxygen transport:
Hb + O2 HbO2
 Internal Respiration
• Process by which oxygen leaves the blood and carbon
dioxide enters blood in the tissues

• PO2 is higher in the capillaries than the tissue fluid

thus O2 diffuses out of the blood into the tissues
HbO2 ---> Hb + O2
• Process potentiated by warmer temperature and
more acidic pH of tissues
• CO2 <====> H2CO3 <===> H+ + HCO3-
• Hemoglobin recombines with H+ ions to become
protonated hemoglobin (HHb)
The movement of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the body
Upper Respiratory Tract Ailments
• Mucus covering of respiratory tract
normally protects us from infectious agents
• Sneezing very effective way of transmitting
bacteria and viruses. If resistance is
lowered, flu, colds, and more serious
ailments may result
 Colds and Influenza
• Caused by viruses (rhinovirus, influenza)
• Molecular structures of viral proteins determined
by crystallography in 1980's
• Viral proteins mutate very fast, thwarting attempts
to design drugs to combat them
• Still not much you can do about treating a cold or
flu
• Goal is to relieve symptoms while giving your
immune system a chance to do its job
 Bronchitis:
• Secondary bacterial infections associated
with colds may cause infection of the
bronchi, responds to antibiotic treatment
• Chronic bronchitis may be due to long term
degeneration caused by smoking or air
pollution
 Strep throat:
• Throat infection caused by Streptococcus
pyogenes; Very sore throat and fever
• May lead to Rheumatic fever - damages
heart valves
Lower respiratory tract infections

Pneumonia
– Caused by bacterial or viral
infections of the lungs
– Alveoli become
nonfunctional as they fill
with mucus and pus (fluid
build up)
 Tuberculosis
– Caused by tubercle bacillus
– Alveoli burst and replaced connective tissue
– Bacilli protect themselves with a capsule caused
a tubercle.
– Antibiotic resistant strains of TB are a grave
concern
 Asthma
• Chronic disorder
• Allergic reaction to common allergens
• Usually dust, dander, pollen
• Less often foods, drugs
• Rapid increase in mucous and constriction of the
bronchioles
• Chronic inflammation of respiratory tract
• Bronchial tree becomes irritated causing
breathlessness, wheezing and coughing
Incidence of asthma in adults on the rise

• Especially in inner-city areas.

• Attacks often fatal
• Treat by epinephrine, anti-flammatory drug
Fig 9.12
 Lung Cancer
• Uncontrolled cell division in the lungs that
is often caused by smoking and can lead to
death
• Cells lining the bronchi thicken "callus"
• Cilia gradually disappear
• Tar (hydrocarbons, other complex
organics) and other substances settle in
lungs
 Progression of Lung Cancer
• Individual cells may eventually develop
abnormal nuclei - "transformed"
• Cancer cells proliferate, tumors develop
• Individual cells may break loose and invade
other tissues;
process is called metastasis